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    A Numerical Solution of Unsteady Flow Problems

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    Qing Wu
    A numerical solution of unsteady flow problems

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    aa Jato. Mech, Sei, Pergatuon Pres Lad. 068, Vol 6 pp. 117184, Printed in Great Bras ‘A NUMERICAL SOLUTION OF UNSTEADY FLOW PROBLEMS ‘The application of an electronic digital computer to the study of wave action in a pwo-stroke eyele supercharged engine by the method of characteristics R. §. Bensos,* R. D. Garo and D, Woourart} (Received 29 June 1963) Summary—This paper, based on a British Shipbuilding Research Association Report? Shits details ofa method developed rouse « ighapeed digital computer to analyse wave Fee eine aingle-crlinder supercharged two-stroke excle engine. A novel method for schating characteristic diagrama by which the normal position diagram is replaced by srRetangullar mech is cisousced. The method is developed to allow for frietion, heat fransfer, variable entropy and gradual area changes. “tye raethed of eetting the calculation on a computer is described with the aid of flow diagrams, ‘The organization of the calculation and the special sub-routines developed fr citehrapecd digitel computer are discussed. Examples are given comparing the results ae sesth the computer with the normal grephieal methods. Tt is shown that excellent fagreement is obtained by the new methods. seriettaile of the basic equations and stability criteria are given in two appendices, NOMENCLATURE speed of sound, frjece epted of eound after isentropic change of state to reference pressure Pa reference speed of sound feietion factor = 37 ratio of specific hears im mesh number 1/4 (no. of meshes used] ip pressure reference pressure @ t_ particle velocity position co-ordinate 4 non-dimensional speed of sound (0/@} non-dimensional a4 (24/2) ‘count number pipe diameter, ft tross-seetionel are length, ft non-dimensional particle velocity u/@ hon-dimensional position co-ordinate z{L non-dimensional time increment of X inerement of Z seience and Technology, formerly University of Liverpool 1} Madsas Instivute of Technology, formerly University of Liverpool. 1 Worthington Corporation, Buffalo, N-Y., U.S.A. formerly University of Liverpool. nt nis A. Riemann variable 44 ed = Riemann vari density: ‘re fli shear stress at wall nh mantnber of a term in ceries O-r-y number of @ term in eeries O-r=n I characteristic travelling froxn even to add end of pipe TI characteristic travelling froma odd to even end of pipe Primes “corresponding value at Z = 2,+S2 (see Fig. 1) INTRODUCTION Frow conditions during the gas exchange process influence to a great extent the design of a supercharged-engine exhaust system, turbine and compressor. whieh in tum influence pressures and temperatures in the engine. Design calculations based on the normal gas dynamic theories are extremely complex and tedious. For the accurate prediction of the pressure changes in the exhaust pipe the method of characteristies has been extensively applied.?-* mainly by combining graphical plotting of characteristic diagrams with iterative numerical methods for determining engine boundary conditions. The possibility of using high-speed electronic digital computers to obtain numerical solutions of certain problems has been considered for some time, but, as far as the authors were aware, no work has been published. In view of the extensive research pro- gramme on unsteady gas fiow at Liverpool University it was considered that a suitable computer programme to analyse the unsteady flow in the exhaust systems of engines should he prepared. A preliminary study indicated that with no increase in complexity the generalized method of characteristics (including friction, heat transfer, area change and entropy gradients) eould be programmed, and the calculation set up for @ practical engine, The present paper describes the computer programme methods as applied to single-cylinder engine systems.” FORMULATION AND APPLICATION OF COMPUTER PROGRAMMES Before discussing the development of the computer programme it may be apposite to discuss the objective of such a caleulation procedure. There were two main objectives, the first to formulate design procedures and the second to develop a method for analysing the experimental investigations currently being pursued in the University. These two objectives Jed to the development of two programmes which differed only in the form of the initial data fed into the calculation. Since the basic theoretical approach was new, the second objective also offered an opportunity for checking the calculation against the more conventional graphical solutions. "Since the preperation of the original report, which it the basis of this paper, the programme has been extended to include four-stroke engines and multievlinder ealeula tions. This will be deseribed in another paper A numerical solution of unsteady flow problems ne ‘An engine programme is of great practical value since it will enable many important design caloulations to be carried out. In a