Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Anandramakrishnan Food
Anandramakrishnan Food
Anandramakrishnan Food
Review
Computational fluid
dynamics (CFD)
applications in spray
drying of food
products
Rinil Kuriakose and
C. Anandharamakrishnan*
Human Resource Development, Central Food
Technological Research Institute, Council for Scientific
and Industrial Research (CSIR), Mysore 570 020, India
(Tel.: D91 821 2514310; fax: D91 821 2517233;
e-mail: anandharamakrishnan@cftri.res.in)
The application of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) in the
area of spray drying of food ingredients is reviewed. The results
from previous studies have shown that CFD can be useful tool for
predicting the gas flow pattern and particle histories such as
temperature, velocity, residence time and impact position.
Moreover, CFD can also be used for investigating different
chamber design on drying behaviour of food materials as well
as scale-up studies. This paper provides the aireparticle interactions, different turbulence models, reference frames, reaction
engineering model used for spray-drying applications along
with the particle histories and different spray chamber configurations. The recent developments in this research area such as
drying kinetics model, dropletedroplet interactions, unsteady
state simulations and integration of population balance model
are discussed. In addition, the current limitations and future
scope for the potential research are also highlighted.
Introduction
Spray drying is a well established method for converting
liquid feed materials into a dry powder form. Spray drying
is widely used to produce powdered food products such as
* Corresponding author.
0924-2244/$ - see front matter 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2010.04.009
whey, instant coffee, milk, tea and soups, as well as healthcare and pharmaceutical products, such as vitamins, enzymes and bacteria. Normally, spray dryer comes at the
end-point of the processing line, as it is an important step
to control the final product quality. It has some advantages
such as, rapid drying rates, a wide range of operating temperatures and short residence times. In recent years, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) has been increasingly
applied to food processing operations. In spray-drying operations, CFD simulation tools are now often used because
measurements of air flow, temperature, particle size and humidity within the drying chamber are very difficult and expensive to obtain in large-scale dryer.
CFD is a simulation tool, which uses powerful computers
in combination with applied mathematics to model fluid flow
situations and aid in the optimal design of industrial processes. The method comprises solving equations for the conservation of mass, momentum and energy, using numerical
methods to give predictions of velocity, temperature and
pressure profiles inside the system. It powerful graphics
can be used to show the flow behaviour of fluid with 3D images (Anderson, 1984; Scott & Richardson, 1997).
The fluid motion was studied mathematically by
Richardson in 1910 and later by Courant, Friedrichs, and
Lewy (1928). This basic study instigated the development
of powerful numerical techniques that have advanced the
numerical description of all types of fluid flow (Shang,
2004). CFD activity emerged and gained prominence with
availability of computers in the early 1960s and it is applied
to all aspects of fluid dynamics (Parviz & John, 1997).
Since the early 1970s, commercial software packages (or
computer codes) became available, making CFD an important component of engineering practice in industrial, defense and environmental organizations. By the 1990s,
advances in computing power produced a similar boom in
software development and solutions. Since then CFD has
been used extensively by the scientific community worldwide. The reason for this interest is justified by the fact
that it is possible to model computationally the physical
fluid phenomena that are expensive and time consuming
to measure directly. For more detailed historical perspective
the books by Roache (1976) and Tannehill, Anderson, and
Pletcher (1997) are highly recommended. Today, CFD finds
extensive usage in basic and applied research, in design of
engineering equipment and in calculation of environmental
and geophysical phenomena.
384
Although the origin of CFD can be found in the automotive, aerospace, and nuclear industries and also may other
processing industries, it is only in the recent years that
CFD has been applied to the food processing area (Scott,
1994). The ability of CFD to predict the performance of
new designs or processes before they are ever manufactured
or implemented make them an integral part of engineering
design and analysis (Schaldach, Berger, Razilov, & Berndt,
2000). The general application of CFD to the food industry
was reviewed by many researchers (Anandharamakrishnan,
2003; Norton & Sun, 2006; Scott & Richardson, 1997; Sun,
2007; Xia & Sun, 2002). All the above reviews concluded
that CFD is a powerful and pervasive tool for process and
product improvement in food processing sector.
