ISLAMIC

GARDENS
PREPARED BY:
AGUILAR, SHECAINA S.
ALMORFE, MICAH B.
FLORES, PRINCESS ELAINE T.
INSO, SHARMAINE L.
MAGBOJOS, LAIKA J.
MARTINO, MARIEL PAZ R.

ISLAMIC GARDENS
TRADITIONALLY, AN ISLAMIC GARDEN IS A COOL PLACE OF REST AND REFLECTION, AND A
REMINDER OF PARADISE. THE QUR'AN HAS MANY REFERENCES TO GARDENS, AND THE GARDEN IS USED
AS AN EARTHLY ANALOGUE FOR THE LIFE IN PARADISE WHICH IS PROMISED TO BELIEVERS:

ALLAH HAS PROMISED TO THE BELIEVING MEN AND THE BELIEVING WOMEN GARDENS, BENEATH
WHICH RIVERS FLOW, TO ABIDE IN THEM, AND GOODLY DWELLINGS IN GARDENS OF PERPETUAL
ABODE; AND BEST OF ALL IS ALLAH'S GOODLY PLEASURE; THAT IS THE GRAND
ACHIEVEMENT (QUR'AN 9.72)
THERE ARE SURVIVING FORMAL ISLAMIC GARDENS IN A WIDE ZONE EXTENDING FROM SPAIN AND
MOROCCO IN THE WEST TO INDIA IN THE EAST. FAMOUS ISLAMIC GARDENS INCLUDE THOSE OF THE TAJ
MAHAL IN INDIA AND THE GENERALIFE AND ALHAMBRA IN SPAIN.
THE GENERAL THEME OF A TRADITIONAL ISLAMIC GARDEN IS WATER AND SHADE, NOT
SURPRISINGLY SINCE ISLAM CAME FROM AND GENERALLY SPREAD IN A HOT AND ARID CLIMATE. UNLIKE
ENGLISH GARDENS, WHICH ARE OFTEN DESIGNED FOR WALKING, ISLAMIC GARDENS ARE INTENDED FOR
REST AND CONTEMPLATION. FOR THIS REASON, ISLAMIC GARDENS USUALLY INCLUDE PLACES FOR
SITTING.

TYPES
FAIRCHILD RUGGLES REFERS TO THE UNIVERSAL NATURE OF GARDENING, AND THE BASIC
HUMAN NEEDS IT FULFILLS; THE NEEDS TO CULTIVATE, TO MASTER THE WILD LANDSCAPE, AND TO BRING
ORDER TO IT. THE SPIRITUAL ASPECTS OF GARDENING, ACCORDING TO THIS VIEW, WERE A LATER
DEVELOPMENT. SHE FURTHER POINTS OUT THE CLASSIC FORMAL GARDEN, KNOWN AS
THE CHARBAGH (OR CHAHAR BAGH), IS BUT ONE FORM WHICH EXISTS IN THE ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION; A
CIVILIZATION WHICH HAS TRADITIONALLY INCLUDED PEOPLES OF MANY FAITHS AND CULTURES.
CLIFFORD A. WRIGHT, AN AUTHOR ON MEDITERRANEAN CUISINE, DESCRIBES DIFFERENT GARDEN
TYPES FOR DIFFERENT PURPOSES:
THE MUSLIMS HAD DIFFERENT KINDS OF GARDENS SERVING DIFFERENT PURPOSES. THE
BUSTAN WAS THE GARDEN OF THE INNER COURT OF A HOUSE, A FORMAL GARDEN WITH POOLS
AND WATER CHANNELS. THE JANNAH WAS AN ORCHARD WITH PALMS, ORANGES, AND VINES
IRRIGATED BY CANALS. THE RAWDAH REFERRED IN PARTICULAR TO THE VEGETABLE GARDEN
THAT PRODUCED FOODS FOR THE COOKS.

PERSIAN, ARABIC AND BYZANTINE INFLUENCE

AFTER THE ARAB INVASIONS OF THE 7TH CENTURY CE, THE TRADITIONAL DESIGN OF
THE PERSIAN GARDEN WAS USED IN THE ISLAMIC GARDEN. PERSIAN GARDENS AFTER THAT TIME WERE
TRADITIONALLY ENCLOSED BY WALLS AND WERE DESIGNED TO REPRESENT PARADISE; THE PERSIAN
WORD FOR ENCLOSED SPACE IS 'PAIRI-DAEZA.' IN THE CHARBAGH, OR PARADISE GARDEN, FOUR WATER
CANALS TYPICALLY CARRY WATER INTO A CENTRAL POOL OR FOUNTAIN, INTERPRETED AS THE FOUR
RIVERS IN PARADISE, FILLED WITH MILK, HONEY, WINE AND WATER. HELLENISTIC INFLUENCES ARE ALSO
APPARENT; THE WESTERN USE OF STRAIGHT LINES IN THE PLAN IS BLENDED
WITH SASSANID ORNAMENTAL PLANTATIONS AND FOUNTAINS.

SURVIVING GARDENS
MANY OF THE GARDENS OF ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION ARE LOST TO US TODAY. WHILE MOST OTHERS
MAY RETAIN THEIR FORMS, THE ORIGINAL PLANTINGS HAVE BEEN REPLACED WITH MODERN ONES. THE
GARDEN IS A TRANSIENT FORM OF ARCHITECTURAL ART DEPENDENT UPON THE CLIMATE, AND THE
RESOURCES AVAILABLE TO THOSE WHO CARE FOR IT.