well-prepared pro- gramme the data input must be arranged to correspond with those engine parameters which will normally be fixed in a design calculation; the data ‘output should give the information required in a form that can be readily used without further computation. A computer programme should be sufficiently reatile to enable different types and sizes of engines to be investigated with Jittle modification. Fortunately one feature of computer programming enables this aspect to be covered in a reasonable manner. In a computer programme it is necessary to control the size of the numbers in a calculation. In the present case this was achieved by forming “non-dimensional” groups from suitable groups of engine variables. In practice these are the non-dimensional para- eters for testing engine exhaust systems; if they are constant for geometrically similar exhaust systems, the pressure-wave phenomena are unaltered. This simplified grouping thus enables the significant engine parameters to be investigated. In its present form (see footnote * to p. 118) the Liverpool “engine” pro- gramme requires the following data for the calculation @) Engine bore, stroke. speed and compression ratio. (ii) Seavenge and exhaust-port dimensions and timing. (iii) Phasing and strokes of exhaust and air pistons. {iv) Cylinder pressure and temperature at exhaust port opening. (x) Exhaust-pipe dimensions and friction coefficient. (vi) Temperature in exhaust pipe at exhaust port opening. (vii) Supercharge air pressure and temperature. (viii) Equivalent nozzle area of gas turbine. ‘The data obtained from the caleulations are (i) Pressure and temperature in the cylinder and at any point in the pipe. (ii) The mass exchange in the eylinder. (iii) The mass flow rate into the engine. (iv) The air flow rate into the engine, The calculations can be used: {i To ascertain the best timing of the ports; (@) for maximum recoverable energy in the exhaust system. (b) for the maximum air throughput, (c) for least loss in stroke. (ii) To ascertain the best phasing of the pistons and the required dimensions of the exhaust ports. (iii) To ascertain the best exhaust-port dimensions to satisfy energy, back pressure and gas-exchange considerations. (iv) To obtain the dimensions of the air ports for given engine conditions. (v) To ealeulate the best supercharge air pressure. ‘The Liverpool programme can be stopped and restarted at any point. Thus, provided that the basie gas dynamic equations are not contravened, separate studies can be made of each part of the cycle. For example, the exhaust blow- down can be investigated and the hest proportions can be obtained for ports, 120 R.S. Bexsox, R. D. Gane and D. Woortarr pipe, piston phasing, ete. After fixing the blowdown period, the scavenge ports can then be investigated to give the required scavenge (supercharge-air flow) variables will include the supercharge pressure. FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS AND ENTENSION TO OTHER COMPUTERS ‘The Liverpool programme has been tested with theoretical diagrams for an engine and with experimental diagrams from a pulse generator. Future tests* will include verification with engine indicator diagrams. Two types of test are envisaged: the first will use the pressure-input programme to test the charac- teristic calculation, the second will use the whole programme to predict the engine performance. The existing programme will require modifications to take into account the port geometry, port coefficients of discharge and other engine parameters.* The computer programme is continually being revised in order to minimize computer time for a calculation and to improve operational ‘use, At present the programme is coded for the Liverpool University’s DEUCE computer. Library copies of the punched cards are available in the Mechanical Engineering Department of the University. Data are given in the Appendices of this paper for programming the caléulation for any type of computer. ‘The programme is at present being rewritten in Mercury Autocode for use on larger computers (English Electric KDF 9, Mercury and Atlas Computers), this should considerably reduce the calculation time. THE METHOD OF CHARACTERISTICS ‘The computer programme calculates the unsteady motion in the exhaust pipe using the Method of Characteristics. A full discussion of the basic equations and the development of the numerical solution is given in the Appendices T and II. In this section a brief outline is given. ‘The equation numbers refer to equations in the Appendices. For nomenclature see page 117 The normal graphical procedure, of continuously plotting the position (2-X) and the state (4-U) characteristic diagrams, is replaced by either a mesh or non-mesh procedure in the position diagram alone. A number of versions of the characteristic programme have been developed, two versions are dis- cussed in Appendix I. Th both versions the Riemann variables A and 8 (equations (12) and (14)) are used in place of the usual state variables. In the mesh method a rectangular lattice (Fig. 1) is superimposed over the ZX field. The mesh proportions AZ : AX are varied throughout the calculation to satis the stability criterion (Appendix II). Since AX is fixed the time AZ is varied fom row to row. In the homentropict case (Fig. 1) the values of 2, 8 along the length of the duct at time Z = Z, are known from the state of the gas and the boundary conditions at each end. The procedure is frst to evaluate AZ from the stability relations and thence to determine Z = Z,+AZ. The values of A and B (N' and 6’) at time Z = Z, +AZ are then caloulated from the values of * These are being curently pursued. 