CHAPTER II

LITERATURE

A. Definition of Paragraph Cohesion

A paragraph is a group of closely related sentences that develop a central idea or single
idea. In order for a paragraph to be effective, it must begin with a topic sentence, have
sentences that support the main idea of that paragraph, and maintain a consistent flow. In one
paragraph have at least 5 8 sentences. A paragraph has good cohesion when each sentence is
clearly linked to the next. In writing, cohesion is the use of repetition, pronouns, transitional
expressions, and other devices (called cohesive cues) to guide readers and show how the parts
of a composition relate to one other.
According to Dorchies, cohesion is the intangible glue that holds paragraphs together.
Having good coherence in a writing project means that your ideas stick together and flow
smoothly from one sentence to the next, so that readers of your work can easily understand
where you are taking them. Without cohesion, a written work can seem choppy and may not
flow well ; a lack of coherence challenges the reader and can hurt comprehension, thus
rendering your attempt at communication ineffective at best.
Cohesion is the grammatical and lexical linking within a text or sentence that holds a text
together and gives it meaning. It is related to the broader concept of coherence. There are two
main types of cohesion: grammatical cohesion which is based on structural content, and
lexical cohesion which is based on lexical content and background knowledge. A cohesive
text is created in many different ways. In Cohesion in English, M.A.K. Halliday and Ruqaiya
Hasan identify five general categories of cohesive devices that create coherence in texts:
reference, ellipsis, substitution, lexical cohesion and conjunction.
From the text above, paragraph cohesion is a paragraph that hang together, clearly linked
each other by using cohesive devices.
B. Category of Cohesion Devices
1. Reference
There are certain items in every language which have the property of reference, in
the specific sense that they make reference to something else for their interpretation.
According to Halliday and Hasan in Cohesion In English (1976:590) there are three
referential devices that can create cohesion:

 Homophoric (General Knowledge)

The identity of a presuming item can be retrieved from the general
context of culture. Example : How hot the sun is today! (we all know which
sun we are talking about, the specific sun of our solar system).
Exophoric (Situational)
The identity of a presuming item can be retrieved from the immediate
context of situation. Example : Put it down next to her, please. (if you are in
the same place and in the same time, you are able to decode the it and the her)
Endophoric (Textual)
The identity of a presuming item can be retrieved from elsewhere
within the text itself. It is endophoric reference which creates cohesion, since
endophoric ties provide the internal texture of the text.The identity of the
participant has been given at an earlier point in the text, the two main examples
of endophoric reference are :

Anaphoric
Anaphoric reference occurs when the writer refers back to someone or
something that has been previously identified, to avoid repetition. Some
examples: replacing "the taxi driver" with the pronoun "he" or "two girls"
with "they". Another example can be found in formulaic sequences such as
"as stated previously" or "the aforementioned". Typically, anaphoric
reference is referred to a participant mentioned nearby (one or two
sentences previously), but sometimes it may refer back to an item
mentioned many pages, minutes or even hours ago (in spoken
conversation). For example :
When she abandoned herself, a little whispered word escaped her slightly
parted lips. She said it over and over under her breath: Free, free, free!
We are able to retrieve the identity of the pronoun it by referring back to
the referent in the previous sentence: a little whispered word.

Cataphoric
Cataphoric reference is the opposite of anaphora: a reference forward
as opposed to backward in the discourse. Something is introduced in the
abstract before it is identified. For example: "Here he comes, our awardwinning host... it's John Doe!" Cataphoric references can also be found in
written text. Another example : The news came as a terrible shock to
them all, but most of all to Mrs. Mallard. It seemed her husband Brently
had been killed in a railroad disaster. His friend, Richards, carried the sad
tidings to Mrs. Mallard and her sister Josephine.
Here we begin with the presuming references to the news and them all,
but it is only in the second sentence that we learn what that news was, and
only in the third that we can establish the exact referent for them all (Mrs.
Mallard, Richards, Josephine).
2. Ellipsis
Ellipsis is another cohesive device. It happens when, after a more specific
mention, words are omitted when the phrase needs to be repeated. A simple
conversational conversation :
(A) : Where are you going?
(B) : To dance.
The full form of Bs reply would be : I am going to dance. Another example
according to Halliday and Hasan in Cohesion In English (1976:592) : All the
children had an ice cream today. Eva chose strawberry ,Arthur had orange and
William too.
3. Substitution
In substitution , a word is not omitted, as in ellipsis, but is substituted for
another, more general word. For example, "Which ice-cream would you like?" "I
would like the pink one", where "one" is used instead of repeating "ice-cream." This
works in a similar way to pronouns, which replace the noun. For example, "ice-

