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Scientific Deep-Ocean Drilling: Revealing The Earth's Secrets
Scientific Deep-Ocean Drilling: Revealing The Earth's Secrets
Scientific Deep-Ocean Drilling: Revealing The Earth's Secrets
Tim Brewer
University of Leicester
Leicester, England
Tatsuki Endo
Masahiro Kamata
Fuchinobe, Japan
Paul Jeffrey Fox
Texas A&M University
College Station, Texas, USA
Dave Goldberg
Greg Myers
Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory
Palisades, New York, USA
Yoshi Kawamura
Shinichi Kuramoto
Japan Agency for Marine-Earth
Science and Technology
Yokosuka, Japan
Steve Kittredge
Webster, Texas
Stefan Mrozewski
Houston, Texas
Frank R. Rack
Joint Oceanographic Institutions, Inc.
Washington, DC, USA
24
Oileld Review
conditions of high pressure and low temperatures (previous page).3 Hydrates have steadily
gained recognition in the oil and gas industry
because they are both a drilling hazard and a
potential energy resource for the future.4
More recently, in 2004, drilling in the icecovered Arctic Ocean at the crest of the
Lomonosov Ridge has provided preliminary
evidence that the Arctic was ice-free and warm
about 56 million years ago.5 Scientists analyzing
the cores and log data hope to determine when,
why and how the Arctic climate changed from
hot to cold, and to gain insight on current global
warming trends. Scientists are also speculating
about the possibility of oil and gas prospects in
the Arctic Ocean.
Winter 2004/2005
25
Historical Context
Several scientific deep-ocean drilling programs
preceded the IODP. The earliest research
program began with Project Mohole, followed by
the Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) and the
Ocean Drilling Program (ODP), covering all the
oceans with the exception of the ice-covered Arctic Ocean (next page, top). Seafloor sediments
were sampled from 1,279 sites. Each of these programs achieved significant milestones (below
and next page, bottom).
Project Mohole, conceived in 1958 and active
from 1961 to 1966, utilized a converted US Navy
barge, Cuss 1.8 The objective was to sample the
mantle by drilling through the Earths crust to
reach the Mohorovic ic discontinuity (Moho).9
This ambitious goal would require a drillstring
length of about 9,100 m [29,860 ft] to reach the
Moho in water depths of 3,566 m [11,700 ft]
between Guadeloupe Island, Mexico, and the
coast of Baja California, Mexico.10 This target
exceeded the deepest penetration achieved on
land by 1,500 m [4,920 ft], and the water depths
exceeded the capabilities of offshore drilling
operations at that time. While the project did
not come close to reaching the Moho, it did set
Mohole
1961
1962
1963
1961
Positioning drillship
in 3,570 m [11,713 ft]
of water and testing
drillpipe integrity
with internal
magnetic sondes
Mohole test hole
confirms ability to
sample pelagic
sediment and basement
rock in deep waters
1964
DSDP
1965
1966
1967
1968
DSDP Leg 1: discovery of
salt domes in the Gulf of
Mexico in 1,067 m
[3,500 ft] of water depth
DSDP Leg 3: conclusive
evidence of seafloor
spreading and
continental drift
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1970
Sonar-guided
borehole reentry
1973
Trials of heave
compensation system
1974
DSDP Leg 39: causal
link between Earths
23,000-year processional
cycle and large-scale
climate change
1975
Use of reentry cone
to reenter borehole in
5,519 m [18,108 ft] of
water depth
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1976
Releasable bit to allow
larger ID wireline sondes
to log open hole in
riserless environment
1979
Trials of hydraulic
piston corer to
recover undisturbed
sediment cores
1978
DSDP Leg 60 in
Mariana Trench in
7,034 m [23,079 ft] of
water depth
1981
Cores from DSDP Leg 82
(1981) and ODP Leg 148
(1993) giving evidence
for microbes in oceanic
basalt
1982
DSDP Leg 84: recovery
of 1-m long massive gas
hydrate core offshore
Costa Rica
> Time line of scientic ocean-drilling milestones. Important scientic discoveries (blue) and
technological advances (black) during the Mohole project, Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) and
Ocean Drilling program (ODP) are highlighted.