ALBANIA
EVLIYA ELEBI'S 17TH CENTURY CE SEYAHATNAME (TRAVEL BOOK) CONTAINS DESCRIPTIONS OF
PARADISE GARDENS AROUND THE TOWNS OF BERAT AND ELBASAN, ALBANIA. ACCORDING TO
DR. ROBERT ELSIE, AN EXPERT ON ALBANIAN CULTURE, VERY FEW TRACES OF THE REFINED ORIENTAL
CULTURE OF THE OTTOMAN ERA REMAIN HERE TODAY.
ELEBI DESCRIBES THE TOWN OF BERAT:
IT IS A HUGE OPEN TOWN, ENTIRELY OUTSIDE THE WALLS OF THE FORTRESS. IT IS
SITUATED IN A LARGE AREA ALONG THE BANK OF THE [...] RIVER TO THE EAST AND SOUTH OF
THE UPPER FORTRESS AND IS COVERED IN VINEYARDS, ROSE GARDENS AND VEGETABLE
GARDENS. THERE ARE 5,000 ONE- AND TWO-STORY STONEWORK HOUSES WITH RED-TILED
ROOFS. THEY ARE WELL BUILT AND ATTRACTIVE HOUSES WITH GARDENS AND ARE SPREAD
OVER SEVEN VERDANT HILLS AND VALLEYS. AMONG THEM ARE OVER 100 SPLENDID MANSIONS
WITH CISTERNS AND FOUNTAINS AND AN INVIGORATING CLIMATE.
ELEBI DESCRIBES THE TOWN OF ELBASAN:
THE OPEN TOWN OUTSIDE THE WALLS EXTENDS ON ALL SIDES OF THE FORTRESS TO THE
FOOT OF THE HILLS AT A DISTANCE OF ONE HOUR'S MARCH. THE PROSPEROUS AND CHEERFULLOOKING MANSIONS IN THE OPEN TOWN ARE ADORNED WITH BEAUTIFUL VINEYARDS,
PARADISIACAL GARDENS AND PARKS WITH THEIR PAVILIONS AND GALLERIES. THEY ARE TWO
OR THREE STORIES HIGH, MADE OF STONEWORK AND WITH TILED ROOFS. EACH OF THEM HAS A
SOURCE OF PURE FLOWING WATER, A POOL AND A FOUNTAIN WITH WATER SPURTING FROM
JETS. THEY ARE LUXURIOUS DWELLINGS LIKE THOSE IN THE GARDENS OF PARADISE.
ALGERIA
DAR AL-BAHR, THE LAKE PALACE, IS SITUATED ON THE SOUTHERN END OF BENI HAMMAD FORT, A
RUINED FORTIFIED CITY WHICH HAS REMAINED UNINHABITED FOR 800 YEARS. ARTIFACTS RECOVERED
FROM THE SITE ATTEST TO A HIGH DEGREE OF CIVILIZATION. DURING ITS TIME, IT WAS REMARKED UPON
BY VISITORS FOR THE NAUTICAL SPECTACLES ENACTED IN ITS LARGE POOL. SURROUNDING THE POOL
AND THE PALACE WERE TERRACES, COURTYARDS AND GARDENS. LITTLE IS KNOWN OF THE DETAILS OF
THESE GARDENS, OTHER THAN THE LION MOTIFS CARVED IN THEIR STONE FOUNTAINS. BENI HAMMAD
FORT IS A UNESCO WORLD HERITAGE SITE, NOTED AS AN "AUTHENTIC PICTURE OF A FORTIFIED MUSLIM
CITY."
THE SHALIMAR GARDENS
THE NAME SHALIMAR IS THOUGHT TO MEAN, AMONG OTHER THINGS, "ABODE OF BLISS" OR
"LIGHT OF THE MOON". THERE WERE ORIGINALLY THREE GARDENS WITH THE NAME SHALIMAR: ONE IN
LAHORE, PAKISTAN, ANOTHER IN JAMMU KASHMIR, INDIA AND FINALLY ONE, LOCATED IN DELHI, WHICH HAS
COMPLETELY DISAPPEARED.

SHALIMAR GARDENS, LAHORE

SHALIMAR GARDENS, LAHORE, WAS BUILT BY THE GOVERNOR OF LAHORE, WITH FUNDS
SUPPLIED BY THE MUGHAL EMPEROR SHAH JAHAN, BEGINNING IN 1641 CE. THE WATER IS SUPPLIED BY
A CANAL DUG FROM THE NEARBY RAVI RIVER. BUILT IN THE MUGHAL STYLE, IT IS SURROUNDED BY HIGH
WALLS WITH TOWERS IN THE CORNERS. THE INNER FACE OF THE WALLS HAVE TRACES OF FRESCOES
DONE IN FLORAL PATTERNS. THE CANAL PASSES THROUGH THE GARDENS, WHICH ARE CONSTRUCTED ON
THREE SEPARATE TERRACES AT DIFFERENT ELEVATIONS. THE GARDEN TERRACES ARE LAID OUT IN THE
TRADITIONAL "PARADISE" MOTIF OF FOUR CHANNELS CONVERGING ON A CENTRAL FOUNTAIN, AND COVER
A TOTAL OF FORTY ACRES.
ANDALUSIA, SPAIN
THE GARDEN WAS A COMMON FEATURE OF HOMES IN ARAB SPAIN. ANDALUSIAN DESIGNS
EMPHASIZED PRIVACY AND COOLNESS, WITH ROOMS OPENING ONTO A ROOFED, OPEN CORRIDOR. NEXT
TO THIS CORRIDOR, ONE WOULD TYPICALLY FIND A VERDANT PATIO GARDEN COMPLETE WITH CENTRAL
FOUNTAIN.

AL-AZHAR PARK, CAIRO

AL-AZHAR PARK IS A MODERN LANDMARK IN CAIRO, EGYPT. IT IS LAID OUT ALONG A CENTRAL
SERIES OF TERRACED, FORMAL ISLAMIC GARDENS. MULTICOLORED MAMLUK STONEWORK, FOUNTAINS
AND ISLAMIC GEOMETRIC PATTERNS ARE THE PREDOMINATING STYLISTIC THEME OF THE PARK. IT IS
LISTED AS ONE OF THE WORLD'S SIXTY GREAT PUBLIC SPACES BY THE PROJECT FOR PUBLIC
SPACES (PPS).