4} Homentropie flow: fow in which the entropy of the particles in the whole flow field is constant and independent of pipelength and time. Non-homentropic flow: flow in which entropy gradients are present, A numerical solution of unsteady flow problems aa and f at Z; using linear interpolation. This is repeated for each increment of AZ until the solution has been obtained for the required time, ‘The increment AZ is calculated anew for each time interval. At the left-hand end of the duet the value of f is known from the characteristic calculation and the value of 4 must be obtained from the boundary conditions, and vice versa at the right- hand end. For complicated pipe systems the notation is modified as described in Appendix I ph = 1 Fic. 1. Position diagram showing notation for homentropie flow. For the general case of non-homentropic flow in a duct of varying cross- section the ealculation is more complex. The path line characteristies must be considered in order to calculate the entropy variations in the modified com- patibility equations (Table 2). ‘The Riemann variables are not constant along a characteristic, this significantly increases the length of the computer calcula- tion, The path line characteristics are “plotted”, using a non-mesh method as outlined in Appendix T, The pseudo-Riemarn variables A, f are caloulated using a variable mesh method in the same manner as for homentropie flow. At each mesh point the entropy (represented by 4,) is also evaluated, From a Knowledge of 4.8, 4, at a mesh point at time Z, the new value of 3, P and 4, at time Z, +AZ is evaluated. ‘The basic provedure is: (i) Determine 4, at the lower end of a path line at time Z. i) Evaluate 44, from equation (59) (Big. 13). (ii) Caleulate A, at Z, +42 from A +d4y (iv) Determine A, 8 at the lower end of the characteristic at time Z, from equations (62)-(66) (Fig. 14). (©) Caleulate @, dB from equation (67) (Fig. 14). : Wa A+ aay (si) Colevtate sta at Zy+AZ Fall details of the procedure are given in Appendix I, with the modified notation for multi-pipe calculations RS, Bessox, R. D. Gano and D. Woounart ‘To start a calculation the vaiues of 2, B {or A,) at Z = @ at each mesh point amust be included in the input data. ‘The accuracy of the method depends on the mesh size m (m= 1/AX). the greater the number of meshes the more accurate the solution. On the other hand, the smaller the number of meshes the shorter the overall computer time. BOUNDARY CONDITIONS The boundary conditions for homentropie flow can be evaluated directly: for both open and closed ends. For partially open ends equations must be set ‘up relating the area of the open end, the up-stream pressure, temperature and velocity, and the characteristic variables A and 8. For non-homentropie flow the relationships between the variables A, 8, 4, and the conditions (pressure, temperature, velocity and area) at the end of the duct in general lead to @ exstem of equations that ean only be solved by iterative metheds. Special programmes have been prepared, to date, for the following pipe end conditions () A closed end (ii) A folly open end. iii) A nozzle (ie. impulse gas turbine). {iv) A cylinder with either eshaust ports or valves. (v) A known pressure-time diagram. (i) A pipe junction, (vii) A sudden area change Space precludes discussion of the relevant equations. These will be pub- lished at a later date as experimental confirmation of the assumptions used becomes available. COMPUTER PROGRAMMES. GENERAL ORGANIZATION ‘The organization of the calculation described has been geared to the Liverpool University English Electric DEUCE digital computer. This com- puter has twelve long fast stores (called delay lines) containing thirty-two numbers; eight of these stores can be used for instructions. In addition there fare a number of short stores (called temporary stores). For a long calculation of the type described here, the fast-storage capacity is insufficient for holding all the numbers and instructions required, and a magnetic drum is used on which can be stored the equivalent of 256 long-delay lines; this slows down the ealculation. The DEUCE programme for the various parts of this caleula~ tion are available on cards in the Mechanical Engineering Department of the University of Liverpool. A Mereury Autocode version will be available in the near future. In organizing the calculation it was decided to keep the separate sections as sub-routines, ‘Thus the characteristics were one subroutine, the nozzle another ‘and so on. This flexibility enables a range of different types of calculation to be performed, Within each major sub-routine