Exploration of Strato-Volcanic Geothermal

Systems
(Paradigms)
Manfred P. Hochstein
(IESE and School of Environment, Univ. of Auckland)

Background: keywords 1

Strato-volcano: young volcanic edifice (young summit cone)

( included: composite volcanoes)
Activity: magmatic, phreatic (summit region)
Manifestations incl. springs, (acidic, neutral pH zonation) (flanks)
Extreme case: dormant or extinct (no manifestations)
Mainly basaltic to andesitic lava flows and pyroclastics
Occurrence: associated with active margins
(here restricted to: Pacific Rim countries and African Rift countries)
Strato volcanoes with manifestations have become:
targets for geothermal exploration
assuming: they host a high T volcanic geothermal system.

Background: keywords 2

Widespread occurrence of strato-volcanoes

Indonesia (n > 90), Philippines (n > 35)
Kenya (c. 6), Rwanda (4).

Poor conceptual models have been used, causing

unrealistic electric power potential estimates (Pe), leading to
unrealistic predictions in national power plans
thus enforcing paradigm developments.

Indonesian paradigms: Most strato volcanoes host a high-T system;

Pe estimates can be based on selected geochemical and geophysical
(resistivity) data.

Rwandan paradigms: the huge volume of a strato volcano confirms the

existence of a large, deep magma chamber
that controls the development of a geothermal system,
detectable by geophysical (resistivity) surveys.

Old conceptual model of a high-T reservoir

(the Unicorn model)

The model in Fig.1 is based on

zonation of thermal springs
discharging over the flanks (model
proposed by Henley and Ellis (1983),
modified by Lawless (1995).

1. High level acidic SO4 type.

2. Medium level: neutral pH
bicarbonate-sulfate springs.
3.(rare) low level NaCl springs.

The centre of the high T-reservoir in

Fig.1 is beneath the summit region
and should be the target of exploration
and drilling.
Fig.1: Old (paradigm) model of a geothermal
system below the summit region of a strato
volcano ( insert slide5/26 of WGC 2015 ppt)

Note: Inferred extensive and coherent

outflow of high T. NaCl type thermal
fluids

The rare (near) summit type system (Setting 1):

success and problems
The conceptual model of the Sibayak
system is shown in Fig.3a (based on fluid
constituents shown in Fig.3b). Sibayak is
an active volcano (last eruption 1888).

Problems with exploration of other

summit type systems

The K. Ratu area of the (1919 still

active) G.Salak strato volcano
(Indonesia) was explored by drilling of
3 deep wells in 1984. The first one (R1) went to 2.7 km depth, penetrated
the whole volcanic sequence (bottom
hole T c. 300 deg C) but discharged
some corrosive gases. Two other wells
were non-productive indicating low
permeability.

At the dormant Mt. Pinatubo strato

volcano (Philippines) three deep wells
(up to 2.6 km depth) were drilled in the
summit area in 1988. They
encountered acid fluids throughout and
very low permeability. The project
was abandoned before the volcano
erupted in June 1991.

Significant acidic and neutral pH fluids

and fumaroles were found within a small
caldera (collapse?) structure near the S
rim (discharging > 30 MW) exhibiting a low
resistivity structure,
Ten up to 2 km deep wells were drilled
that outlined the reservoir as shown in
Fig.3a. Some wells discharged minor
magmatic gases (HF and HCl) that
increased when one well (SBY-5) was
deviated towards the inferred conduit.
Permeability and hence productivity was
poor (sufficient to maintain a 10 MWe
plant)

Revised conceptual models of strato-volcanic

geothermal systems

Fig, 2 shows a revised conceptual model

of strato volcanic systems based on
various Indonesian surveys that indicate
three settings:
1.Thermal high-T reservoir is located
beneath the summit region (rare
occurrence: Sibayak)
2 Downslope advective flows involving
acidic condensates changing from acid
sulphate waters at high level to neutral pH
bi-carbonate waters at lower level:
(Tangkuban Perahu)
3 Convective high T system beneath
middle slope dicharging fully equilbrated
NaCl type fluids in outflows : (Ulubelu)

4. Default case: no manifestations over

and around a strato volcano absence of
any flows of types 1,2,3. (Karisimbi,
Rwanda).