THE SYMBOLISM OF THE ISLAMIC GARDEN

THE IDEA OF PARADISE AS A GARDEN IS A VERY ANCIENT ONE, PRE-DATING THE THREE GREAT
MONOTHEISTIC RELIGIONS, JUDAISM, CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM, BY CENTURIES. WITHIN THE ISLAMIC
CONTEXT THE KEY ELEMENTS OF FLOWING WATER, SHADE AND EXUBERANT FOLIAGE POWERFULLY
CONVEY IDEAS OF BOTH SPIRITUAL AND PHYSICAL REFRESHMENT.
MENTION OF A PARADISE GARDEN FOR THE GODS CAN BE FOUND IN THE FIRST WRITINGS KNOWN
TO MAN, DATING FROM AROUND 4000 BC DURING THE SUMERIAN PERIOD IN MESOPOTAMIA. THE
BABYLONIANS IN TURN DESCRIBED THEIR DIVINE PARADISE IN THE EPIC OF GILGAMESH (2700 BC): IN
THIS IMMORTAL GARDEN STANDS THE TREE BESIDE A SACRED FOUNT THE TREE IS PLACED.
TWO INDISPENSABLE ELEMENTS OF THE ISLAMIC GARDENS OF PARADISE ARE ALREADY
EVIDENT HERE WATER AND SHADE. IT IS IMPORTANT TO REMEMBER JUST HOW MUCH MORE A GARDEN
MEANS TO THOSE BROUGHT UP IN A HOT DESERT CLIMATE THAN TO THOSE BROUGHT UP IN COUNTRIES
WHERE RAIN IS FREQUENT AND WHERE THE POPULAR IDEA OF PARADISE IS A DESERT ISLAND WITH A
PALM TREE. IN THESE HOT AND DRY ENVIRONMENTS, DESERT NOMADS AND CITY DWELLERS ALIKE HAVE
ALWAYS VIEWED WATER AS A DIRECT SYMBOL OF GODS MERCY. IN THE QURAN THE IDEAS OF MERCY
AND WATER, ESPECIALLY RAIN, ARE INSEPARABLE, AND WITH THEM THE IDEA OF THE REVELATION WHICH
MEANS LITERALLY A SENDING DOWN; BOTH THE REVELATION AND THE RAIN ARE SENT DOWN BY THE
ALL MERCIFUL AND RAIN IS DESCRIBED THROUGHOUT THE QURAN AS A MERCY AND AS LIFE-GIVING.
THE WORD PARADISE COMES FROM THE ANCIENT PERSIAN WORD PAIRIDAEZA THE PERSIANS
BEING ONE OF THE EARLIEST PEOPLES TO CULTIVATE GARDENS, PARKS AND HUNTING GROUNDS. PETRI
MEANS AROUND AND DEAZA MEANS WALL, THUS THE WORD SUGGESTS AN AREA ISOLATED FROM ITS
SURROUNDINGS, ENCLOSED BY WALLS. FROM EARLY ON IN THE JEWISH AND CHRISTIAN TRADITIONS
PARADISE BECAME ASSOCIATED WITH THE GARDEN OF EDEN. THUS BY THE TIME OF THE PROPHET
MUHAMMAD THE GARDENS OF PARADISE PROMISED TO THE RIGHTEOUS WERE NOT A NEW CONCEPT.
INDEED THE PRE-ISLAMIC ARABS CONSIDERED THE SLIGHTEST INDICATION OF NATURES GREENNESS TO
BE SACRED. SINCE THEY WERE COMPLETELY DEPENDENT ON THE OASES FOR THEIR SURVIVAL IT WAS
NATURAL THAT THEY SHOULD LOVE AND REVERE NATURES VEGETATION, BOTH FOR ITS PHYSICAL
BENEFITS AND AS A SIGN OF THE MYSTERIOUS POWER THAT GUIDED THE UNIVERSE.
THERE ARE OVER ONE HUNDRED AND TWENTY REFERENCES TO THE GARDENS IN THE QURAN,
THE PHRASE MOST COMMONLY USED BEING JANNAT AL FIRDAWS, MEANING GARDENS (JANNAT) OF
PARADISE (RDAWS). THE RANGE OF EPITHETS USED WITH JANNAT INDICATES A PLACE NOT ONLY
BLISSFUL AND ETERNAL, BUT ALSO A REFUGE, A SHELTERED AND SECURE RETREAT (KHALWA). THE
TERM GARDENS OF EDEN SUGGESTS THE SPIRITUAL PEACE AND HARMONY OF MANS PRIMORDIAL
STATE. GARDENS OF ETERNITY, DELIGHT BLISS, REFUGE, AS WELL AS EDEN ALL RECUR SEVERAL
TIMES, BUT THE PHRASE MOST OFTEN USED (OVER THIRTY TIMES) IS JANNAT TAJRI MIN TAHTIHA ALANHAR, GARDENS UNDERNEATH WHICH RIVERS FLOW.3 ON ONE LEVEL THIS EVOKES THE LITERAL IMAGE
OF WATER FLOWING UNDER THE PATHWAYS IN ORDER TO IRRIGATE THE FLOWERBEDS, BUT ON A MORE
PROFOUND LEVEL IT SUGGESTS THE NURTURING OF THE GARDEN WITHIN BY THE EVER-FLOWING
WATERS OF THE SPIRIT WHICH PURIFY THE SOUL. INDEED, WATER IS SYMBOLIC OF THE SOUL IN MANY
SACRED TRADITIONS, REFLECTING THE SOULS ABILITY TO RENEW ITSELF WHILE REMAINING TRUE TO ITS
SOURCE. THE ENDLESSLY FLOWING, SPLASHING AND TRICKLING WATER IN THE GARDENS OF THE
GENERALIFE AT THE ALHAMBRA, AS WELL AS IN THE ALHAMBRA PALACES, IS CERTAINLY ONE OF THE
MOST EVOCATIVE REPRESENTATIONS OF THE GARDENS OF PARADISE ANYWHERE IN THE WORLD.
THE MOST DETAILED ACCOUNT OF THE GARDENS OF PARADISE IN THE QURAN IS IN SURA ALRAHMAN (SURA LV, THE ALL MERCIFUL). FOUR GARDENS ARE DESCRIBED, DIVIDED INTO TWO PAIRS. THE
LOWEST PAIR ARE THE GARDEN OF THE SOUL AND THE GARDEN OF THE HEART (RESERVED FOR THE
RIGHTEOUS) AND THE HIGHER PAIR ARE THE GARDEN OF THE SPIRIT AND THE GARDEN OF THE ESSENCE