The main application of CFD includes baking process
(Mills, 1998e1999; Therdthai, Zhou, & Adamczak, 2003;
Vries, Velthuis, & Koster, 1994), refrigerated display cabinets (Cortella, Manzan, & Comini, 1998; Foster, 1996), thermal sterilisation (Abdul Ghani, Farid, Chen, & Richards,
1999a, 1999b, 2001; Datta & Teixeira, 1987), pasteurization
of egg (Denys, Dewettinck, Pieters, 2005; Denys, Pieters, &
Dewettinck, 2003, 2004), mixing (Sahu, Kumar,
Patwardhan, & Joshi, 1999; Scott, 1977), and refrigeration
(Davey & Pham, 1997, 2000; Hu & Sun, 1999, 2000;
Moureh & Derens, 2000; Mariotti, Rech, & Romagnoni,
1995), spray-freezing (Anandharamakrishnan, Gimbun,
Stapley, & Rielly, 2010), heating and cooling processes
(Wang & Sun, 2003), humidification of cold storage
(Verboven et al., 2008; Verboven, Nicola, Delele, Schenk,
& Ramon, 2009) is also noteworthy. The list given above is
non-exhaustive and for detailed review of CFD applications
to food processing, reader may refer elsewhere (Sun, 2007).
CFD modelling has widely been used for drying process to study the simultaneous heat and mass transfer
problems (Masters, 1994; Mathioulakis, Karathanos, &
Belessiotis, 1998; Mirade & Daudin, 2000). The non-linearity and complex process involved during drying was reviewed by Kerkhof (1994). During 1970s a number of
simplified semi-empirical models was developed to understand drying of specific product in a specific spray dryer
(Paris, Ross, Dastur, & Morris, 1971; Place, Ridgway, &
Danckwerts, 1959). The use of computational fluid dynamics in the area of spray drying was reviewed early
by Reay (1988) and Bahu (1992). Latter, Fletcher et al.
(2003) and Langrish and Fletcher (2001, 2003) comprehensively reviewed the applications of computational fluid
dynamics in spray drying of food ingredients to predict the
flow patterns and temperature distributions of gas and
droplets inside the drying chamber. More recently,
Langrish (2009) has discussed about the different levels
and scales of mathematical modelling that can be applied
to the spray-drying process. However, reference frames,
particle histories (temperature, velocity, residence time
and impact positions), reaction engineering approach,
and population balance modelling are overlooked in the
early reviews.
Feed Liquid
Air
Furnace
2
Exhaust gas
Spray-drying
chamber
Cyclone
separator
Product
385
diameter was used for the dispersed phase) then the Eulerian approach can be expensive. In addition there is some
uncertainty over the most appropriate Eulerian diffusion coefficients and heat transfer coefficients. Hence, the Eulerian
approach is best suited to flows with a narrow range of particle sizes where a high resolution of the particle properties
is not needed (Jakobsen, Sannaes, Grevskott, & Svendsen,
1997; Mostafa & Mongia, 1987).
In the EulerianeLagrangian particle tracking approach,
the gas phase is modelled using the standard Eulerian approach described above and the spray is represented by
a number of discrete computational particles. Individual
particles are tracked through the flow domain from their injection point until they escape the domain in a Lagrangian
frame work (Nijdam, Guo, Fletcher, & Langrish, 2006).
The EulerianeLagrangian model has the advantage of being computationally cheaper than the EulerianeEulerian
method for a large range of particle sizes. It can also provide more details of the behaviour and residence times of
individual particles and can potentially approximate mass
and heat transfer more accurately. On the other hand, the
approach can be expensive if a large number of particles
have to be tracked and it is best when the dispersed phase
does not exceed 10% by volume of the mixture in any region (Bakker, 2002).
In both the EulerianeEulerian and the EulerianeLagrangian methods, the exchange of momentum between particles and gas needs to be modelled. This
exchange can consist of several forces such as, drag, lift,
virtual mass, and wall forces. Mostafa and Mongia (1987)
concluded that the Eulerian approach performs better than
Lagrangian method. In contrast, Nijdam et al. (2006) found
that both Eulerian and Lagrangian modelling approaches
gave similar predictions for turbulent droplet dispersion
and agglomeration of sprays for a wide range of droplet
and gas flows. The two models were found to require similar computing times for a steady axi-symmetric spray.
However, the authors preferred the Lagrangian models because of their wider range of applicability.
Air flow pattern
During spray drying the particle behaviour is dependent
on the air flow pattern. Earlier studies were based on the
semi-empirical models for understanding of the spray-drying process. Inside the spray chamber there is presence of
significant air flow instabilities due to the inlet swirl.
Hence, the effect of turbulence inside the spray chamber
should be considered.
Turbulence models
Most commercial CFD codes use turbulence models that
are based on the splitting up of instantaneous quantities
into a time-averaged and a fluctuating part by a process
known as Reynolds decomposition. Four turbulence
models are commonly used for simulating sprays: (i) standard ke3 (k e turbulence kinetic energy and 3 e turbulence
386
mt
Vk Gk r3
m
sk
and
v
r3 V$r3 v V$
vt
mt
3
V3 C13 Gk
m
s3
k
C23 r
32
k
mt rCm
k2
3
387
Model geometry
Turbulence model
Software
Findings
Authors
Simulation of air
flow pattern with
experimental
validation.