cream" is a noun, and its pronoun could be "it", as in, "I dropped the ice-cream
because it was dirty.". In 7 steps to pass TOEFL iBT by Michael Buckhoff , he has a
list of pronouns and determiners that are effective in helping to make speaking and
writing cohesive :
Subject

Object

Possesive

Pronouns

Pronouns Pronouns

Reflexsive

Demonstra

Possesive

Demonstrative

Pronouns

tive

Determiners

Determiners

My
You
Her
His
Its
Our
Your
Their

This
That
These
Those

Pronouns

I
You
She
He
It
We
You
They

Me
You
Her
Him
It
Us
You
Them

Mine
Yours
Hers
His
Ours
Yours
Theirs

Myself
Yourself
Herself
Himself
Itself
Ourselves
Yourselves
Themselves

This
That
These
Those

Pronouns are used to replace nouns:

The man is looking to replace his car. He said that it is not working properly
anymore. In this example, he and it are used to replace nouns
man and car.

Determiners are used to introduce nouns: John's car is not parked in his garage
right now.
Unlike the previous example, John's and his are used to introduce, not
replace, nouns car and garage.

Consider, for example, how Gelett Burgess relies on substitution in his nonsense poem
"Purple Cow" (1895) :
I never saw a Purple Cow,
I never hope to see one;
But I can tell you, anyhow,
I'd rather see than be one.
In lines two and four, one is a substitute term for a Purple Cow.

4. Lexical Cohesion
Lexical cohesion refers to the way in which related words are chosen to link elements
of a text. There are two forms of lexical cohesion :
Repetition
Repetition uses the same word, or synonyms, antonyms, etc. Repetition helps
to enhance a reader's understanding of what the author has written. Pointers are
used as a tool in sentences to use repetition for better understanding. Pointers are
words, phrases, or ideas that appear in a sentence, and are repeated in the next.
Example: Epilepsy is a brain or neurological disorder where excess electrical
energy causes seizures. Seizures result when the brain's nerve cells, or neurons,
produce an excessive or abnormal amount of electrical activity.Depending on this
activity
Example: Depending on this activity, three results may occur. First,the seizure may
start and stop in one location. Next, it may spread a bit and stop. Finally, it may go
through the body's nervous system before stopping.
To prevent repetitions from becoming dull, an author may use:

Variations of the word (golf, golfer, golfing)

Pronouns (doctorsthey)

Synonyms (jump, hop, bounce)

And also repetition can means repeating key terms related to the main idea of the
paragraph makes an invisible rope for readers to follow a few hand holds. However, do not
repeat words for the sake of repetition; the reader needs to occasionally be reminded of your
focus, not beaten over the head with unnecessary repetitions.
Example: The following paragraph focuses on the negative impact of the recession on
restaurants. Follow the key words, variations of economy, restaurant, and weak; they
tie sentences together as each negative effect is added to the paragraph:

Many problems in the economy are impacting the restaurant industry. The factor
responsible for most of these negative impacts is the economic recession. Due to weak
economic conditions, the U.S. food service industry revenues will only rise 2.5% in
2008, compared to the 4.6% increase in 2007; the National Restaurant Association
reports this to be among the poorest sales performances by the domestic restaurant
industry in nearly four decades (Basham, 2008b). In response to the weak economic
conditions, restaurants are increasing prices only enough to offset higher costs, rather
than to expand profit margins (Basham, 2008b). Also, unemployment in the United
States affects restaurants with rates reaching 5.3% in 2008 compared to 4.6% in 2007
(Basham, 2008b). The government has also made cost difficult for restaurants by
increasing the federal minimum wage to $7.25 in 2009 (Basham, 2008b). Finally,
consumers are traveling less which is lowering restaurant sales; travelers and visitors
accounted for a median of 15% of sales at quick service restaurants. At this time, the
weak economic conditions have had a major impact on the food service industry.
Collocation
McCharty and Odell state in the

English Collocation In Use

(2005:6) that Collocation is a pair or group of word that are often used together.
These combination sounds natural to native speakers but students of english have
to make a special effort to learn them because they often difficult to guess. Some
combination just sound wrong to native speakers of English. For example : The
adjective fast collocation with cars , but not with glance.
We say fast food not quick food, we say a quick glance not fast glance.
5. Conjuction and Transition
A conjunction sets up a relationship between two clauses. The most basic but least
cohesive is the conjunction and. Transitions are conjunctions that add cohesion to text
and include then, however, in fact, and consequently. Conjunctions can also be implicit
and deduced from correctly interpreting the text. According to Halliday and Hasan in
Cohesion In English (1976:591) describe Conjuction , a semantic relation is explicitly
marked . for example : Eva Walked to town, because She wanted an Ice-cream.
Conjunction occurs on the level of the sentence; that is, it is the ways that show
how sentences relate to other sentences. It is perhaps more helpful to view this as the
links between whole clauses instead of sentences though, with sentences possibly being

viewed as complete thoughts ending with a punctuation mark. Clauses being linked
together can either be separated by punctuation or not. More "elaborated cohesive
conjunctions are relatively rare" in casual conversation compared to other types of text
(Halliday 534). Conjunction involves using the type of words called conjunctions, and
Halliday identifies three different types of conjunctions:
1. Elaboration: when some element is restricted, summarized, or made more precise
(541). Examples of elaborative conjunctions include: in other words, that is, for
example, by the way, anyway, or rather, and in short.
E.g. Conjunction occurs on the level of the sentence; that is, it is the ways that
show how sentences relate to other sentences.
2. Extension: additive or varying types of conjunctions, such as: and, moreover, nor,
but, however, instead, alternatively, and or.
E.g. I went to the movie store and I rented a movie.
3. Enhancement: this includes conjunctions that show spatial or temporal relations or
highlight causality: finally, secondly, next, meanwhile, likewise, therefore,
nevertheless, and in that respect.
E.g. I didn't do it, therefore you must have.
According to Michael Buckhoff in his handout about 7 step systems to pass TOEFL
iBT explains that , Transition words can help a paragraph flow more smoothly. The following
two sentences are far apart, in fact, opposites in content and unconnected in time.
Example: As one can see, early in the history of the United States, most pollution was
created without regard to the environment. Different private groups have taken steps towards
preserving nature, including conservationists and environmentalists.
A transition word, however, announces the contrasting relationship for the reader,
avoiding the stop and start rollercoaster effect and creating cohesion. Today moves the
reader from early history.
As one can see, early in the history of the United States, most pollution was created
without regard to the environment. However, different private groups today have