(RESERVED FOR THE FOREMOST). THERE IS NOT SCOPE WITHIN THIS ARTICLE TO EXPLORE THE
ESOTERIC MEANINGS OF THESE GARDENS HERE. HOWEVER, IT IS ENOUGH TO KNOW NOW THAT THE FOURFOLD FORM OF THE ISLAMIC GARDEN IS THUS NOT JUST A HARMONIOUS AND BEAUTIFUL DESIGN BUT
INCORPORATES A COMPLEX AND PROFOUND MEANING.
THE NUMBER FOUR CONTAINS A UNIVERSAL SYMBOLISM REFLECTING THE ORDER OF THE
UNIVERSE THE FOUR CARDINAL DIRECTIONS AND THE FOUR ELEMENTS. ISLAM INVESTED THIS ANCIENT
SYMBOLISM WITH A RIGOROUS SPIRITUAL VISION. THE KABA, LITERALLY CUBE, SUMS UP THIS
SYMBOLISM PERFECTLY. TO MUSLIMS IT NOT ONLY REPRESENTS THE HOUSE OF GOD (BAYT ALLAH)
BUT ALSO THE CENTRE OF THE WORLD, ITS SHAPE EMPHASIZING THE SOLIDITY OF THE EARTH AND THE
FOUR DIRECTIONS. THE CIRCUMAMBULARION OF THE KABA, PART OF THE RITES OF THE PILGRIMAGE, IS
THE CIRCLE ENCLOSING THE SQUARE, THE MEETING PLACE OF HEAVEN AND EARTH.
THERE ARE, OF COURSE, OTHER TYPES OF ISLAMIC GARDEN, AMONG THEM THE GULISTAN,
MEANING ROSE GARDEN, BUSTAN, FORMAL GARDEN, KITCHEN-GARDEN OR ORCHARD AND BAGH, THE
MOST GENERAL ALLEMBRACING TERM. HERE, THOUGH, WE ARE SPECIFICALLY CONCERNED WITH THE
CHAHARBAGH, A PERSIAN WORD LITERALLY MEANING FOUR GARDENS. IT CAME TO MEAN A GARDEN
DIVIDED INTO FOUR QUARTERS (SOMETIMES EACH QUARTER ALSO DIVIDED) BY WATER-CHANNELS OR
PATHWAYS, USUALLY WITH A FOUNTAIN OR POOL AT THE CENTRE.
ISLAMIC CHAHAR-BAGHS ARE BASED NOT ONLY ON THE QURAN AND THE SAYINGS OF THE
PROPHET MU HAMMAD, BUT ALSO ON THE DESCRIPTION OF THE PROPHETS MIRAJ OR ASCENT INTO
HEAVEN. THE LATTER SPEAKS OF A GREAT DOME OF MOTHER-PEARL RESTING ON FOUR CORNER
PILLARS ON WHICH ARE WRITTEN THE FOUR ELEMENTS OF THE BASMALLAH WITH FOUR RIVERS FLOWING
FROM THE CENTRE, ONE OF WATER, ONE OF MILK, ONE OF HONEY AND ONE OF WINE. THESE FOUR RIVERS
ARE ALSO MENTIONED IN THE QURAN, IN SURA MUHAMMAD, ECHOING THE BOOK OF GENESIS IN THE
BIBLE: AND A RIVER WENT OUT OF EDEN TO WATER THE GARDEN AND FROM THENCE IT WAS PARTED
INTO FOUR HEADS.

THE RECTANGULAR GARDENS, SURROUNDED BY A HIGH RED SANDSTONE WALL, FOLLOW THE
PERSIAN CHAHAR BAGH OR 'FOUR GARDENS' LAYOUT. BROUGHT TO INDIA BY THE FIRST MUGHAL
EMPEROR BABAR.
THE LAYOUT OF ANY OF THE FAMOUS ISLAMIC GARDENS IS BASED ON THE NUMBER FOUR. IN INDIA, FOR
EXAMPLE, THE ANGURI BAGH IN AGRA (PART OF THE RED FORT) AND THE TAJ MAHAL, ARE BOTH
CENTRED ON A FOUR-FOLD DESIGN. THIS DESIGN IS BASED ON THE INTERACTION OF THE CIRCLE AND THE
SQUARE, SYMBOLISING THE HEAVENLY AND EARTHLY WORLDS. THE CHAHAR-BAGH CAN THUS BE SEEN
AS A KIND OF OPEN-AIR SACRED ARCHITECTURE, ANALOGOUS TO THE TRADITIONAL ARABISLAMIC HOUSE
WHICH IS BUILT ON A FOUR-FOLD PLAN AROUND A CENTRAL COURTYARD.
INTEGRAL TO THE MUSLIM IDEA OF A PARADISE GARDEN ON EARTH IS THAT IT IS A PRIVATE
PLACE, HIDDEN AWAY FROM THE WORLD AND FROM PEOPLE, A PLACE FOR PRAYER AND
CONTEMPLATION. IN THE SAME WAY THE PRIVACY OF THE COURTYARD HOUSE CORRESPONDS TO THE

