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Dic Strain Computation Basics 1118 004 en
Dic Strain Computation Basics 1118 004 en
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GOM GmbH
Schmitzstr. 2
38122 Braunschweig
Germany
www.gom.com
Legal Notes
Legal Notes
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used to make any derivative work (such as translations, transformations or
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herein at any time.
Copyright 2016
GOM GmbH
All rights reserved
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Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Legal Notes........................................... .....2
1
1.1
1.2
Introduction................................................7
3
3.1
3.1.1
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3.1.2
3.2
3.2.1
4
4.1
4.2
4.2.1
4.2.2
Index...................................................... ...29
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Important Notes
1
1.1
Target Group
Important Notes
Standard Signal Words
DANGER
The label points to an imminent danger. The situation can lead to serious
bodily harm or death!
WARNING
The label points to a dangerous situation. The situation can lead to serious bodily harm or death!
CAUTION
The label points to a dangerous situation. The situation can lead to light
bodily harm!
NOTICE
Info
The label points to a situation which can lead to material damages. The
damages can result on the product or in the vicinity of the product!
1.2
Target Group
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Introduction
2
Introduction
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In this section, you get to know the basics of the position computation in the
GOM software.
The key aspects are approaches for homologous point tracking in 2D measurement images, the correlation of the points between the images of the ARAMIS stereo camera and the principle of triangulation for computing 3D points
from the correlated image positions.
3.1
The software can clearly identify areas of a measurement image which contain sufficient image information. That way, the software can identify the same
areas also in other measurement images.
Info
In order for the software to be able to identify the areas in other measurement
images, the pattern inside these areas must not differ from the original pattern.
Due to the clear, homologous identification of the image points, the software
can triangulate 3D coordinates. From the 3D coordinates, you can then compute derived quantities like velocities, accelerations or strains.
You can perceive a measurement image as a two-dimensional signal. The
signal needs a significant amplitude to be detectable.
A discrete signal value indicates a gray value of a pixel. Because the GOM
software defines a gray value in eight bits, you get 28 = 256 possible values.
That means, a pixel can have a value between 0 and 255.
However, the gray value will probably be found several times in the whole
measurement image. Also, the gray value at one spot can still vary over time.
Thus, the correlation is not clear. Therefore, image areas are used to identify
the 3D points in the image.
3.1.1
When capturing reference point markers, the software uses the orientation of
the reference point markers and the contrast at the boundary between black
and white for identification.
The software can identify the positions of distinct gray value transitions from
black to white by the gradient. In each distinct gray value transition, the software fits an ellipse. The center point of the ellipse is the measuring point.
Info
The fitted geometry is an ellipse as a generalization of a circle. If a circular reference point marker is viewed under a certain angle, it is determined as
ellipse.
For identifying the reference point markers in the camera images, the images
are first locally converted to binary images. That means, in local image areas,
threshold values are defined which determine whether a pixel is displayed in
black or in white. Afterwards, enclosed white areas can be found all over the
image. Threshold values in size and shape ensure that the enclosed white
areas are similar to ellipses.
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3.1.2
If you do not use reference point markers to clearly identify the individual
image areas, the software can use stochastic image information.
These image areas are called facets in the GOM software.
In their original state, facets are square areas in the image. You can adjust the
size and the distance of the facets to each other in the software.
The term stochastic pattern shows that it is a pattern which is as random as
possible.
The random distribution of image information ensures that a facet can be
identified as clearly as possible in its local neighborhood. The chance that a
random pattern exists twice in a random neighborhood is low. For a facet size
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of 19 times 19 pixels and 256 gray values, you get 25619*19 > 10362 possibilities.
When perceiving the gray values as signal, you need a maximum amplitude,
thus a maximum possible contrast for detecting the signal.
The ideal facet has a distinct and equally distributed pattern.
However, more factors like the blurriness of the image, perspective distortions
or the offset of the binarization have to be considered. Therefore, a pattern
structure with three to four contrast points in one facet has proven to be ideal.
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Triangulation
The correlation function provides a rate for the similarity of two signals f and g.
c ( Dx, Dy ) =
f ( x, y ) , g ( x + Dx, y + Dy )
f ( x, y ) g ( x, y )
In the equation, is the standard scalar product and x and y are the displacements in the respective directions.