26
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DSDP
ODP
Mohole
> Scientic deep-ocean drillsites from 1961 to 2003. The Mohole project (green) initiated in 1958, used a converted naval barge Cuss I to drill at two sites
near La Jolla, California, USA, and Guadeloupe, Mexico, from 1961 to 1966. The Deep Sea Drilling Project (black) used the drillship Glomar Challenger to
drill at 624 sites, from 1968 to 1983. During the Ocean Drilling Program (red) between 1984 and 2003, the drillship JOIDES Resolution sailed as far north as
80 and as far south as 71 latitude, and drilled the next 653 sites.
ODP
1984
1985
1986
1985
Reentry of an 8-year-old
borehole in 5,511 m
[18,080 ft] of water depth
1987
1988
1989
1990
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1989
Openhole logging in
5,980 m [19,620 ft] of
water depth
1991
CORK borehole seals
deployed for true in-situ
borehole monitoring
1995
Pressure core sampler
recovery of core at high
in-situ pressures
1992
ODP Leg 146: highest
resolution record of
oceanic environmental
and biotic changes over
the last 160,000 years;
evidence of climate
change cycles with
periods as low as 50
years
Winter 2004/2005
1991
IODP
1996
LWD in 5,056 m
[19,214 ft] of water
depth
1997
ODP Leg 171B: recovery
of pristine soft-sediment
cores of the
Cretaceous/Tertiary
extinction boundary
1999
2000
2001
2002
1999
ODP Leg 186: two seismic/
crustal deformation
observatories installed
in 2,000 m [6,562 ft]
of water at 1,000 m
[3,280 ft] below seafloor.
Only 50 km [31 miles]
apart, one area ends up
being seismically
active, the other not
2003
2004
2000
ODP Leg 189: confirmed
findings from DSDP Leg
29 (1973) that the
separation of Australia
from Antarctica
produced massive
ocean current and
climate change
including the
development of the
Antarctic ice sheet
2001
Real-time LWD in
4,791 m [15,718 ft] of
water depth
2002
Successful test of RAB
Resistivity-at-the-Bit
logging-while-coring
system
27
Shipboard Laboratories
Downhole measurements and auxiliary laboratories
Core, physical properties and paleomagnetism laboratories
Geophysics
laboratory
Moon pool
28
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Riser
Drillpipe
Winter 2004/2005
Blowout
preventer
Seafloor
Surface casing
Second casing
Open hole
> Riser drilling. The riser is a pipe that extends from the drilling platform
down to the seaoor. Drilling mud and cuttings from the borehole are
returned to the surface through the riser. The top of the riser is attached to
the drillship, while its bottom is secured at the seaoor. A blowout preventer
(BOP) placed at the seaoor between the wellhead and the riser provides
protection against overpressured formations and sudden release of gas. The
riser pipe diameter of up to 21 in. [53.3 cm] is large enough to allow the
drillpipe, logging tools and multiple casing strings to pass through.
29
Drillpipe
Seawater is pumped
down through drillpipe.
Cuttings
Reentry cone
Seafloor
Surface casing
Second casing
20-in. casing
16-in. casing
13 38-in. casing
10 34-in. casing
Open hole
LWD tool
Drill bit
> Riserless drilling. Seawater is pumped down through the drillpipe to clean
and cool the bit. The drilling uid and the cuttings ow up between the
drillpipe and the borehole or casing, where they spill onto the seaoor and do
not return to the surface.
30
borehole is less stable, which may lead to borehole collapse. Technology and solutions had to
be developed to deal with problems of ship
heave, wellbore stability, reentry of wells in
more than 5,000-m [16,405-ft] water depth,
along with other technical issues.
Oileld Review
Winter 2004/2005
CORK head
Hydraulic sampling
ports (from screens)
Datalogger for
pressure recording
Reentry cone
Mud skirt
Casing
Screens
Packers
Bridge plug
> Circulation obviation retrot kit (CORK). After coring and logging operations are completed, the
borehole is isolated from the ocean water above by placing a CORKa mechanical borehole seal
retrotted to a reentry cone (top). The seal prevents circulation of uid into or out of the borehole.