PRIVATE INTERIOR WORLD OF THE FAMILY. IN PERSIA, AS WELL AS IN THE ARAB COUNTRIES AND IN INDIA,
GARDENS AND COURTYARDS WERE CLEARLY DEFINED SPACES WITHIN THE LAYOUT OF THE
ARCHITECTURE; DUST WAS KEPT OUTSIDE THE INCLOSING WALLS AND SHADE AND COOL WERE KEPT
WITHIN. THE COURTYARD IS ITSELF A KIND OF PARADISE GARDEN IN MINIATURE SINCE IT REPRESENTS
THE INWARD, CONTEMPLATIVE ASPECT OF MAN.
THE GARDEN IN ISLAM ALSO SERVES AS A REMINDER OF BOTH THE IMMANENCE AND THE
TRANSCENDENCE OF GOD. THE GREAT LOVE AND KNOWLEDGE OF PLANTS, FLOWERS AND TREES IN, FOR
INSTANCE, ISLAMIC SPAIN AND MUGHAL INDIA, WAS A LOVE BORN OF THE DEEP BELIEF THAT THE
BEAUTY OF NATURE WAS A REFLECTION OF A TRANSCENDENT TRUTH; THESE PLANTS AND FLOWERS
ARE THE SHADOW OF THEIR HEAVENLY ARCHETYPES, THEIR BEAUTY A RADIATION OF GODS GLORY ON
EARTH.
WATER COOLING, CLEANSING AND PURIFYING IS AT THE CENTRE OF THE GARDEN, THE
COURTYARD AND THE MOSQUE. IN A TRADITIONAL SOCIETY THERE IS NO SEPARATION BETWEEN THE
SACRED AND THE PROFANE AND WATER IS THE SUPREME EXAMPLE OF THIS, REMINDING US THAT MAN
IS AT ONCE BODY, SOUL AND SPIRIT, AND THAT THE OUTWARD HABITS BY WHICH WE LIVE CANNOT BE
DISASSOCIATED FROM THE INWARD.
THUS, IN THE COURTYARD GARDEN, THE MINIATURE CHAHAR-BAGH, THE INDISPENSABLE
ELEMENT WAS NOT THE VEGETATION THE TREES, PLANTS AND FLOWERS, OFTEN OMITTED
ALTOGETHER BECAUSE OF LACK OF SPACE BUT WATER. AT THE ATHAMBRA IN GRANADA, SPAIN, THE
LONGEST LASTING OF THE MOORISH KINGDOMS, THE NASRID DYNASTY CREATED A SERIES OF
EXQUISITE COURTYARDS, IN THE CENTRE OF WHICH WATER IS ALWAYS PRESENT IN SOME FORM OR
ANOTHER: IN THE COURT OF MYRTLES THERE IS A LARGE STILL POOL BORDERED WITH MYRTLE HEDGES,
WHILE IN THE COURT OF LIONS AN ELABORATE FOUNTAIN HAS WATER CONSTANTLY FLOWING.
THE GARDENS THAT EXTEND FROM THE COURTYARD OF THE ALHAMBRA ARE THEMSELVES A
SERIES OF COURTYARDS, FORMED NOT BY THE STONE WALLS OF THE PALACES OR OTHER BUILDINGS
BUT BY HEDGES AND TREES, CREATING SECLUDED AREAS. IT IS IN THE NATURE OF PARADISE TO BE
HIDDEN AND SECRET SINCE IT CORRES- PONDS TO THE INTERIOR WORLD, THE INNER- MOST SOUL ALJANNAH MEANS NOT ONLY GARDEN BUT CONCEALMENT.8 THE GARDENS SHOW GREAT ATTENTION
TO GEOMETRIC DESIGN, FOR INSTANCE, A FOUNTAIN IS SURROUNDED BY A HEXAGON FORMED BY LOW
BOX HEDGES, AND STRAIGHT PATHWAYS ARE BORDERED WITH CYPRESSES LEADING INTO
COURTYARDS WITH FOUNTAINS IN THE CENTRE.