Fig. 2 Conceptual model of strato volcanic systems in

three settings: 1 a summit system; 2.advective flow
systems, 3. high-T system with outflows (mixing
with 2.)
Insert here Fig.1 of ms

High T reservoir beneath summit region,

(Setting 1), Sibayak

Fig.3a. Conceptual model of the Sibayak

volcanic geothermal system with
inferred fluid flow pattern.
(insert here Fig. 1.1 of WGC paper)

Fig. 3b. Cation ratio plot (Na/K)

versus (Ca/Mg) of springs and deep
well samples (Sibayak system).
(insert here Fig. 1.2 of WGC paper)

Advective flow systems (G.Karang), Setting 2

The problem of the G.Karang exploration study
is a misinterpretation of actual fluid-rock
interactions as indicated in the cation ratio plot
of Fig.4b.
For equilibrated deep fluids, there is an increase
in Na,K solubility (minerals) with increasing T,
increase in Ca,Mg (minerals) solubility with
decreasing T (for Ca also increase with CO2
fugacity).
Dissolution of volcanic rock minerals near
conduits by acidic condensates near conduits is
source of cations in original acidic sulphate
waters near source (see GKR and PLS ratio
data in Fig.4b, near summit of the two strato
volcanoes).

The summit region waters move down-slope by

advection, become quickly neutralized (neutral
pH bicarbonate waters).
Result: cation ratios of advective flows in
Fig.4b are un-equilibrated and cannot be used
to predict deep fluid Ts.

Fig.4b: Normalized cation-ratio plot of thermal

waters and condensates from G.Karang and
G.Pulosari strato volcanic systems.
(insert here Fig.3 of ms)

Advective flow of a well studied strato-volcanic

system (Tangkuban Perahu)
Setting 2 contd

Tangkuban Perahu (TBP) is an active strato volcanic

system with historic, mainly phreatic eruptions from
a few summit craters.
It shows zonation of advective flows and a well
defined resistivity structure (see Fig.5a).

The normalized cation-ratio plot of

thermal fluids of the TBP prospect
(Fig.5b) shows a well defined pattern of
acidic (high level) waters close to the
av. cation ratio of local andesitic rocks.
Shift to the L indicates partial reequilibration (different for N and S
slope discharges); isolated B Gede.

Fig. 5a: Conceptual model of TBP strato-volcanic

system with advective flow patterns of observed
acidic and neutral pH fluids. (Note: K-3 well)
( insert here Fig. 4 of ms)

Fig.5b: Normalized cation-ratio plot of

thermal fluids frpm TBP.
insert here Fig. 5 of ms)

Strato-volcanic systems with large outflows

(Setting 3): Ulubulu
Such systems are rare.The only
developed one in Indonesia is the Ulubelu
prospect.
Surface manifestations were significant (>
30 MW estim.), zonation of spring types
from acidic SO4 waters upstream to
neutral pH SO4-HCO3 springs midstream
to Cl-SO4-HCO3 springs downstream
(travertine).
There was a long history of exploration
starting from a volcanic depression
model and moving finally to an outflow
model associated with the inactive
G.Rendigan strato volcano, see Fig. 6.
Micro-EQ surveys found significant
swarm activity beneath the upper middle
slope region leading to the drilling of deep
discovery wells (UBL-8). First 110 MWe
plant commissioned in 2013.
Fig. 6a: Conceptual model of the Ulubelu
system (S-N profile). (present production wells
are reduced to two bunched wells)

Ulubulu outflow system (Setting 3)

Other outflow systems in similar settings:

The >10 km long Cisolok-Cisukarame

(Java) outflow (from a yet unidentified
source). Significant heat discharge (> 30
MW) near the toe of the outflow at
Cisolok was interpreted as an upflow. A
1.2 km deep well (CIS-1) was drilled in
1986 and encountered quai const. T up to
120 deg C (it was a thick outflow).
A strata volcano outflow system is
presently under development at Hululais
(Sumatra).A few more similar systems
have been found in Sumatra and Flores.

Fig. 6b: Cation ratio plot of spring and well

samples from Ulubelu (indicating zonation,
deep fluid pattern, and re-equilibration).

Tiwi (Philippines) is one of the largest

outflow systems that has been exploited
until now (starting in 1980). The first
conceptual model had to be revised a few
years later when development had to
move towards Mt Malimao; it allows now
for the occurrence of a c. 5 km wide
outflow front.