2D
FLOW3D
Simulation of air
flow pattern to find
out the oscillations
in the flow field.
2D
Standard ke3
FLOW3D
2D
Standard ke3
CFX
Simulation of air
flow and particle
trajectories in the
tall-form dryer with
experimental
validation.
Simulation of air
flow pattern,
temperature,
humidity, particle
trajectories and
resistance time in
a co-current spray
dryer fitted with
a pressure nozzle
Simulation studies
on the effects of
increased turbulence
in inlet air flow.
2D
Standard ke3
CFX
Non-swirling flow
spray chamber, the
ke3 model gives
good predictions of
gas velocity profiles,
whereas, for swirling
flows RSM model
gives better accurate
predictions.
Strongest oscillations
occur. Good
agreement between
hot-wire
anemometer velocity
measurements and
simulation results.
High swirl in the
inlet air and large
spray cone angle
gave the lowest wall
deposition rates in
both the experiments
and simulation.
Good agreement
between
measurements and
simulation results
2D
Standard ke3
CFX
Model prediction
agreed well with his
experimental
measurements of
velocity, temperature
and humidity.
Kieviet (1997)
2D
Standard ke3
CFX
Southwell, Langrish,
and Fletcher (1999)
Temperature and
moisture content of
the air with the
trajectories of the
particles.
2D
Standard ke3
NIZO-DrySim
2D
Standard ke3
Fluent
An increase in the
amount of
evaporation resulted
directly from
enhanced inlet
turbulence.
The drying of
droplets is
influenced by
particles surface to
surrounding air and
diffusion within the
particles.
The optimal
chamber geometry
will depends on the
feed properties,
atomizer type and
drop size distribution
Langrish and
Zbicinski (1994)
Zbicinski (1995)
Straatsma, Van
Houwelingen,
Steenbergen, and De
Jong (1999)
388
Table 1 (continued)
Problem
descriptions
Model geometry
Turbulence model
Software
Findings
Authors
Experimental and
simulation studies of
inlet air swirl on the
stability of the flow
pattern in spray
dryers.
3D
RSM
CFX 5.6
Langrish, Williams,
and Fletcher (2004)
Simulation of a spray
dryer with rotary
atomizer. Kieviets
(1997) spray dryer
geometry was used.
3D
Fluent 6.1
Simulation of spray
dryer fitted with
rotary atomizer.
3D
RNG ke3
Fluent
Simulation of a spray
dryer with pressure
nozzle and rotary
atomizer. Kieviets
(1997) spray dryer
geometry was used.
Simulation of a spray
dryer with rotary
atomizer
3D
RNG ke3
Fluent
Comparison of with
and without spray
showed that the
introduction of spray
has significant effect
on the flow
behaviour. An
increase in swirl
angle changes the
internal flow pattern.
Realizable ke3
cannot be used to
simulate highly
swirling two-phase
flow. RNG ke3
turbulent model
gives adequate
accuracy at
reasonable
computational time.
More volume of
drying chamber is
used by rotary
atomizer and
existence of strong
reverse flow just
beneath the rotating
disc.
Simulation results
agreed well with
Kieviet (1997)
experimental results.
3D
RANS
Fluent
Ullum (2006)
Simulation of
industrial scale spray
dryer with a new
drying kinetics
model for a heat
sensitive solution.
3D
Standard ke3
Fluent
Evaluation of droplet
drying models in
a spray dryer fitted
with rotary atomizer
using CFD
simulation
3D
RNG ke3
Fluent
Huang, Passos,
Kumar, and
Mujumdar (2005)
Huang and
Mujumdar (2007)
389
Table 1 (continued )
Problem
descriptions
Model geometry
Turbulence model
Software
Findings
Authors
Modelling droplet
drying in a spray
dryer fitted with
a pressure nozzle
under steady and
unsteady state.
2D and 3D
Standard ke3
Fluent
Mezhericher
et al. (2009)
Simulation of
industrial scale spray
dryer attached with
a Fluidized bed,
using Reaction
Engineering
Approach (REA).
2D
Standard ke3
Fluent
2D models can be
used for fast and
low-resourceconsumption
numerical
calculations with
some drawbacks. 3D
models can predict
the asymmetric flow
patterns and provide
actual 3D picture of
particle trajectories,
but require high
computing effort.
Smaller spray cone
angle facilitates easy
movement of
particles to the
fluidized bed. The
accuracy of REA
model in predicting
the single droplet
drying kinetics was
also explained.
390
v up g
dt
rp
rp dp 24
where, v is the fluid phase velocity, up is the particle velocity, rg is the density of the fluid and rp is the density of the
particle.