there are a number of smaller A numerical solution of unsteady flow problems 1s sub-routines; in general these evaluate the individual equations. In general the calculation is ordered: (i) Feed in data. (iii) Ponch out results Gi) Caleulation (iv) Punch out data for restart It is unnecessary to punch out the results for each incremental change in Z counts are introduced to order the punching of results after a number of inerements. (In the latest version of the programme these are fixed crank shaft angle increments. and linear interpretation between Z rows is used to evaluate the pressure and temperature.) Since the time available on the computer may be restricted, or there may be a machine failure, arrangements must be made for breaking off the calculation and restarting at the breaking-off point. This is arranged with a count entey Count tor 2 vows tor ourching Shae ——$<=4 soe eee Gores and bores fersie) ond ha ond cylingnr consent and he eset count Ce | eset four! 6 Fie. 2, General organization of engine exhaust-pipe system ealeulation, A typical general organization of a calculation for a single-cylinder exhaust- pipe arrangement, used at an early stage of the work, is shown in Fig. 2. In the latest version of the programme the flow diagram in Fig. 2 has been modified to improve the flexibility of the programme to include pipe junctions, area changes and more than one cylinder. 14 R, S. Bexsox, R. D. Gano and D, Wootnart At entry to the calculation, a count C, is set up for producing the restart data, Thus the caleulation will proceed for C, sets of results and then all the necessary data for restarting the calculations are punched out on a set of cards. Set intial voles ot A. Byand Ae Set count for festort date € Set count for printing results Ce TaEeI ot ore | | | | | Coleviote pressure in pipe ZY Fio. 8, General organization of ealeulation with pressure input For restarting the calculation these cards are placed in the pack in place of the engine data, After the count C, the data are read into the computer and constants and initial cylinder conditions calculated. At this stage the pro- gramme leaves the “start” sub-routine and another count C, is entered. This controls the number of Z rows (inerements of AZ) before the results are punched out. The characteristic calculation is then carried out along a row from r= 1 tor=n-—1. Leaving this sub-routine the “nozzle” sub-routine is entered and Ay is determined together with B,, then the eylinder and boundary conditions are evaluated. In the engine sub-routine 4, 8, and A, are calculated, together with the cylinder pressure, temperature and mass exchange. On completion of one Z row, the count C’ is reduced by 1 and tested. After C, cycles the pressure, temperature and mass flow rates in the cylinder and pipe are calculated and the results punched out. The count C, is then reduced by 1 and tested. After C, cycles all the data necessary for restarting the calculation, if itis stopped, are punched out. The calculation is then re-entered A numerical solution of unsteady flow problems 195 at the entry to count C, and repeated. (In the later versions of the programme count C; is replaced by the actual angle increment Aay for which data are required.) In Fig. 8 the general organization for a calculation with the eylinder and boundary conditions replaced by pressure input is given TESTS ON COMPUTER CALCULATIONS Four types of tests have been carried out. ‘These were Test (i), to evaluate the effect of mesh proportions on the stability of the calculation; Test (ii), to evaluate the effect of mesh size on the accuracy of the caloula- tion Test (ii), to compare the normal graphical calculations with the computer results. ‘Test (iv), to compare measured indicator diagrams with calculated diagrams. The first two tests are discussed in Appendix II. The results of the others are described below. (1) Test with homentropic characteristic programme The results of a test with the homentropie characteristic programme are given in Fig. 4. A pressure wave is transmitted from the left-hand end of the duct and reflected at the open end on the right. ‘The left-hand end is then elosed. i p taco f _ c fy i : p i y a i % t AA re te sen ea eiesloyion Momentropic.3i mesh, const Ah Indicator diogram ot X*18/31 & ° I iM Fic. 4. Comparison of graphical and computer methods. 126 R. S, Bexsox, R, D. Gang and D. Woowtarr Except at the discontinnity points, agreement between computer and graphical methods is excellent. A fixed square mesh was used with 31 meshes. The error at the discontinuity points is due to the fixed mesh (see Appendix II). (2) Tests with non-homentropic characteristic programme (a) Theoretical indicator diagrams with pressure input. The theoretical diagram given by Horlock and Benson‘ for the cylinder end of the exhaust pipe of a inder engine was fed into the calculation. ‘The resultant diagrams at Peet ee meas epi Hit *y | Angle, “AEPO Fro. 5. Comparison of graphieal and computer methods. (For eraphical calculation see Horloek and Benson®.) the nozzle end of the pipe obtained from both the computer and graphical methods are shown in Fig. 