Thus, the software can determine the similarity of two subsets of pixels (facets
and search area) at different examined locations and with different displacements. Different subpixel interpolations, e.g. bilinear interpolation, bicubic
interpolation or spline interpolation provide the corresponding maximum of
similarity in the subpixel area.
With the iterative algorithm, the squares of the gray value differences are
minimized at various examined locations.
If you assume that a changing observation angle of the facet only leads to a
change in the perspective of the image, the position of the examined locations
can be determined via a pseudoaffine transformation:
xt = a1 + a2 x + a3 y + a4 xy
yt = a5 + a6 x + a7 y + a8 xy
The position of the examined positions is generally in the subpixel area. The
gray values at the examined locations can be determined via bilinear, bicubic
or spline interpolation.
Also, it can be assumed that the original state can be transformed into the
deformed state via radiometric transformation. The radiometric transformation
considers changes in the illumination situation as well as perspective distortions.
f ( x, y ) = r0 + r1 g ( xt , yt )
This modeling solves the facet matching problem via an overdetermined system of equations. The gray value gradients give more information. The gradients describe the change of the gray value distribution. Therefore, they give
additional terms for the iterative determination of the minimum gray value differences. The resulting system of equations can be solved e.g. with NewtonRaphson or Likelihood:
n
min f ( xi , yi ) - ( r0 + r1 g ( xt , yt ) )
i =1
3.2
Triangulation
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Triangulation
The software identifies optical signals (rays of light) with optical sensors.
Using the information of the sensor calibration, the software determines the
spatial coordinates of the origin from the corresponding image points.
3.2.1
Calibration
To get correct measuring data, you must calibrate the cameras in the GOM
software. The software determines geometrical parameters, for example position and orientation of each camera, based on the recorded camera images
and the imaging properties of the camera lenses and the camera chips.
3.2.1.1
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Triangulation
3.2.1.2
The extrinsic camera parameters describe the position of the individual cameras in 3D space. Only with their help, the observation rays of the points
found in the images can be created and intersected.
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Definition of Strain
Strain Computation
4
Strain Computation
In this section, you get to know the basics about continuum mechanics, especially strain computation as well as some important terms applied and used in
the GOM software.
The focuses of the section are the definition of strain, basics about the computation of a stretch tensor and the conversion of measured surface coordinates into displayed strain values in the GOM software.
4.1
Definition of Strain
If an external force is applied to a solid, the solid deforms. If you e.g. pull a
wire, the wire lengthens and narrows. The elongation is also called strain.
The strain indicates the relative length change of an element.
If an element with the reference length
l0
lengthens by
Dl
, the strain is
defined as follows.
e=
Dl
l0
L=
l0
l1
and the
l1 l0 + Dl
=
=1 + e l1 = l0 L =l0 (1 + e )
l0
l0
L =1 + e
You can regard the deformation of a solid in several steps.
If a solid lengthens by
Dl
deformation step.
n
Dl
e= =
l0
Dl
i =1
l0
Dl1
Dl2
+
+ ... +
l0 l0 + Dl1
Dln
n -1
l0 + Dli
=e1 + e 2 + ... + e n = e i
i =1
i =1
Thus, the total strain is unequal to the sum of all individual strains.
The left-hand side of the equation regards the deformation in relation to the
reference length. The right-hand side of the equation regards the deformations of each individual step.
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Strain Computation
dl
l
de =
l
l
1
e = dl = ln ( l ) l =ln ( l1 ) -ln ( l0 ) =ln 1 = ln ( L ) = ln (1 + e )
l
l0
l
1
This strain is called true strain or logarithmic strain. Because the strain
regards infinitesimal changes, it always refers to the current state.
Compared to the technical strain, the true strain has the advantage that you
can add up the individual strains. For the technical strain, you have to multiply
the individual strains.
Technical strain:
l2 = L 2 l1 = L 2 ( L1 l0 ) = ( L 2 L1 ) l0 = (1 + e1 + e 2 + e1e 2 ) l0
True strain:
e% =
4.2
1 2
( L - 1)
2
Computation of the Stretch Tensor
This chapter provides you with basic information about continuum mechanics.