The particle force balance (equation of motion) includes
discrete phase inertia, aerodynamic drag and gravity. The
slip Reynolds number (Re) and drag coefficient (CD) are
given in the following equations.
rg dp u p v
5
Re
m
CD a 1
a2
a3
Re Re2
where, dp is the particle diameter, and a1, a2 and a3 are constants that apply to smooth spherical particles over several
ranges of Reynolds number (Re) given by Morsi and
Alexander (1972).
The velocity of particles relative to air velocity was used
in the trajectory calculations (equation (4)). Turbulent particle dispersion was included in this model as discrete eddy
concept (Langrish & Zbicinski, 1994). In this approach, the
turbulent air flow pattern is assumed to be made up of a collection of randomly directed eddies, each with its own lifetime and size. Particles are injected into the flow domain at
the nozzle point and envisaged to pass through these random eddies until they impact the wall or leave the flow domain through the product outlet.
The heat and mass transfer between the particles and the
hot gas is derived following the motion of the particles.
mp cp
dmp
dTp
hAp Tg Tp
hfg
dt
dt
hdp
1=2
1=3
2 0:6Red Pr
kta
Pr
cp m
kta
where, dp is the particle diameter, kta is the thermal conductivity of the fluid, m is the molecular viscosity of the fluid.
The mass transfer rate (for evaporation) between the gas
and the particles is calculated from the following equation.
dmp
kc Ap Ys Yg
dt
10
k c dp
1=2
1=3
2 0:6Red Sc
Di;m
11
m
rg Di;m
12
1 0:23 Re ln 1
rp c g dp
dt
hfg
where, kta is the thermal conductivity of the gas and cg is
the heat capacity of the gas.
Particle temperature
The particle temperature is very important in case heat
sensitive products. Aroma loss and thermal degradation of
heat sensitive materials is affected by the residence time
and the temperature of particles. Crowe et al. (1977) predicted that the smaller size particles have higher temperatures than the larger particles, because, the latter have
a smaller surface area to volume ratio and evaporate
more slowly. Kieviet (1997) studied the air flow pattern,
temperature, humidity, particle trajectories and residence
time in a 2D co-current spray dryer fitted with a pressure
nozzle using maltodextrin as feed solution. Author found
good agreement between the measured and modelled
data, and they concluded that the gradients in the center region of the drying chamber could be improved. The variation of particle temperature and gas temperature along the
particle trajectories during spray drying of skim milk solution (Huang, Kumar, & Mujumdar, 2004c) was studied
391
392
393
Fig. 3. Particle impact positions (a) top view (b) front view (Anandharamakrishnan et al., 2008).
(CDRC and REA) were also discussed and the recent application of the latter model in the area of milk production for
scale-up from lab to industrial scale was also noted.
Further, this REA based drying kinetics model can be incorporated into the CFD programs in future years to determine the wall deposition pattern, droplet residence time and
droplet trajectories during spray-drying operation.
Apart from the boiling-point evaporation model few works
have been performed in determination of the drying kinetics
during spray drying. The experimental determination of
spray-drying kinetics was performed by Zbicinski,
Strumillo, and Delag (2002). They determined the spray-drying kinetics as a function of atomisation ratio and drying agent
temperature. Zbicinski, Piatkowski, and Prajs (2005) continued the study and proved that based on the critical moisture
content of the material, the spray-drying kinetics could be determined from the generalized drying curves. This lab scale
details can be used for scaling up of spray-drying process. Further, Woo, Daud, Talib, and Tasirin (2008b) analysed the effect
of wall surface properties on the deposition problem during
spray drying using different drying kinetics. They concluded
that proper selection of dryer wall material will provide potential alternatives for reducing the deposition problem. More recently, Roustapour, Hosseinalipour, Ghobadian, Mohaghegh,
and Azad (2009) performed a CFD study for the drying of
lime juice. They determined the drying kinetics based on experimental results of moisture content variation along the
length of chamber and numerically estimated residence time
of droplets. Authors found that an increase in initial droplet diameter resulted in a lower particle residence time. A comparison of two drying kinetics models namely, characteristic
drying curve (CDC) and REA was performed by Woo et al.,
394
(2008c) and they found that the different responses of the REA
and CDC to different initial feed moisture conditions due to the
respective formulation of the driving forces in the two models.
Further, the authors extended REA model to simulate the particle surface moisture.
More recently, dropletedroplet interactions during the
spray drying was performed by applying the transient
mode of calculations (Mezhericher, Levy, & Borde,
2008). The droplet collisions influenced the temperature
and humidity patterns while their effect on velocity was
less marked. They investigated both insulated and noninsulated spray chambers and reported that the insulation of
spray chamber will affect the air flow patterns and thereby
affecting the droplet trajectories. The probabilistic approach developed by ORourke (1981) was used by them
for determining the dropletedroplet interactions.