PATIO DE LA ACEQUIA
THE JEWEL AT THE HEART OF THE GENERALIFE IS THE PATIO DE LA ACEQUIA, LITERALLY PATIO
OF THE AQUEDUCT THIS GARDEN, HIGH UP ON THE SIDE OF THE HILL, IS APPROACHED BY WALKING UP
SOME SMALL, DARK, COVERED STEPS AND APPEARS QUITE SUDDENLY TRULY A VISION OF
PARADISE. SITTING IN THIS GARDEN FOR ANY LENGTH OF TIME, SLOWLY ABSORBING ITS BEAUTY, THE
VISITOR FINDS THAT THE SOUND OF THE WATER GRADUALLY DROWNS OUT ALL PREOCCUPATIONS OF
THE MIND AND AN OVERWHELMING SENSE OF TRANQUILLITY DESCENDS.
IT IS IMPORTANT TO REMEMBER THE STARK CONTRAST BETWEEN THE HARSH AND ARID
LANDSCAPE IN MOST PARTS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD AND THE GENTLE COOL GIVEN BY TREES AND THE
FOLIAGE OF A GARDEN. GREEN IS THE COLOUR OF ISLAM AND THE COLOUR MOST OFTEN MENTIONED IN
THE QURANIC DESCRIPTIONS OF PARADISE. FLOWERS AND THEIR BRIGHT ARRAY OF COLOURS ARE OF
COURSE A VITAL ELEMENT IN ISLAMIC ART, SUCH AS TILES, MINIATURES AND TEXTILES, BUT IN THE
QURAN IT IS RUNNING WATER, TREES AND THE COLOUR GREEN THAT ARE MENTIONED MOST OFTEN.
THE FOUNTAIN IN THE CENTRE OF THE GARDEN OR COURTYARD, REPRESENTING ONE OF THE
FOUNTAINS IN PARADISE, IS OFTEN SET WITHIN AN OCTAGON. THE OCTAGON IS THE TRANSITIONAL
GEOMETRIC FORM BETWEEN THE CIRCLE, REPRESENTING HEAVEN, AND THE SQUARE REPRESENTING
EARTH; FREQUENTLY, THE DOME OF A MOSQUE IS SUPPORTED BY AN OCTAGONAL DRUM THE
GATEWAY, AS IT WERE, BETWEEN EARTH AND HEAVEN. THE PAVILIONS AT THE FOUR CORNERS OF MANY
MUGHAL MAUSOLEUMS INCLUDING THE TAJ MAHAL, ARE OCTAGONAL AND THE THRONE OF GOD IS
SUPPORTED BY EIGHT ANGELS, SIGNIFYING THE RENEWED MAN AFTER HE HAS TRAVELLED THROUGH
THE SEVEN HEAVENS AND REGAINED PARADISE.
SO THE NUMBER EIGHT BECAME ASSOCIATED WITH PARADISE; THE PERSIANS, IN PARTICULAR,
CREATED PALACES AND GARDENS CALLED HASHTBEHESHT OR EIGHT PARADISES THE ONE
REMAINING PALACEGARDEN ON THE CHAHAR BAGH AVENUE IN ISFAHAN IS CALLED THE HASHT
BEHESHT. THE SAME WAS TRUE OF THE MUGHALS. BABUR, THE FIRST MUGHAL EMPEROR, RECORDS IN
HIS MEMOIRS IN 1519 HUMAYUM ARRIVED AND WAITED ON ME IN THE GARDEN OF THE EIGHT
PARADISES. SADI DIVIDED HIS POEM GULISTAN INTO EIGHT PARTS, EACH PART CORRESPONDING TO
ONE OF THE EIGHT PARADISES.
THERE WERE OFTEN HIGH WALLS WITH GRAND GATEWAYS AS ENTRANCES INTO THE GARDENS,
SOMETIMES ONE IN THE CENTRE OF EACH WALL. THE GATEWAY IS ASSOCIATED WITH THE MIHRAB, THE
ARCHED NICHE THAT INDICATES THE QIBLA IN THE WALL OF A MOSQUE AND PROVIDES THE DEFINING
MOTIF OF THE PRAYER CARPET. ONE OF THE FUNDAMENTAL MEANINGS OF BOTH THE GATEWAY AND THE
MIHRAB IS THAT THEY REPRESENT THE ENTRANCE TO THE CELESTIAL WORLD, THE HEAVENLY GARDENS.
THE BASIC CHAHAR-BAGH PLAN WAS SUBDIVIDED INTO FOUR PLOTS AND THEN INTO FOUR
FURTHER PLOTS, A MODULAR ARRANGEMENT REFLECTED IN THE COMPOSITION OF MOST GARDENCARPETS. LIGHT AND WATER ARE CONSTANT METAPHORS THE CHANNELS OF WATER FROM THE
CENTRAL FOUNTAIN OR POOL WERE CONSTRUCTED SO THAT THE POOL WAS ALWAYS OVERFLOWING, LIKE
THE ETERNALLY-FLOWING WATERS IN THE GARDENS OF PARADISE. VERY OFTEN THE CHANNELS WERE
LINED WITH DARK BLUE OR GREEN TILES SET AT ANGLES SO THAT THE WATER FLOWING OVER THEM
WOULD BREAK UP, CAUSING RIPPLES ON THE SURFACE TO CATCH THE SUNLIGHT THE WATER AND THE
LIGHT TOGETHER DISSOLVING INTO AN ARRAY OF SPARKLING DIAMONDS.
THE CHADOR (A PERSIAN WORD MEANING SHAWL OR VEIL) IS LIKE A SMALL WATERFALL, THE
WATER FALLING OVER CARVED STONE, BREAKING UP THE IMAGE REFLECTED IN IT AND THEREBY
REMINDING US OF THE TRANSIENT NATURE OF THIS WORLD. THE CHINI-KHANAH, OR ROWS OF CARVED
NICHES SET BEHIND A WATERFALL RELIES, LIKE THE CHADOR, ON THE SUBTLE INTERPLAY BETWEEN THE
MOVEMENT OF THE WATER AND LIGHT, ONLY HERE IT IS THE SOFT, FLICKERING, LIGHT OF THE CANDLES
GLOWING THROUGH THE FALLING WATER THAT CREATES A SERENE MOOD: AT THE SIGHT OF
GLITTERING WAVES OR OF LEAFAGE TREMBLING IN THE BREEZE, THE SOUL DETACHES ITSELF FROM ITS
INTERNAL OBJECTS, FROM THE IDOLS OF PASSION AND PLUNGES, VIBRANT WITHIN ITSELF, INTO A PURE
STATE OF BEING.
SUCH DEVICES SOFTEN THE ORDERED AND GEOMETRIC NATURE OF THE GARDEN, AS DOES THE
VEGETATION IT CONTAINS THE GENEROUS PLANTING OF CHENARTREES (THE PLANE TREE, PLATANUS
ORIENTALIS) WITH THEIR LARGE, SHADE-GIVING LEAVES, AND THE CYPRESS, THE PALM-TREE AND THE
OLIVE AS WELL AS THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF FRUIT TREES: FIG, CHERRY, PEACH, CITRUS, POMEGRANATE,
AND ALMOND, WITH THEIR ABUNDANT BLOSSOM AND FRUIT FLOWER-BEDS WERE MOST LIKELY TO BE

FILLED WITH FRAGRANT VARIETIES SUCH AS JASMINE, ROSES, NARCISSI, VIOLETS AND LILIES. SERRIED
ACACIAS, PALMS AND VINES ARE MENTIONED IN THE QURAN (2:268), AND OTHER TREES TO BE FOUND
IN ISLAMIC GARDENS WERE THE WILLOW, BAY, JUNIPER, MYRTLE AND LAUREL.
WHILE THE CYPRESS REPRESENTED ETERNITY AND THE MALE PRINCIPLE, THE FLOWERING FRUIT
TREE REPRESENTED SPRING, THE FEMALE PRINCIPLE AND THE RENEWAL OF LIFE. THE TWO ARE
DEPICTED MANY TIMES IN BOTH PERSIAN AND MUGHAL MINIATURES, THE BRANCHES OF THE FRUIT TREE
CURLING AROUND THE CYPRESS TREE, SYMBOLIC OF BOTH THE ENTWINING OF THE LOVERS AND THE
UNION OF THE HEAVENLY ETERNAL WORLD WITH THE EARTHLY CHANGING WORLD. ACROSS THE ISLAMIC
WORLD, PARTICULARLY IN NORTH AFRICA, BRIGHTLY COLOURED BOUGAINVILLEA BLOSSOM CAN BE SEEN
GROWING UP THE DARK MAJESTIC CYPRESS.
PERSIAN POETRY ABOUNDS WITH IMAGES OF THE GARDEN AND THE CONSTANT INTERPLAY
BETWEEN SYMBOL AND ARCHETYPE, THE EARTHLY AND THE DIVINE. FIRDAWSI, HAFIZ, SADI AND
SHABISTARI ARE JUST A FEW OF THE POETS WHO USED THE IMAGE OF THE GARDEN TO CAPTURE THE
ESSENCE OF THE QURANIC PARADISE OR TO PORTRAY THE BELOVED.
THE CHAHAR-BAGH BECAME THE PRINCIPAL SYMBOL OF THE QURANIC PARADISE ON EARTH AND
IT WAS TAKEN UP AND DEVELOPED IN MOST PARTS OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD, FROM MOORISH SPAIN AND
NORTH AFRICA TO SYRIA AND MUGHAL INDIA. ISLAM INVESTED THE ANCIENT PERSIAN PROTOTYPE WITH
A WHOLE NEW SPIRITUAL VISION AND DIVINE ARCHETYPE, AND IT IS FUNDAMENTALLY UPON THIS DIVINE
ARCHETYPE THAT THE CHAHAR-BAGHS ARE FOUNDED. CENTRED ON A SPIRITUAL VISION OF THE
COSMOS, THESE GARDENS ON EARTH MIRRORS OF THEIR HEAVENLY COUNTERPARTS AIM, LIKE ALL
SACRED ART TO DRAW THE VISITOR CLOSER TO GOD. UNDERSTANDING SOMETHING OF THE SOURCE OF
THEIR INSPIRATION CAN BE OF GREAT VALUE IN CREATING GARDENS TODAY IN THE WESTERN WORLD. AS
IS WELL KNOWN, NEVER BEFORE IN THE HISTORY OF MANKIND HAVE THERE BEEN SUCH ENORMOUS AND
DENSELY POPULATED URBAN AREAS AS THERE ARE TODAY; AND NEVER BEFORE HAS THERE BEEN
SUCH AN INTENSE DESIRE TO ESCAPE THESE AREAS USUALLY THROUGH TRAVEL TO REMOTE PLACES
UNTOUCHED BY MAN BUT ALSO, ON A SMALLER SCALE, THROUGH CREATING GARDENS. THESE
GARDENS ARE NOT ONLY BEAUTIFUL TO BEHOLD AND PLACES OF QUIET BUT ARE ALSO (OFTEN
UNCONSCIOUSLY) A RECREATION OF THE HEAVENLY GARDEN, ITSELF REFLECTED WITHIN ALL OF US OUR
INNER GARDEN: LOOK FOR THE GARDEN WITHIN YOURSELF, IN YOUR INDESTRUCTIBLE DIVINE
SUBSTANCE, WHICH WILL THEN GIVE YOU A NEW AND IMPERISHABLE GARDEN.