5: the agreement is excellent. A ten-mesh lattice (m= 10) was used with variable AZ. Similar tests were carried out for other configurations. (b) Theoretical programme with cylinder boundary conditions. The programine with eylinder boundary conditions was devised to examine all parts of the test programme: fixed mesh with m= 10, 16 and 81 and variable mesh with m = 10 were used. There was very little difference with the fixed mesh 10, 16 and 31 The results for the variable 10 mesh are shown in Fig. 6. The overall time of the programme was approximately 7 hr. (With later versions of the same pro- gramme this time has been reduced to Jess than 2 hr.) (c) Comparison of theoretical and experimental diagrams. A large number of experiments on wave action in ducts has been carried out using a pulse generator. A typical result is shown in Fig. 7. Calculations using @ number of computer methods are included in the diagram. Tt will be seen that there is good agreement between the experimental results and the non-homentropie mesh calculations with a friction factor of 0-004. A numerical solution of unsteady flow problems it Nozze end of pipe © vorieble O2 10 mesn + Conetent 2 fr Cylinges ens of pipe © voriebie 3} 1oneen + Consrent Oz vel tt tt ro a! NESS TOES 6S OAT BOS FS HS TEES Tho 6. Comparison of fixed and variable mesh caleulation with eylinder boundary ‘conditions, lesm meted (f* 0-004) —Wesh_meines nomentrosic) ssiNoa" mesh melon ae o——r fo) Cylinder ene Ib/in?g (bl Nozzle FS AS ES EE TGOHD HTS TOC TOE HO Crom angie, og Fic. 7, Theoretical and experimental indicator dingrams—test A. 128 B.S, Bessox. R. D. Gano and D. Woottatr COMPARISON OF GRAPHICAL AND COMPUTER TESTS It is clear that except for the tests with discontinuities, the graphical and computer mesh methods give very close agreement. The minimum mesh size for accurate calculation is about m = 5. For the full engine-cylinder caleulation this is of significance in assessing the computer time. For rapid changes in pressure the variable mesh is more accurate than the fixed mesh. and all the programmes currently being developed have variable mesh. The programmes used are at present in their infancy. Tt can be expected that improvements in the programmes will reduce the computer time as well as increasing the accuracy of the calculation.* CONCLUSIONS |A method has been described for eulculating the pressure and temperature changes during the gas-exchange process of a two-stroke cycle engine. Theoretical methods are developed for setting up the problem on an electronic computer.+ Tests show that characteristic calculations on the computer give good agreement with graphical plotting methods. Acknowladgement—The work described in this paper was sponsored by the British Shipbuilding Research Association. The authors wish to gratefully acknowledge the support received from the Association. REFERENCES 1. R.§. Bessox, R. D. Gano end D. Woortarn, A Numerical Solution of Unsteady. Flow Problems, BSR.A. Repart No. 375 (R.B. 1961). 2. P. pe Haute, Sulzer Tech, er. 27, 6 (1845), 3. E, Jessy, Berechnungen und Modelvereuche uber Druckenwellen Grosser Amplituden in Auspug-Leitungen (Calculations and Model Tests on Large-Amplitude Pressure Waves in Exhaust Pipes). Thesis for Doctor's degree, Eidgenossische Technische Hochschule, Zurich (1949). FJ. Watuace and C. Bowen, Proe. Insin. Mech. Engrs. Lond. 170, 1131 (1956) B.S. Bensox, Proc, Instn. Mech, Engrs. Lond. 174, 718 (1960), J). Honuock and RS. Bexsos, The Matching of Two-Stroke Engines and Turbo Superchargers, C-LM.A.C... Copenhagen (1962) B.S. Bexeox and W. A, Woops, Int. J. Mech. Sei. 1, 258 (1960) BW. A. Woons, Presoure Wave Phenomena in the Exhaust System of @ Supercharged TworStroke Oycle Engine Model. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Liverpool (1957). 9. R.Covrast, K. Farepmicus and H. Lewy, Mazh. Ann. 100, $2 (192 Rep. No. N¥O-7689, Inst. of Math. Sei., New York Univ. (1950) +The Mercury Autocode version of the programme js approximately twenty times faster than the DEUCE version (ie. a single-cylinder pipe ealculation takes approximately 4 min.) {in the full report! details are given of the flow diagrams and equations used to establish the boundary conditions. A mumerical solution of unsteady flow problems 129 APPENDIX I In the full B.S.R.A. report,! upon which thie paper is based, complete details of the ‘basic equations and the boundary conditions are given, Space prechucies inclusion of all this information in the present paper. The essential contribution of this paper is the development of a new numerical mnethod for the solution of characteristice on a high-speed computer. In this appendix the basic equations are given together with the detailed equations for setting up the problem on a digital computer. In the second eppendi the ‘mathematical stability eriterion is discussed. BASIC EQUATIONS (1) Homentropic flow ‘The basic equations are Continuity Pet ube pty a Momentum ° @) 1 J pstut uu, 3? Suffix notation represents partial differentiation with respect to suffix Syed of eur ; i, ‘Equations (1) end (2) in terms of a and w: dp ip ee a oer ) Continuity @ Momentum 