The unsteady state simulation of spray drying is new
area of research. Mezhericher, Levy, and Borde (2009)
modelled droplet drying in spray-drying chamber by applying the unsteady mode of calculations. They performed
both 2D and 3D analysis and concluded that the 3D model
predicts asymmetry of flow patterns in the spray chamber.
However, 2D axi-symmetric model can be used for fast
and low-resource-consumption numerical calculations.
Similarly, Woo et al. (2008a) also observed the same in
their unsteady state simulation. Chen and Jin (2009b) performed transient 3D simulations in an industrial scale spray
dryer (15 m tall and 10 m wide). They observed that the
particles make the central jet oscillate more non-linearly
and the frequency of oscillation decreases with the increasing feed rate. Recently, Woo et al. (2009) have performed
unsteady state simulations of spray drying and investigated
the effect of chamber aspect ratio and operating conditions
on flow stability. Authors observed that a large expansion
ratio produces a more stable flow due to the limitations
of the jet fluctuations by outer geometry constriction.
The modelling of spray dryers using population balance
method is gaining importance nowadays because this model
accounts for the droplet growth, coalescence and break up
during the spray-drying process. Nijdam, Guo, Fletcher,
and Langrish (2004) modelled the particle agglomeration
within the spray chamber using two different frameworks
namely, Lagrangian and Eulerian. They validated their prediction using phase doppler anemometry (PDA) measurement and they found that Lagrangian approach is more
suitable for modelling of agglomeration of particles in
terms of ease of implementation and range of applicability.
However, authors concluded that more work needs to be
performed to refine the turbulence models for the Lagrangian approach in order to account for the various particle turbulence phenomena and particleeparticle correlations.
Recently, Handscomb, Kraft, and Bayly (2009) included
source term for droplet coalescence and break up. This approach gives a better understanding of complexities of twophase flows in spray dryers. The model includes nucleation
and growth of suspended solids from an ideal binary
References
Abdul Ghani, A. G., Farid, M. M., Chen, X. D., & Richards, P. (1999a).
Numerical simulation of natural convection heating of canned
food by computational fluid dynamics. Journal of Food Engineering, 41(1), 55e64.
Abdul Ghani, A. G., Farid, M. M., Chen, X. D., & Richards, P. (1999b).
An investigation of deactivation of bacteria in a canned liquid food
during sterilisation using computational fluid dynamics (CFD).
Journal of Food Engineering, 42(4), 207e214.
Abdul Ghani, A. G., Farid, M. M., Chen, X. D., & Richards, P. (2001).
Thermal sterilisation of canned food in a 3-D pouch using computational fluid dynamics. Journal of Food Engineering, 48(2), 147e156.
Anandharamakrishnan, C. (2003). Computational fluid dynamics
(CFD) e applications for the food industry. Indian Food Industry,
22(6), 62e68.
Anandharamakrishnan, C. (2008). Experimental and computational
fluid dynamics studies on spray-freeze-drying and spray-drying of
proteins. Ph.D. thesis. UK: Loughborough University.
Anandharamakrishnan, C., Gimbun, J., Stapley, A. G. F., & Rielly, C. D.
(2008). A study of particle histories during spray drying using computational fluid dynamic simulations. In 16th International Drying
Symposium (IDS 2008), Hyderabad, India 9e12 November 2008.
Anandharamakrishnan, C., Gimbun, J., Stapley, A. G. F., & Rielly, C. D.
(2010). Application of computational fluid dynamic (CFD) simulations to spray-freezing operations. Drying Technology, 28,
94e102.
Anandharamakrishnan, C., Rielly, C. D., & Stapley, A. G. F. (2007).
Effects of process variables on the denaturation of whey proteins
during spray-drying. Drying Technology, 25, 799e807.
Anderson, J. D. (1984). Computational fluid dynamics e The basics
with applications. New York: McGraw-Hill Inc.
Bahu, R. E. (1992). Spray drying d maturity or opportunities. In
A. S. Mujumdar (Ed.), Drying 92. Proc. eighth international drying
symposium IDS 92, Montreal, Canada (pp. 74e91). Amsterdam:
Elsevier.
Bakker, A. (2002). Computational fluid mixing. Lebanon, NH, USA:
Fluent Inc..
Bayly, A. E., Jukes, P., Groombridge, M., & McNally, C. (2004). Airflow
patterns in a counter-current spray drying tower e simulation and
measurement. In:Proceedings of the 14th international drying
symposium (IDS 2004), Sao Paulo, Brazil, 22e25 August 2004, Vol
B (pp. 775e778).