ELEMENTS OF TRADITIONAL ISLAMIC GARDENS

THE GARDEN HAS A SPECIAL PLACE IN THE ISLAMIC WORLD. IN THE DRY, DESERT CLIMATE OF
ARABIA, WHERE ISLAM ORIGINATED, A LUSH, GREEN, SHADY GARDEN WITH FLOWING WATER IS LIKE
PARADISE ON EARTH. TRADITION DICTATES THAT THE GARDEN IS RECTANGULAR WITH A GEOMETRICAL
LAYOUT THAT CREATES A SENSE OF HARMONIOUS SYMMETRY. THE USE OF GREENERY TO PROVIDE
SHADE AND PRIVACY, AS WELL AS WATER FEATURES, ARE OTHER ESSENTIALS THAT DEFINE THE
ISLAMIC GARDEN.
WATER
WATER IS THE HEART OF THE ISLAMIC GARDEN. A FOUNTAIN AT THE CENTER OF A POOL OR
FLOWING WATER REFRESHES THE EYES, COOLS THE BODY IN HIGH TEMPERATURES AND PROVIDES A
SPACE FOR SPIRITUAL CONTEMPLATION. EMMA CLARK, AN EXPERT ON ISLAMIC ART AND ARCHITECTURE,
SAYS THAT THE IDEA OF A PARADISE GARDEN GOES BACK TO THE BABYLONIAN CIVILIZATION, WHERE A
GARDEN SURROUNDING A FOUNTAIN IS DESCRIBED IN THE EPIC OF GILGAMESH. SHE ALSO POINTS OUT
THAT WATER HAS MUCH MORE VALUE TO PEOPLE WHO LIVE IN ARID COUNTRIES AND THAT DESERT
DWELLERS TRADITIONALLY VIEWED WATER AS SYMBOLIC OF GOD'S MERCY. THIS IDEA IS EVIDENT IN
NUMEROUS SURAS OF THE QURAN, WHERE WATER AND MERCY ARE INSEPARABLE. AN ISLAMIC GARDEN
TYPICALLY HAS A FOUNTAIN AT ITS CENTER FROM WHICH RADIATE FOUR PATHS. THESE ARE
SOMETIMES WATER COURSES, OR MAY BE PATHS FOR WALKING. WATER COURSES ARE OFTEN LINED
WITH DARK BLUE OR GREEN TILES THAT INTERACT COLORFULLY WITH THE WATER AND LIGHT.