taken

steps

towards

preserving

nature,

including

conservationists

and

environmentalists.
Here is a chart of transitional devices accompanied by a simplified definition of their
function:
again, also, and, and then, besides, equally important, finally,
Addition
first, further, furthermore, in addition, in the first place, last,
moreover, next, second, still, too
Comparison
also, in the same way, likewise, similarly
although, and yet, at the same time, but at the same time,
despite that, even so, even though, for all that, however, in
Contrast
contrast, in spite of, instead, nevertheless, notwithstanding, on
the contrary, on the other hand, otherwise, regardless, still,
though, yet
Concession
granted, naturally, of course
Emphasis
certainly, indeed, in fact, of course
after all, as an illustration, even, for example, for instance, in
Example/illustratio
conclusion, indeed, in fact, in other words, in short, it is true,
n
of course, namely, specifically, that is, to illustrate, thus, truly
all in all, altogether, as has been said, finally, in brief, in
conclusion, in other words, in particular, in short, in simpler
Summary
terms, in summary, on the whole, that is, therefore, to put it
differently, to summarize
after a while, afterward, again, also, and then, as long as, at
Time sequence last, at length, at that time, before, besides, earlier, eventually,
finally, formerly, further, furthermore, in addition, in the first
place, in the past, last, lately, meanwhile, moreover, next, now,
presently, second, shortly, simultaneously, since, so far, soon,
still, subsequently, then, thereafter, too, until, until now, when
Place/direction above, below, father on, nearby, to the right
Relationships
therefore, so, consequently, for this reason, since
Just as important as using the correct transition word between ideas is the importance
of using the correct sentence structure which the transition word requires. Consider the
following three types of transition words of contrast and their accompanying sentences:
"But:" The machine works, but it is damaged.
"But" is a coordinating conjunction used to join to independent clauses together.
"Although:" The machine works although it is damaged.
Although it is damaged, the machine works.
"Although" is a subordinating clause connector used to join an independent clause
with a dependent clause. In this sentence, the independent clause (main idea) is "the
machine." The dependent clause (support idea) is "it is damaged."

"However:" The machine works. However, it is damaged.

The machine works; however, it is damaged.
"However" is used as a transition word to join two separate sentences together.
These examples show that, although the three connectors have the same meaning, they
can be grouped grammatically into three categories: coordinators, subordinators, and
transition words.
Common Transition Words Grouped Grammatically
Coordinators
Subordinators
Transition words
noun clause connectors:
Also, as a result, besides,
how, how many, if,
consequently, finally, first,
that,what, when,
for instance, for example,
where,whether, which, who,
for this reason, further,
whom, whose, why
furthermore,however,in
addition, in the same
adjective clause
manner, in other words, in
connectors:
conclusion, in fact,
so, and, but, for, or, yet
that, when,where, whereby,
insummary, incontrast, in
which, whom, whose
short, later, likewise,
meanwhile, moreover,
adverb clause
nevertheless, next, on the
connectors:
other hand, on the
as, because, inasmuch as,
contrary, second,similarly,
now that, since, if, in case,
specifically, still, that is,
provided, providing, unless,
then, therefore, thus,
whether, although, even
to sum up,
though, though, whereas,
to illustrate
while, in that, where,
wherever, as, after, as long
as, as soon as, before, by
the time, once, since, until,
when, whenever, while

Look at the following example showing how transition words can be used for
cohesion.
Example writing prompt:
What are the most important qualities in a neighbor?
The first important quality in a neighbor is considerateness. For example, if my
neighbor has a party, he will be sure that the music is not too loud without me having
to tell him. Also, if I am on vacation, my neighbor will move my garbage from the
street to the side of the house after it has been emptied so that potential thieves will