Birchal, V. S., Huang, L., Mujumdar, A. S., & Passos, M. L. (2006). Spray
dryers e modeling and simulation. Drying Technology, 24, 359e371.
Bird, B., Stewart, W. E., & Lightfoot, E. N. (1960). Transport phenomena. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Charm, S. E. (1971). The fundamentals of food engineering. Westport,
CT: The AVI Publishing Company.
Chen, X. D. (2008). The basics of a reaction engineering approach to
modeling air-drying of small droplets or thin-layer materials.
Drying Technology, 26, 627e639.
Chen, X. D., & Jin, Y. (2009a). Numerical study of the drying process of
different sized particles in an industrial e scale spray dryer. Drying
Technology, 27, 371e381.
Chen, X. D., & Jin, Y. (2009b). A three-dimensional numerical study of
the gas/particle interactions in an industrial-scale spray dryer for
milk powder production. Drying Technology, 27, 1018e1027.
Chen, X. D., & Lin, S. X. Q. (2004). Air drying of milk droplet under
constant and time dependent conditions. AIChE Journal, 51(6),
1790e1799.
Chen, X. D., & Lin, S. X. Q. (2005). Prediction of air-drying of milk
droplet under relatively high humidity using the reaction engineering approach. Drying Technology, 23, 1395e1406.
Chen, X. D., & Patel, K. C. (2008). Sensitivity analysis of the reaction
engineering approach to modeling spray drying of whey proteins
concentrate. Drying Technology, 26, 1334e1343.
395
Chen, X. D., Pirini, W., & Ozilgen, M. (2001). The reaction engineering approach to modeling drying of thin layer of pulped kiwi
fruit flesh under conditions of small biot numbers. Chemical
Engineering and Progress, 40, 165e181.
Chen, X. D., & Xie, G. Z. (1997). Fingerprints of the drying behavior of
particulate or thin layer food materials established using a reaction
engineering model. Transactions of the Institution of Chemical
Engineers, Part C, 75, 213e222.
Cortella, G., Manzan, M., & Comini, G. (1998). Computation of air
velocity and temperature distributions in open display cabinets. In:
Advances in the refrigeration systems, food technologies and cold
chain (pp. 617e625). Paris, France: International Institute of
Refrigeration.
Courant, R., Friedrichs, K., & Lewy, H. (1928). Die partiellen differenzengleichungen der mathematischen Physik. Mathematische
Annalen (Historical Archive), 100, 32e74.
Crowe, C. T., Sharam, M. P., & Stock, D. E. (1977). The particle source
in cell (PSI-Cell) model for gas-droplet flows. Journal of Fluid Engineering, 9, 325e332.
Datta, A. K., & Teixeira, A. A. (1987). Numerical modelling of natural
convection heating in canned liquid foods. Transactions of the
ASAE, 30(5), 1542e1551.
Davey, L. M., & Pham, Q. T. (1997). Predicting the dynamic product
heat load and weight loss during beef chilling using a multi-region
finite difference approach. International Journal of Refrigeration,
20(7), 470e482.
Davey, L. M., & Pham, Q. T. (2000). A multi-layered two-dimensional
finite element model to calculate dynamic product heat load and
weight loss during beef chilling. International Journal of Refrigeration, 23(6), 444e456.
Denys, S., Dewettinck, K., & Pieters, J. G. (2005). CFD analysis for
process impact assessment during thermal pasteurisation of intact
eggs. Journal of Food Protection, 68, 366e374.
Denys, S., Pieters, J. G., & Dewettinck, K. (2003). Combined CFD and
experimental approach for determination of the surface heat
transfer coefficient during thermal processing of eggs. Journal of
Food Science, 68, 943e951.
Denys, S., Pieters, J. G., & Dewettinck, K. (2004). Computational
fluid dynamics analysis of combined conductive and convective
heat transfer in model eggs. Journal of Food Engineering, 63,
281e290.
Dombrowski, N., Foumeny, E. A., & Riza, A. (1993). Know the CFD
codes. Chemical Engineering Progress, 89(9), 46e48.
Ducept, F., Sionneau, M., & Vasseur, J. (2002). Superheated steam
dryer - simulations and experiments on product drying. Chemical
Engineering Journal, 86, 75e83.
Fellows, P. J. (1998). Food processing technology-principles and
practice. Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing Limited.
Fletcher, A. J. (2000). Computational techniques for fluid dynamics,
(2nd ed.). New York: Springer-Verlag.
Fletcher, D., Guo, B., Harvie, D., Langrish, T., Nijdam, J., &
Williams, J. (2003). What is important in the simulation of spray
dryer performance and how do current CFD models perform. In:
3rd International Conference on CFD in the minerals and process industries. Melbourne, Australia: CSIRO. 10e12 December
2004.