6 where @ is the local speed of sound and u the local particle velocity. ‘These equations represent a system of quasilinear hyperbolie differential equations, Equations (4) end (5) are combined in the form shown to give. squation (4) +[(é—1)/2) equation (8) at (uta) a.) 8S fay (ute) uy, © tS toe z ) equation (4)~[(k—1)/2) equation (5) {ay (ua) a]—"F> (et (ua) ug) = 0 a z Equations (6) and (7) are called the NORMAL form of the expressions (4) and (5) in which the dependent variables are differentiated along a line of slope e in the <1 Bld. 2,,8 i bred 8) ‘hen normal forms (6) and (7) become da k-1du tA FF =o. along a line of slope 1) da_ka1dw de FAAP F =o along a tine of slope ao) @ ‘The lines of slope dzidt = uta are the position chs ind (10) are the compatibility conditions. 9 teristics; whilst equations (9) | | ST, 130 R. S, Bensox, R. D. Gano and D. Wooutazt ‘The non-dimensional forms of the position characteristics and the compatibility equations are given in equations (11)-(14). eee é @ = reference speed of sound, L = reference length, Position characteristic ax Cra ay Compatibility equation or constant aay Position characteristic g 03) Compatibility equation ay | We define « position characteristic according to the constant of integration of the compatibility equations (12) and (14). A, Bare the Riemann variables and are constant falong a position characteristic. We may evaluate the slopes of the position characteristic Ginectly in terms of the Riemann variables. These are given in equations ( ask a-% a5) Dekaracteristie. fest 2], fen 116 B characteristic a7 bae=nl*[ Equations (16) end (17) give @X/a2 in terms of 2 8. Table 1 gives a sommars of the conditions for homentropi flows The application ofthese equations tothe tliton of @ problem is ustated fa Fig. 8 Taste 1. Homexrnoric FLOW SUMMARY Type of Compatibility charneteratic ee condition” Acharscteristic Ya U+4 A= constant au)? B characteristic B= constant Ja flow problems 131 |A numerical solution of unsteady In this method we use the constants 4, 8 at the known points 1 and 2, not the mean values ae in the norinal methods. ‘Since the Rierosnn variables are constant along & Uharecteristie, the error is only small with this method. The basic symmetry of equations tan = as) 1 reno SEF; as) ae E dy =v Ba = Be (20) (18) and (19) will be observed when the angle of the characteristic is defined as the included langle between the normal subsonie direction of travel of the characteristic and the axis. ‘This fact is utilized in the eubsequent computer work. (2) Non-homentropic flow ‘The basic equations for one-dimensional non-steady flow of a perfect gas with farea changes, wall friction, heat transfer and entropy gradients from particle to particle are given in equations (21); dual Continuity en Momentum (22) where Firat tw of hermaiamice 2 Pde = 2pr an (0,74 (23) Combination of (28) with (21) and (2) and simplisoation t e % eo 132 R. 8, Bexsox, R. D. Gano and D. Woornare ‘Normal forms of equations (21), (22) and (23) are 0-0) fit a ssid ESP EGE G0 (@ uh) ai Lau) + ptk—1 (gen Equations (21), (22) and (23) axe the conservation equations and the first law of thermodynamics. ‘The latter ie simplified using equations (21) and (22) to give the expression in (24). The NORMAL forms of these equations, after changing the variables to @ and u, are obtained by the combinations: (i) [equation (24))+0'[equation (21))+alequation (22) (i) [equation (24)}+0"[equation (21))—afequation (22)}: and equation (24) is rearranged to the NORMAL form in (27). “As in the previous ease we define the derivative along a line of slope dridt = ¢ as (a), - area) o ‘Then the normal equations reduce to the form shown in equations (28) and (29). ap, du Aft wy atau dF $f pout Beco tweet Boa) ee ge Ds along lines of slope dja (i (29) along a line of slope dz(at = w. Equation (28) represents the compatiblity conditions along the wave characteris deja = wa: equation (29) represents the compatibility: conditions slong the path line characteristic dejét = u. Te is convenient to vse the variables a. w and a,. a, is a measure of the entropy of the gas particles and is defined as the speed of sound of the gas after - isentropic change of state to the reference pressure p. This is illustrated in Fig. 8 5S Fic. @. Entropy dingram. fet exp StS ap SG 480) 133 A numerical solution of unsteady Sow problems ‘The non-dimensional forms of these equations are shown in equations (91)-(42) @ = reference speed of sound, L = reference length, “Peeudo-Riemann variables” on @ is Ba(a os a7) “0 characteris Dine condition an) «3 iz characteristic Direction condition @s) (39) (0) Path line characteristic Direction condition ay Compatibility condition Leen EE as R,S. Besgox, R. D. Gane and D, Woottarr In homentropic fow we referred to the characterises by the Riemann variables. A. 2. which were constant along the position characteristics. Tt is convenient to use the Riemann, Narlables in nonchomentropie flow, they will not, however. be constant along the wave Gharacteristios, hence it is usual to designate A, § 9s “Pseudo-Riemann variables”. ‘The Gefinitions for}, B are given in equations (31) and (82). It will be seen that 4 and U are defined in the seme roanner as in homentropic Bow hence the direction conditions. ‘equations (36) and (89), are also the same. The compatibility conditions for the 2, 8 and ‘the path line characteristics aze given by (37). (40) and (42). ‘The varistion of entropy’ ‘slong a path line corresponds to equation (42), the variation of A and 8 along a wave line ‘corresponds to equations (87) and (40), NUMERICAL SOLUTIONS OF BASIC EQUATIONS ‘The equations described above are of hyperbolic form. A numerical solution of this ‘type of equation, using finite difference methods, depends on the stability of the solution. “Any finite difference method must preserve the property of rapid and even discontinuous ‘change of the physical properties of the system across characteristics. In short, rapid ‘changes should not be smoothed out sinee the accuracy of the solution will be reduced. “A solution is said to be unstable if @ small error introduced at any stage of the caleuletion results in gn increased error after each subsequent time interval. In such a case an initial terror in the least significant digit (for example a round.of error) may quickly result in a complete breakdown of the solution, A finite difference solution may be unconditionally unstable, conditionally stale or unconditionally stable. Many finite difference methods are unconditionally sneable when used to solve hyperbolic equations and these therefore feannot be used, The only known unconditignally sable solution is the method of character: isties, Some rectangular mesh solutions, however, are conditionally table, In a.conditionaily stable scheme the solution is stable when @ parameter is within certain limits. For example, if time, ¢, is one independent variable, a conditionally stable solution is usually stable if the time step Af is emall compared with the space interval Ar and unstable if At is lange compared with Az. A number of methods for solving the homentropic equations have been suggested. and one method for the special case of shocks has been developed. At the i time of the development of our techniques this information was not known. Subsequet study of all these snethods indicated that they’ were not suitable for the complex bounda ‘conditions in exhaust systems. ‘The stability criterion derived in this paper independently from physical reasoning ns described in Appendix IT was shown to be in agreement with the accepced criterion developed by Courant et al. These are: for 4, 8 characteristics, a3) for path line characteristics we) here AX and AZ are the mesh sizes. Formulation of equations for electronic computer For single pipe caloulations with simple houndary conditions the equations developed earlier may be used, using conventional programming methods, For conaplex systems it is desirable to modify the expressions in order to use the basic symmetry referred to earlier this, in carn, will reduce the number of equations and sub-roatines, ‘The modifications are simply carried out by changing the notation and sign convention. They are illustrated in Fig. 10. In place ofthe conventional directions of wave travel from the left to right or right to left swe designate the pipe ends as odd or even ends end the conventional wave travel from lft to right is replaced by even to od, and right 10 Ie: is replaced by odd to even. The pipe ends are therefore numbered 0-1, 2-3, ete. We define the wave characteristics as Ay Arri @ Ay characteristic travels from an even end to an odd end, @ Ay characteristic from an odd end to.an even end, A numerical solution of unsteady slow probleme 135 For any characteristic we consider the positive direotion to be in the direction of travel of the characteristic. Thus for a Ay characteristic the positive direction is from an even 10 fan oud end and for a yz characteristic the positive direction is from an oid to an even end, eritive dvection) dy cnovecterae dgcrorecierisie Fic, 10, Sign conventions—single pipe. Lf we now contider A without the sulfix to be the characteristic we are examining then using cur previous notation will be the other charscteristie. For exemple, if we are considering @ hy characteristic then A= ly and 8 = Ay and the positive direction iy from the even to the odd end. If, on the other hand, we are cousidering a My charscteristie A= day and 8 = % and the positive X direction will be from the add to the even end With this convention the slope ofthe characteristics and the compatibility equations can be represented by’ single set of equations, these equations being the positive characteristic equations only. These equations are shown in Table 2. “Tf weave examining 8 characteristie then inthe direction and compatibility equations we make A= Ay, B = Any and solve from the even end to the edd end for increasing values of X. If we are examining @ Ay characteristic then in the direction and competiility ‘equations we roake Am Ayy B = hy and we sclve from the odd end to the even end. We ‘must observe that if dF fA¥ is positive fram the evento the odd end then ie will be negative ‘when solving from the edd to the even end. Otherwise