not know that I am on vacation. Therefore, from these two reasons, we can see that
being considerate can create a more peaceful and safer community.
C. Improving the Cohesiveness in Writing
1. Check the first sentence in each paragraph. Ask yourself: does this sentence explain
the connection between the ideas in the previous paragraph and the ideas that Im
about to discuss?
Example: Lets say that Im writing a paper about the personalities of different
household pets. If my first paragraph is about cats and my second paragraph is about
dogs, I can make my writing more cohesive by beginning the 2nd paragraph with the
following statement: While cats tend to be moody and self-centered, dogs are
usually cheerful and aim to please their owners.
2. Check the first few words in each sentence. Ask yourself: Have I made it clear
exactly how this idea relates to the previous one? Will readers be able to move
smoothly from one idea to the next?
Example: Instead of using two disjointed, short sentences like She ran outside. Her
shoe fell off, I might make the sentences more cohesive by emphasizing a
connection. Id change it to: She ran outside so quickly that her shoe fell off.
3. Use topic sentences. Read each paragraph and ask yourself 2 questions: What is the
main point in this paragraph? How does this point support my thesis statement or
main purpose in this essay? Make sure that your topic sentences answer BOTH
questions.
Example: If the purpose of my essay is to argue that the death penalty should not be
used in the U.S., Ill want to make sure that each of my paragraphs helps defend my
opinion. Rather than beginning a paragraph about innocent people being mistakenly
executed using this system with the vague words Innocent people in the U.S. are
dying every day Id make my writing more cohesive and remind the reader of my
main purpose by saying The death penalty system allows our country to take away
innocent lives, therefore it should not be used as a form of punishment.
4. Underline the subject in longer sentences. Check to make sure that youve placed the
subject as close to the beginning of the sentence as possible, rather than hiding it in the
middle or towards the end.
Example: If my paper is about the effects of global warming, Ill want to avoid
sentences like this: There are several harmful effects on our environment like global
warming and people not cleaning up their garbage. That sentence is confusing
because it drags on too long and does not emphasize any particular main point; it

also mentions garbage, which doesnt really relate to what Im talking about at all. It
would be better to change the sentence to: Global warming is the most dangerous
environmental problem that we must face.
5. Dont be afraid to re-state your thesis or main idea several times throughout your
essay. Just make sure that you do so in slightly different words!
Example: If my thesis statement reads, The best way to learn to drive is to practice
in a vacant parking lot, then throughout my essay I might use statements like:
Practicing in a large, open space is also helpful because or Learning to drive
on the road will cause a lot more anxiety than practicing in a less cluttered space
because

CHAPTER III
CLOSING

A. Conclusion
Paragraph is group sentences that have a central idea, and Cohesion is intengible glue
that holds paragraph together, it means that the ideas stick together and flow smoothly from
one sentence to the next, so that readers can easily understand. So Paragraph Cohesion is
group of sentences that hold and linked each other by using cohesive devices.
Halliday and Hasan in the Cohesion in English (1976:591) identify five generals of
cohesive devices :
1. Reference : two linguistic are related what they are refer to.
2. Ellipsis: one of identical language is omitted.
3. Substitution : a linguistic element is not omitted , but it is replaced by substitution.
4. Lexical Cohesion : two elements share a lexical fields (collocation)
5. Conjuction and Transition : a semantic relation is explicitly marked.
To improve the cohesiveness in paragraph:
1. Check the first sentence in each paragraph and make the idea of sentences connect
with previous paragraph.
2. Check the first few words in each sentence. Make it clear exactly how this idea
relates to the previous one? Will readers be able to move smoothly from one idea
to the next?
3. Use topic sentences and read each paragraph. Search main point in the paragraph
make the point support the thesis statement or main purpose in the essay.
4. Underline the subject in longer sentences. Check to make sure that youve placed
the subject as close to the beginning of the sentence as possible, rather than hiding
it in the middle or towards the end.
5. Re-state the thesis or main idea several times throughout the essay. Make sure that
you do so in slightly different words.

REFERENCES

Harmer, J. (2007). how to Teach Writing . England.

Hasan, M. A. (1976). Cohesion in English.
Odell, M. a. (2006). English Collocation In Use .
7 steps to pass TOEFL iBT by Michael Buckhoff
http://www.roanestate.edu/owl/connect.html
Harmer, J. (2007). how to Teach Writing . England.
Hasan, M. A. (1976). Cohesion in English.
http://web.calstatela.edu/faculty/jgarret/paragraphs.htm
http://www.researchsupport.eps.manchester.ac.uk/learning_bytes/academic_writing/Writing_p
aragraphs_A/2_coherence_cohesion.html
https://gustavus.edu/writingcenter/handoutdocs/cohesion.php
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cohesion_%28linguistics%29
http://dtkisland.blogspot.co.id/2015/01/makalah-bahasa-inggris-descriptive.html