Foster, A. (1996). The costs involved in modelling retail display cabinets. In: Paper presented at the Seminar on Achievements with
CFD in the food industry. Leatherhead, UK: Leatherhead Food
Research Association.
Goldberg, J. E. (1987). Prediction of spray dryer performance. Ph.D.
thesis. Oxford, UK: University of Oxford.
Goula, A. M., & Adamopoulos, K. G. (2004). Influence of spray drying
conditions on residue accumulation e simulation using CFD.
Drying Technology, 22, 1107e1128.
Gupta, A. K., Lilley, D. G., & Syred, N. (1984). Swirl flows. Turnbridge
Wells: Abacus.
396
Handscomb, C. S., Kraft, M., & Bayly, A. E. (2009). A new model for
the drying of droplets containing suspended solids. Chemical Engineering Science, 64, 628e637.
Harvie, D. J. E., Langrish, T. A. G., & Fletcher, D. F. (2001). Numerical
simulations of gas flow patterns within a tall-form spray dryer.
Transactions of the Institution of Chemical Engineers, 79(A),
235e248.
Hu, Z., & Sun, D. W. (1999). The temperature distribution of cooked
meat joints in an air-blast chiller during cooling process: CFD
simulation and experimental verification. In Paper presented at the
20th International Congress of Refrigeration, Sydney, Australia.
Hu, Z., & Sun, D. W. (2000). Simulation of heat and mass transfer for
vacuum cooling of cooked meats by using computational fluid dynamics code. In Paper presented at the 8th International Congress on
Engineering and Food, Paper no. O-130, Puebla, Mexico.
Huang, L. X., Kumar, K., & Mujumdar, A. S. (2003a). Use of computational fluid dynamics to evaluate alternative spray chamber
configurations. Drying Technology, 21, 385e412.
Huang, L. X., Kumar, K., & Mujumdar, A. S. (2003b). A parametric
study of the gas flow patterns and drying performance of co-current
spray dryer: results of a computational fluid dynamics study. Drying
Technology, 21(6), 957e978.
Huang, L. X., Kumar, K., & Mujumdar, A. S. (2004a). Simulation of
a spray dryer fitted with a rotary disk atomizer using a three-dimensional computational fluid dynamic model. Drying Technology, 22(6), 1489e1515.
Huang, L. X., Kumar, K., & Mujumdar, A. S. (2004b). Simulation of
spray evaporation using pressure and ultrasonic atomizer e
a comparative analysis. Russia Tambo State Technical University,
Transactions, (English Version), 10(1A), 83e100.
Huang, L. X., Kumar, K., & Mujumdar, A. S. (2004c). Computational
fluid dynamic simulation of droplet drying in a spray dryer. In:Proceedings of the 14th international drying symposium (IDS
2004), Sao Paulo, Brazil, 22e25 August 2004, Vol A
(pp. 326e332).
Huang, L. X., Kumar, K., & Mujumdar, A. S. (2006). A comparative
study of a spray dryer with rotary disc atomizer and pressure nozzle
using computational fluid dynamic simulations. Chemical
Engineering and Processing, 45, 461e470.
Huang, L. X., & Mujumdar, A. S. (2006). Numerical study of two-stage
horizontal spray dryers using computational fluid dynamics.
Drying Technology, 24, 727e733.
Huang, L. X., & Mujumdar, A. S. (2007). Simulation of an industrial
spray dryer and prediction of off-design performance. Drying
Technology, 25, 703e714.
Huang, L. X., Passos, M. L., Kumar, K., & Mujumdar, A. S. (2005). A
three dimensional simulation of a spray dryer fitted with a rotary
atomizer. Drying Technology, 23, 1859e1873.
Incropera, F. P., Dewitt, D. P., Bergman, T. L., & Lavine, A. S. (2007).
Fundamentals of heat and mass transfer. New York: John Wiley &
Sons.
Jakobsen, H. A., Sannaes, B. H., Grevskott, S., & Svendsen, H. F.
(1997). Modelling of vertical bubble-driven flows. Industrial
Engineering Chemistry Research, 36, 4052e4074.
Kerkhof, P. J. A. M. (1994). The role of theoretical and mathematical
modelling in scale-up. Drying Technology, 12(1e2), 1e46.
Kieviet, F. G. (1997). Modeling quality in spray drying. Ph.D. thesis.
Netherlands: Endinhoven University of Technology.
Kieviet, F. G., & Kerkhof, P. J. A. M. (1995). Measurements of particle
residence time distributions in a co-current spray dryer. Drying
Technology, 13(5e7), 1241e1248.
Kieviet, F. G., & Kerkhof, P. J. A. M. (1996). In: A. S. Mujumdar (Ed.),
Using computational fluid dynamics to model product quality in
spray drying: Air flow temperature and humidity patterns.