The CORK can be tted with a sensor assembly that extends down into the borehole to measure insitu temperature, pressure, and chemical and biological properties over several years. An advanced
CORK incorporates multiple seals to enable recording of time-series observations in several isolated
zones (bottom). A submarine or an ROV (remotely operated vehicle) is deployed to download the data
periodically. (Photograph courtesy of Texas A&M University.)
31
Retrievable motor-driven
core barrel (MDCB), inner
core tube OD = 2 78 in.
RAB ID = 3.45 in.
Annular battery
Azimuthal resistivity
electrodes on button sleeve,
OD = 9 12 in.
> Logging-while-coring system (LWC). The motordriven core barrel (MDCB) passes through the
modied RAB Resistivity-at-the-Bit tool to collect
core samples while acquiring resistivity and
gamma ray measurements. (Adapted from
Goldberg et al, reference 22.)
32
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Winter 2004/2005
-900
1245
-1,000
1244
1252
1246
1247
-1,100
1248
1249
1251
1250
-1,200
-800
4433 N
12509W
12506 W
12503 W
> ODP Leg 204 drillsites on Hydrate Ridge, offshore Oregon, USA. (Adapted from Trhu et al,
reference 25.)
1.1
Site 1246
Site 1245
Site 1244
Y
75
BSR
1.2
150
4,100 ft
1,250 m
1.3
Site 1252
B
1.4
1.5
225
1.6
BSR
300
Two-way traveltime, s
4436 N
Depth, m
1.7
375
1.8
450
AC
1.9
> East-west vertical slice through the three-dimensional seismic data. The seismic data show the
structural and stratigraphic setting of Hydrate Ridge at Sites 1244, 1245, 1246 and 1252. The highamplitude reector below the seaoor is the bottom-simulating reector (BSR), and it corresponds to
the base of the gas hydrate stability zone. The BSR has a negative polarity, indicating high-velocity
sediments containing gas hydrate that overlie low-velocity sediments containing free gas. Below the
boundary AC, the seismic data are incoherent, and represent older, highly deformed sediments of the
accretionary complex at the core of Hydrate Ridge. Seismic reections marked as A, B, B', Y and Y'
are anomalously bright stratigraphic events. The depth scale in meters below seaoor (mbsf) is
based on the assumption of a velocity of 1,550 m/s [5,085 ft/s] above 150 mbsf [492 ft] and 1,650 m/s
[5,413 ft/s] below 150 mbsf. The reddish-orange lines indicate the depth of penetration at each site.
(Adapted from Trhu et al, reference 25.)
33
hydrate content, yields an estimate of the threedimensional distribution of gas hydrate within
an accretionary ridge system.
The percentage of gas hydrate was estimated
using different methodologies. While borehole
measurements provide continuous spatial
sampling, there are assumptions involved in the
estimation of gas hydrate. Assuming that only
water and gas hydrate fill the pore space, the
percentage of gas hydrate can be deduced by
using Archies relation to determine water
saturation; the remainder being gas hydrate.32
This technique does not distinguish between
gas hydrate and free gas.
Another approach used a controlled release
of pressure from the core sample to enable
measurement of the volume of gas stored within
an interval of sediment. This volume was then
used with established gas equilibrium curves to
estimate the amount of gas hydrate or free gas
in the core.
Results showed that high gas hydrate
content30 to 40% of pore spaceis restricted
Recovery
Core Photographs
1249B Core
High
ohm-m
Orientation
E
S
W
N
RAB-8
Resistivity
ohm-m
20
40
RAB-8
Gamma Ray
API
40 60 80
RAB-8 Core
Bulk Density
g/cm3
1.55 1.65 1.75
5
10
15
15 cm
20
20 cm
2A
3A
4A
5A
6A
7A
8A
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
Clay with dark greenish patch
and dispersed sponge spicules
9A
70
> Data from Ocean Drilling Program Leg 204. Data acquired in Borehole 1249B include a deep-resistivity image from the RAB-8 tool (Track 2), resistivity
(Track 3), gamma ray (Track 4), and core density (Track 5). Core photographs are shown on the left. High-resistivity intervals indicate the presence of gas
hydrate. Note that core recovery (Track 1) is intermittent and poor, whereas LWD measurements are continuous. (Adapted from Trhu et al, reference 25.)