there are no changes in sign. ‘The slope of the path line & taken a portire when the path line travels from the even to the odd end of the pipe. Direct substitution of Ay and Ay into the direction and compatiblity equations is only required. ‘The boundary conditions wt the ends of the pipe are designated Ag and Ags. The xxnown value of A = jy is inserted into the boundary equations and dhe computed va Of 1 ous is determined. Depending on the pipe end tinder consideration Ag ean he either dy oF Ag (Fig. 10 and Table 3). R. 8, Bexsos, R. D. Gano and D. Wootare 136 4 yew) fe GROUNDS ALPHETEVAWOD HEY NOFDSIIC) A numerical solution of unsteady flow problems 1st Tamue 3. Tue vse oF A aXD An Method of characceristies Boundary conditions| Direction of travel of characteristic 2 8 Pipeend An Mew Left toright: even toodd = yA Leftreven dy Sy Hight to left: odd toeven yA Right: odd Ap A ‘The sign convention applied to complex system is shown in Fig. 11 LD turving 5 Pipe ends numbered 0-1, 2-3, £5. Fig. 11. Sign convention applied to complex system. Schematic arrangement showing direction of wave characteristics, Two methods were developed for the computer. In the non-mesh method we are basically reproducing the conventional graphical solution but instead of having four variables Z. X, 2g. Arp for homentropie flow we fix the Z value and store for successive values of X the characteristic constants Ay, Ar. The values of X change with each Z value ‘and in order to limit the number of values stored we eliminate characteristies by selection as Gescribed later. The non-mesh method is diffeult to programme and has only heen developed for homentropie flows with weak shocks and relatively simple boundat conditions. ‘The technique is. however, used in the non-homentropie ealeulation for path Tine characteristics, ‘The mesh method has been developed for non-homentropie flow. In this superimpose a rectangular grid on the position diagram. The mesh length AX is permaa- nently fixed, the time variable AZ is fixed for a given time increment for all meshes, but is varied from interval to interval in accordance with the stability criterion, For accuracy the largest number of meshes possible should be used; for epeed of calculation the stnallest ‘number should be used. In practice four or five meshes give results of the saine order of ‘sccuracy as the graphical method, but this depends on the gas temperature, pipe length and fengine speed. The mesh dimensions AX and AZ must be the same for all pipes at any time interval Z. ‘The non-mesh method can handle pressure discontinuities, ‘The non homentropie calculation can handle temperature discontinuities and with a large number of meshes pressure discontinuities. In both methods the values of A, 8 (and 4,) at mesh points at time Z, are used to calculate the values of 2, 6 (and 44) at timo Z,. Linear interpolation is used and the characteristics are assured to be straight from time Z, to Zp, In practice this interval is so amall that no errors are introdueed using these assumptions, With this technique the Ax or An's ean be determined separately. ‘The procedure used is to caleulate all the values of Ars along a row from even to odd ends, with the value at the even end unknown, Then the values of Ayr from the odd to the even end with the value at the odd end tunknown, ‘The unknown Ay and Jyy are then calculated from the boundary conditions. A brief outline of the non-mesh and mesh methods follows. 10 od we | 138 R. S, Bexsox, R. D. Gano and D. Woottarr Non-mesh method (homentropic) “The basic ideas of this method are shown in Fig, 12 with the appropriate equations. At is assumed that at some time Z, the values of yy. Dux ere known; it is required 10 ‘evaluate Ay. Ay and X at the next time interval Z,+AZ. Let us consider the }y character. istic passing through the point r. Then A= Ay. 6'= Ay. Using A. B in place of Ay and Ay, z introduced chorocteristie. retiecteg LX irom souneary to form yeh ee 2,402 2 Fie. 12. Position diagram—non-mesh method, Xe,> Spe Xy)> Sen (39) Xn A B= Bai [B2 Ba~Bweid an = BERT “s 48%) a) a J fand the values of B (= Ayy) are known at Ps tiee we measure 2,5 from one end and -\y’s from the epposite end, We hhave to determine &, in order to ealeulaze dja. (The primed values equal the values at Z = Z,+SZ.) We use linear interpolation between X,, and Xp, , The ealewlation must first search for the correct f characteristic such that ng the direetion condition By linear interpolation we derive 8, from equ (47) we determine 8X, (48) and finally X%, (49). Ie is arranged that there is always a characteristic at ench end of the pipe so that there ‘are always 10 values to interpolate between. The two values are inserted at N= Xpp th ‘and Xpy—/, where h isa very small positive number. The A valves are ealeulnted by linear interpolation. The characteristic at Xp is reflected at the boundary to become a sracteristic of the other family at X = 0. |A numerical golution of unsteady: flow problems 138 Shocks If no shocks occur in the flow then ‘The teat for shocks is therefore etraightforward (X%,,,

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