Drying96, Vol. A (pp. 259e266), Krakow, Poland.
Kuo, K. K. Y. (1986). Principles of combustion. New York: John Wiley
and Sons.
397
Sahu, A. K., Kumar, P., Patwardhan, A. W., & Joshi, J. B. (1999). CFD
modelling and mixing in stirred tanks. Chemical Engineering Science, 54(13e14), 2285e2293.
Schaldach, G., Berger, L., Razilov, I., & Berndt, H. (2000). Computer
simulation for fundamental studies and optimisation of ICP spray
chambers. ISAS (Institute of Spectrochemistry and Applied Spectroscopy) Current Research Reports, Berlin, Germany.
Scott, G. M. (1977). Simulation of the flow of non-newtonian foods using
computational fluid dynamics. Campden & Chorleywood Food Research Association R&D Report No. 34, Chipping Campden, UK.
Scott, G. M. (1994). Computational fluid dynamics for the food industry. Food Technology International, Europe, 49e51.
Scott, G. M., & Richardson, P. (1997). The application of computational fluid dynamics in the food industry. Trends in Food Science
and Technology, 8(4), 119e124.
Shang, J. S. (2004). Three decades of accomplishments in computational
fluid dynamics. Progress in Aerospace Sciences, 40, 173e197.
Shih, T. H., Liou, W. W., Shabbir, A., & Zhu, J. (1995). A new ke3 eddyviscosity model for high Reynolds number turbulent flows e model
development and validation. Computers Fluids, 24(3), 227e238.
Southwell, D. B., & Langrish, T. A. G. (2000). Observations of flow
patterns in a spray dryer. Drying Technology, 18(3), 661e685.
Southwell, D. B., Langrish, T. A. G., & Fletcher, D. F. (1999). Process
intensification in spray dryer by turbulent enhancement. Transactions of the Institution of Chemical Engineers, Part A, 77, 189e205.
Southwell, D. B., Langrish, T. A. G., & Fletcher, D. F. (2001). Use of
computational fluid dynamics techniques to assess design alternatives for the plenum chamber of a small spray dryer. Drying
Technology, 19(2), 257e268.
Straatsma, J., Van Houwelingen, G., Steenbergen, A. E., & De Jong, P.
(1999). Spray drying of food products: 1. Simulation model. Journal
of Food Engineering, 42, 67e72.
Sun, D. W. (2007). Computational fluid dynamics in food processing.
Boca Raton: CRC Press/Taylor and Francis Group.
Tannehill, J. C., Anderson, D. A., & Pletcher, R. H. (1997). Computational fluid mechanics and heat transfer, (2nd ed.). Philadelphia:
Taylor & Francis.
Therdthai, N., Zhou, W., & Adamczak, T. (2003). Two-dimensional
CFD modelling and simulation of an industrial continuous bread
baking oven. Journal of Food Engineering, 60, 211e217.
Ullum, T. (2006). Simulation of a spray dryer with a rotary atomizer: the
appearance of vortex breakdown. In I. Farkas, & A. S. Mujumdar
(Eds.), Drying 2006 e Proceedings of the 15th international drying
symposium (pp. 251e257). Budapest: Hungary.
Verboven, P., Nicola, B., Delele, M., Tijskens, E., Atalay, Y., Ho, Q., et
al. (2008). Combined discrete element and CFD modelling of airflow through random stacking of horticultural products in vented
boxes. Journal of Food Engineering, 89(1), 33e41.
Verboven, P., Nicola, B., Delele, M., Schenk, A., & Ramon, H. (2009).
Evaluation of a chicory root cold store humidification system using
computational fluid dynamics. Journal of Food Engineering, 94(1),
110e121.
Versteeg, H. K., & Malalasekera, W. (1995). An introduction to computational fluid dynamics. Essex, England: Pearson Education Ltd.
Vries, U. D., Velthuis, H., & Koster, K. (1994). Baking ovens and
product quality: a computer model. Food Science and Technology
Today, 9(4), 232e234.
Wang, L., & Sun, D. W. (2003). Recent developments in numerical
modelling of heating and cooling processes in the food industry
e a review. Trends in Food Science and Technology, 14,
408e423.
Woo, M. W., Daud, W. R. W., Mujumdar, A. S., Talib, M. Z. M.,
Wu, Z. H., & Tasirin, S. M. (2008a). CFD evaluation of droplet
drying models in a spray dryer fitted with a rotary atomizer. Drying
Technology, 26, 1180e1198.
Woo, M. W., Daud, W. R. W., Mujumdar, A. S., Talib, M. Z. M.,
Wu, Z. H., & Tasirin, S. M. (2008c). Comparative study of droplet
398