34
Oileld Review
Winter 2004/2005
Other Science
Services Subcontracts
Scientific Advisory
Structure (SAS)
Mission-specific platforms
Europe
Operator
Operator
Operator
Joint Oceanographic
Institutions (JOI Alliance)
> Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP). IODP is a multiple-platform operation involving a
riserless drilling vessel, a riser drilling vessel and variety of mission-specic platforms. Japan, the
USA and Europe will support the implementing organizations for the various ships and platforms
(see reference 7). (Photographs courtesy of JOI alliance, JAMSTEC and ECORD.)
31. Trhu AM, Long PE, Torres ME, Bohrmann G, Rack FR,
Collett TS, Goldberg DS, Milkov AV, Riedel M,
Schultheiss P, Bangs NL, Barr SR, Borowski WS,
Claypool GE, Delwiche ME, Dickens GR, Grcia E,
Guerin G, Holland M, Johnson JE, Lee Y-J, Liu C-S, Su X,
Teichert B, Tomaru H, Vanneste M, Watanabe M and
Weinberger JL: Three-Dimensional Distribution of Gas
Hydrate beneath Southern Hydrate Ridge: Constraints
from ODP Leg 204, Earth and Planetary Science
Letters 222, no. 34, (June 15, 2004): 845862.
32. Archies experiments established an empirical relationship
between resistivity, porosity and water saturation. For
more on Archies equation: Log Interpretation Principles/
Applications. Houston: Schlumberger Educational
Services, 1989.
33. Milkov AV, Claypool GE, Lee Y-J, Torres ME, Borowski WS,
Tomaru H, Sassen R, Long PE and the ODP Leg 204
Scientic Party: Ethane Enrichment and Propane
Depletion in Subsurface Gases Indicate Gas Hydrate
Occurrence in Marine Sediments at Southern Hydrate
Ridge Offshore Oregon, Organic Geochemistry 35, no. 9
(September 2004): 10671080.
35
43. http://www.iodp-usio.org/Newsroom/releases/
exp_301_end.html (accessed November 7, 2004).
44. Kingdon A, OSullivan M and Gaffney O: Arctic Coring
Expedition (ACEX) Retrieves First Arctic Core, posted
on August 25, 2004, http://www.eurekalert.org/
pub_releases/2004-08/sprs-ace082504.php (accessed
December 10, 2004).
45. Revkin CA: Under All That Ice, Maybe Oil, The New
York Times: posted on November 30, 2004,
http://www.iodp.org/education_outreach/press_releases
/nytimes_acex_article.pdf (accessed December 10, 2004).
46. Goldberg et al, reference 22.
36
Challenges Ahead
In the coming decade, drilling and sampling
technologies, borehole observatories and
borehole measurements will play a pivotal
role in answering questions about global
climate change, natural disasters, and the
occurrence and distribution of mineral and
hydrocarbon resources.
The need for increased core recovery, while
maintaining sample quality, is important for all
IODP scientific objectives. Directional drilling
and stress-orientation measurements may be
required to optimize core recovery.46
Contamination caused by drilling and
sampling processes can jeopardize studies of
Oileld Review
180
Lo
m
120W
vR
oso
n
o
id g
e
ACEX sites
60E
60W
GREENLAND
SVALBARD
< An example of an MSP operation (Expedition 302) in the Arctic. The rst Arctic coring expedition (ACEX) was conducted
from August to September 2004, at the crest of the Lomonosov
Ridge in the central Arctic Ocean (left). The Vidar Viking drillship (right) was protected by two icebreakers Oden and
Sovetskiy Soyuz. Vidar Viking drilled ve boreholes at four sites,
and a 339-m [892-ft] long sedimentary sequence was recovered
in the cores. (Photograph courtesy of M. Jakobsson, IODP.)
Winter 2004/2005
37