The chapter focuses on basics about the definition of the strain tensor used in
the GOM software.
4.2.1
Mathematical Basics
r
x
and time
r
r
x =c X , t
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r r r
e1 , e2 , e3
r
X
can be described
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Strain Computation
3
r
r
X = X i ei
i =1
The deformation of a solid is the change of its form in space over time. The
change of a function in space is its gradient.
Thus, the deformation gradient can be defined as follows.
( ( ))
r r
F := grad c X , t
F11
dc i r r
=
ei e j = F21
dX j
F
31
F12
F22
F32
F13
F23
F33
where
Fij =
c i
X j
r
dX
to
r
dx
r
r
dx = F dX
Element
r
dX
to element
r
dx
As material does not change with constant state of aggregation, the conversion is bijective. Both inversion and polar decomposition can be applied to the
tensor F .
If the state of aggregation changes, the bijection is no longer effective. This
case can no longer be called deformation.
4.2.1.1
A polar decomposition of a linear operator is a generalization of the decomposition of a complex number into a stretch part and a rotational part. As the
deformation gradient tensor is a linear operator but not necessarily a symmetric matrix, it can be subject to polar decomposition.
Thus, the deformation gradient tensor is divided into a stretch part and a rotational part.
The polar decomposition
F =R U
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Strain Computation
tive because a polar decomposition would also be possible into a left stretch
tensor and a rotation matrix. When transforming the points from the original
state to the current state, the stretch is carried out first. Then, the stretched
points are rotated.
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Strain Computation
C = FTF
):
F T F =U T R T RU =U T I U = U T U
U = + FTF
The stretch tensor contains the stretch ratios and thus the strains:
U11
U = U 21
U
31
U12
U 22
U 32
U13 L11
U 23 = L 21
U 33 L 31
L12
L 22
L 32
L13
L 23
L 33
4.2.2
In the GOM software, a global coordinate system always exists. The initial,
global coordinate system is defined by the first calibration image via the position of the calibration panel. You can transform the global coordinate system
later via an alignment.
Strains in X-direction are always computed in material coordinates, i.e. in local
coordinates which move with the material. Thus, each point has its own coordinate system.
The software computes the strains in the moving coordinate systems and not
in the global coordinate system.
The software uses the Z-axis as thickness direction.
To allow for a common alignment, the software uses the normal of a local
compensation plane
The local X-axis
r
ex
r
nLP
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r
ez
r
ey
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Strain Computation
r
ey
results from the cross product of the local Z-axis and the
local X-axis.
r r
ez =nLP
r r r
ex = ey ez
r r r
ey = ez ex
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Strain Computation
Fig. 10: Distribution of local coordinate systems on cylindrical and flat specimen
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Strain Computation
ume consistency, you can also compute values in the third dimension. That
can e.g. be the thickness reduction.
To do so, all points which are used for the computation are first computed to
be in a local compensation plane. The plane is determined by averaging the
surface normals of the involved triangles. That means, the point positions
which are used for determining the strain values are the positions of the compensation points which are projected into the local compensation planes.
r r
u .u
translation.
The movement and deformation of an element which consists of
points
pi
is described as follows.
uur r
uur
pi ' = u + F pi
px u x F11
= +
p y u y F21
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F12 px
F22 p y
ux , u y
F11
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Strain Computation
formed and deformed coordinates for computing the displacement and the
deformation.
The goal of the software is to compute a 2D stretch tensor from an amount of
points.
The topology of the point distribution in the measurement image is based on
triangles. As you need at least three points to determine the unknowns, one
triangle is theoretically enough for computing a strain. However, to reach a
better support of the individual measurement points, the software uses further
adjacent points of the respective point to be computed.
Fig. 14 and Fig. 15 show different neighborhood sizes.
wi
condition of the material coordinates determines that the positions in the different deformation states of the point for which the strain is to be defined can
be used for defining the displacement. That is:
r
r
p0 = p0 + u u = p0 - p0
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Strain Computation
min wi pi - F pi
i =1
4.2.2.1
From the points which were projected into the local compensation plane, the
software computes the deformation gradient tensor via the method of least
squares. The deformation gradient tensor can be decomposed into a rotational part and a stretch part.