Paradigms: Inferred geothermal systems of

strato-volcanoes (Setting 2)
Exploration of inferred high T reservoirs of Indonesian strato volcanoes in setting 2
has been sustained by many paradigms such as:
1. Thermal springs over the slopes of strato volcanoes indicate a high T reservoir
as likely source.
2. Low (< 10 ohm m) resistivity rocks at shallow (or intermediate) depths are the
result of ongoing thermal alteration (outlining a clay cap) and can be associated
with a deeper high T (reservoir) structure.
3. Deeper high resistivity structures indicate propylitic alteration associated with
a high T structure.
4. An electric power potential Pe of a strato volcano prospect can be predicted
(using the volume method) from a cross-sectional area defined by its
resistivity structure and the application of geo-thermometry to thermal spring
data (assuming that all constituents are equilibrated).
5. Reservoir parameters of other developed prospects can be used for Pe
estimates.
6. Pe estimates and data provided by the Ministry (MEMR) can be used to assess
likely electric power costs in a bidding process to obtain an exploration
licence.
7. Predicted Pe estimates can be used to define Geothermal Power targets by
the Government. Its Permen 15/20 in 2010 sets a target of c.4,000 MWe new
geothermal plant capacity by 2015 (c. 2000 MWe from 13 strato volcano
prospects).
8. However, < 10% of the target plant capacityhas been achieved thus exposing
the paradigms.

Exploration of the inactive Karisimbi stratovolcano (Rwanda)

Karisimbi is the 2nd largest strato volcano in
Africa (c. 4500 m peak elevation). It is part of
a chain of four strato volcanoes (Virunga
Volcanic Range) exposing basanite to trachyandesite lava sequences. The summits define
a segment of the N boundary of Rwanda and
are within the Rwanda Volcanoes Park.The
volcanoes are underlain by Protozoic granites
(Fig. 7, Fig.8).

There are no thermal manifestations and the

closest thermal springs (low discharge) occur
c. 20 km away (over an elevated granite
horst). Cold CO2 springs can be found 20 to
30 km to the W. Normal Ts were observed in
3 m holes around the Karisimbi periphery.
A normalized cation-ratio plot showed
unequilibrated neutral pH bicarbonate waters
(in the S) and equally unequilibrated cold
bicarbonate waters (in the W quadrant)
hence, no support for any geo-thermal
activity for the whole range.

Fig.7: Section of Karisimbi Volcano (Rwanda)

Karisimbi: topography and cation ratio of

thermal springs

Fig. 8a: Topography of the Virunga Volcanic

Range, thermal springs (red), cold CO3richsprings (green)

.Fig. 8b: Normalized cation-ratio plot of

thermal and cold springs shown in Fig. 8b.

Exploration of Karisimbi strato-volcano (contd):

MT surveys
A reconnaissance MT survey (2008) was
interpreted in terms of a deep (5 km depth!)
low resistivity structure at the SW periphery
(Fig.8), supported by an inferred structure at
the park boundary (GMT 12 station). A
fictitious low resistivity anomaly at 6 km
depth was predicted in 2010.
The search for low resistivity structures
was intensified by recording MT signals at
c. 75 MT stations within a 6 km wide strip
around the Karisimbi periphery between
2010 and 2013, Another 85 MT stations
were occupied in the outer project areas.
A local low resistivity anomaly at the Park
boundary was selected for deep exploration
drilling in 2013. The first well (KW-01, Fig.9)
went down to 3 km and found cold granites
with a bottom-hole T of 72 deg C. The
nearby 2nd well (KW-2) was stopped in
2014 at 1.4 km depth when results of well
KW-01 became available (see Fig.10).

Fig.9: Deep resistivity pattern around Mt

Karisimbi periphery (2009 MT interpretation)
the drill sites KW-01/02 are at the border of
the protected National Park (light brown
tone).

3D-MT interpretation of 2013/14 IESE data (km depth scale)

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K1_3D_IESE.png

The Karisimbi Paradigm

Although there was no evidence for any geothermal activity (past or

present), extensive geophysical exploration studies were continued by the
Rwanda EWSA Government authority using the Karisimbi Paradigm,
discussed and documented during numerous EWSA sessions, which
implied:Karisimbi is the 2nd largest strato-volcano in Africa: its large volume
of extruded lava flows indicates the presence of a large crustal magma
chamber where differentiation of mafic magma has occurred (as indicated
by the range of volcanic rock types). The Karisimbi summit has suffered
little erosion.
From the top of the Karisimbi magma chamber (at unknown depth) heat
has always been transferred to the Karisimbi pedestal by conduction and/
or fluids. That process would have produced geothermal systems resulting
in significant thermal alteration which should be recognisable in MT
resistivity surveys.
(In reality, the low MT-resistivity anomalies at the basal bottom contact are
palaeo-anomalies reflecting some palaeo-alteration)
Although the Karisimbi exploration was a failure, the paradigm is still alive
and has been used to predict a 500 MWe electric power potential for other
similar targets in Rwanda (WGC 2015).

THANK YOU

Sibayak Volcano, Sumatra