The stretch tensor contains the stretch values. Thus, you can derive the strain
from the stretch tensor:
Lx
U=
L yx
L xy e x + 1 e xy
=
L y e yx e y + 1
e xy = e yx
You can compute the shear angle from the stretch tensor. The shear angle
q xy
e xy = e yx
q xy = q x + q y
e
q x = arctan xy
e x +1
e
q y = arctan yx
e +1
y
e x 0, e y 0, arctan ( x ) =x
e
e
q xy = arctan xy + arctan yx = arctan ( e xy ) + arctan ( e yx ) = 2 e xy
e +1
e x +1
y
Info
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q xy 2 e xy
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Strain Computation
l1,2 = 1 +
ex +ey
e -ey
2
x
+ e xy e1,2 + 1
2
2
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Info
Strain Computation
The indicated major and minor strains are the largest possible and smallest
possible strains in the surface. In three dimensions, they might not always be
the largest and smallest strains.
For example, you have the strains x = 1,2 ; y = 1,1 ; z = 0,76 in three
dimensions. In the GOM software, y (the largest value in the surface) would
be the major strain and x (the smallest value in the surface) would be the
minor strain. However, in three dimensions, z = 0,76 would be the major
strain.
4.2.2.2
In some cases, you also want to analyze changes inside the material.
To define strains inside the material, the strains in the surface have to be related to the strains inside the material. To be able to do so, e.g. volume constancy must be assumed.
If the volume is constant, the product of all stretches must be 1. With volume
consistency, the following applies:
L1 L 2 L 3 = 1 L 3 =
1
L1 L 2
-e 3
L1 L 2 L 3 = (1 + e1 ) (1 + e 2 ) (1 - (-e 3 ) ) = 1
When describing forming processes, usually equivalent strains are used.
Equivalent strain is commonly expressed as true strain. The value inside the
material is only valid with volume consistency.
The GOM software determines the equivalent strain with von Mises
Tresca
jT
jM
and
2 n 2
jM =
ji
3 i =1
jT = j Max
You can compute the equivalent strains with the following formulas:
j = e ' = ln ( L ) L = ej e =L - 1 = ej - 1
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Strain Computation
Example:
The example shows the computation of an equivalent strain in 3D space with
volume consistency.
The values are 1 = 2 = 0.1 and 3 = 0.2.
eM = e
2 2 2 2
j1 +j2 +j3
3
-1 = e
2
2
0.12 + 0.12 + ( -0.2 )
3
- 1 = 22%
e =e
j Max
- 1 ej - 1
Max
e1 = e 2 = e 0.1 - 1 = 0.11
e 3 = e -0.2 - 1 = 0.22
eT = e
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j Max
- 1 =0.22
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Index
5
Index
A
Aberration
Adaptive approaches
Adjacent points
M
14
11
23
B
Bicubic interpolation
Bilinear interpolation
12
12
19
11
12
D
Deformation gradient
Displacement vector
Distortion
17
22
14
E
Eigenvectors
Equivalent strain
External camera parameters
Extrinsic parameters
25
26
13
13
11
11
10
9
16
17
I
Image correlation
Infinitesimal change
Internal camera parameters
Intrinsic camera parameters
Iterative minimization
11
16
13
13
24
L
Least squares
Logarithmic strain
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23
O
Optical sensor
Optical signals
Overdetermined system of equations
13
13
23
P
Polar decomposition
Principal axis transformation
17
25
Radiometric transformation
Reference point markers
Right stretch tensor
Rigid body translation
12
9
18
22
G
Gray value transition
Green strain
Green-Lagrange strain tensor
F
Facet
Facet matching
Facets
25
11
26
17
25
Neighborhood size
C
Cauchy tensor
Contrast
Correlation function
Major strain
Matching
Material
Material deformation gradient
Minor stain
11
16
Shear
Shear angle
Spline interpolation
Standard scalar product
Stochastic image information
Stochastic pattern
Stretch radio
Stretching
Subpixel interpolations
24
24
12
12
10
10
15
24
12
T
Technical strain
Thickness direction
Thickness reduction
Tresca
Triangles
Triangulation
True strain
15
19
26
26
23
12
16
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Index
V
Volume constancy
von Mises
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26
26
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