THE NUMBER FOUR

SURA 55 OF THE QURAN, "THE ALL MERCIFUL," CONTAINS THE MOST DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF
THE ISLAMIC SPIRITUAL CONCEPT OF THE GARDEN. FOUR GARDENS ARE DESCRIBED, AND THE NUMBER
FOUR PLAYS AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN THE GEOMETRICAL LAYOUT OF AN ISLAMIC GARDEN, AS IT IS
TYPICALLY LAID OUT WITHIN A RECTANGLE. AS EMMA CLARK POINTS OUT, THE NUMBER FOUR IS NOT
ONLY THE BASIS OF AN ARTISTICALLY HARMONIOUS LAYOUT, IT ALSO HAS A PROFOUND AND COMPLEX
SPIRITUAL MEANING. FOUR REPRESENTS THE ORDER OF THE UNIVERSE WITH ITS FOUR DIRECTIONS AND
FOUR ELEMENTS. MOREOVER, IN ISLAM, FOUR RIVERS OF WATER, MILK, HONEY AND WINE ARE MENTIONED
IN SURA MUHAMMAD. THE GARDEN DIVIDED INTO FOUR QUARTERS IS TRADITIONALLY CALLED A
"CHAHAR-BAGH," WHICH COMES FROM PERSIAN AND MEANS "FOUR GARDENS."
GEOMETRY AND THE NUMBER EIGHT
FOUR PATHS LEAD FROM THE FOUNTAIN AT THE CENTER OF THE GARDEN, BUT FREQUENTLY THE
FOUNTAIN IS PLACED WITHIN AN OCTAGONAL-SHAPED POOL. THE DOMES OF MOSQUES ARE ALSO
SUPPORTED ON AN OCTAGON. EMMA CLARK STATES THAT AN OCTAGON REPRESENTS A GEOMETRICAL
LINK BETWEEN A CIRCLE -- SYMBOLIZING HEAVEN IN ISLAM -- AND A SQUARE, WHICH REPRESENTS
EARTH. THE NUMBER EIGHT IS ASSOCIATED WITH PARADISE. CONSEQUENTLY, YOU'LL USUALLY FIND
THAT EACH QUARTER OF AN ISLAMIC GARDEN IS FURTHER DIVIDED INTO ANOTHER FOUR PARTS TO
CREATE THE NUMBER EIGHT. EACH SECTION USES GEOMETRIC DESIGNS BASED ON THE NUMBERS FOUR
OR EIGHT, SUCH AS AN EIGHT-POINTED, STAR-SHAPED FLOWER BED.
GREENERY
GREENERY SOFTENS THE GEOMETRIC LINES OF THE ISLAMIC GARDEN. TRADITIONALLY, PLANE
TREES WERE PLANTED TO CREATE ALL-IMPORTANT SHADE. CYPRUS TREES ARE FREQUENTLY A
FEATURE, AS ARE FRUIT TREES SUCH AS THE FIG, PEACH, ORANGE AND ALMOND, WHICH GIVE BOTH
SCENT AND FRUIT. THE CYPRUS TREE REPRESENTS THE MALE PRINCIPLE AND THE FRUIT TREES
SYMBOLIZE THE FEMALE, ACCORDING TO DOCUMENTS FROM BOTH THE PERSIAN AND MUGHAL
CULTURES. THE ISLAMIC GARDENER PREFERS HIGHLY-SCENTED FLOWERS AS WELL, WITH JASMINE,
LILIES, VIOLETS AND ROSES BEING TYPICAL CHOICES.
ISLAMIC GARDENS
SINCE THE PUBLICATION OF HIS SEMINAL BOOK MAN AND NATURE: THE SPIRITUAL CRISIS OF
MODERN MAN IN 1967, SEYYED HOSSEIN NASR HAS MADE THE SAME VITAL POINT OVER AND OVER
AGAIN. THERE IS NO POSSIBILITY OF A SOLUTION TO OUR ECOLOGICAL CRISIS UNLESS A NEW APPROACH
IS TAKEN: AN APPROACH THAT SEES NATURE, NOT AS AN IT, NOT ONLY AS MERELY A SOURCE OF RAW
MATERIALS TO BE EXPLOITED BY MAN, NOT AS A MATERIAL REALITY DEVOID OF INNATE SPIRITUAL
SIGNIFICANCE, BUT AS A SACRED REALITY TO BE TREATED AS SUCH. REMEMBERING THAT NATURE IS A
SACRED REALITY IS FUNDAMENTAL TO OUR RECONNECTION WITH HER. AND THIS LINK BETWEEN NATURE
AND THE SACRED IS NOT PARTICULAR TO ANY SPECIFIC RELIGION OR FAITH TRADITION BUT CONCERNS
US ALL, SINCE BY VIRTUE OF BEING HUMAN WE ARE PROFOUNDLY CONNECTED TO NATURE, TO THE DIVINE
UNITY THAT SHE BOTH VEILS AND REVEALS IN THE MULTIPLICITY OF HER BEAUTY AND GLORY.
THUS, WHEN DISCUSSING THE ISLAMIC GARDENS OF PARADISE AS AN OPPORTUNITY FOR THIS
RECONNECTION, IT IS IMPORTANT TO MAKE CLEAR THAT THESE GARDENS ARE OPEN TO EVERYONE,
IRRESPECTIVE OF BACKGROUND OR CREED: THEY ARE, AS IT WERE, A DIVINELY-GUIDED HUMAN
INTERPRETATION OF NATURE AND AS SUCH MAY ACT AS A UNIVERSAL SYMBOL OF THE HEAVENLY
ARCHETYPE. IN A WORLD FACING DRASTIC CLIMATE CHANGE, AND WHERE MANY PEOPLE SEEM TO HAVE
LOST THEIR WAY, IT SEEMS THAT NATURE PROVIDES THE MOST WHOLESOME (FROM HOLY) AND
UPLIFTING SOLACE, THE POTENTIAL TO OFFER A PATH, NOT ONLY OF RECONNECTION WITH THE PROFOUND
MYSTERY OF EXISTENCE BUT ALSO OF RECOVERING OUR SENSE OF UNITY. INDEED, BEING IN NATURE
NOW EVEN HAS A SPECIAL NAME: ECO-THERAPY! AS THE GREAT PERSIAN POET SAADI SHIRAZI (D. 1291)
WROTE, EVERY LEAF OF THE TREE BECOMES A PAGE OF THE BOOK ONCE THE HEART IS OPENED AND IT
HAS LEARNED TO READ. HE IS REFERRING TO NATURE AS A BOOK OF DIVINE REVELATION THAT MAY BE
READ AND UNDERSTOOD PROVIDING WE HAVE SOME KNOWLEDGE OF THE LANGUAGE OF SYMBOLS.
INDEED, THE WORD SYMBOL COMES FROM THE GREEK MEANING TO THROW TOGETHER NATURE IS IN
FACT THROWING EARTH AND HEAVEN TOGETHER THROUGH HER LANGUAGE OF SYMBOLS AND IF OUR
EYES AND HEARTS ARE OPEN TO THIS THEN WE SEE EVERY LEAF OF THE TREE AS A PAGE OF THE

DIVINE BOOK: THE BEAUTY OF THE OUTWARD APPEARANCE DIRECTS US BOTH UPWARDS AND INWARDS,
TOWARDS THE ESSENCE.
THE LANGUAGE OF SYMBOLS HAS ALL BUT BEEN LOST TO US TODAY; AND IT IS LARGELY DUE
TO THIS LOSS THAT WE HAVE BECOME SO FIXATED ON THE ONE DIMENSION, THE MATERIAL WORLD WE
CAN PERCEIVE, FORGETTING OUR DEEP CONNECTION TO BOTH NATURE AND THE INVISIBLE WORLD WHICH
SHE VEILS. AS THE LATE MARTIN LINGS NOTES IN HIS MARVELLOUS BOOK, SYMBOL AND ARCHETYPE,
SYMBOLISM IS THE MOST IMPORTANT THING IN EXISTENCE; AND IT IS AT THE SAME TIME, THE SOLE
EXPLANATION OF EXISTENCE.

COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF AN ISLAMIC GARDEN

SHADE FOR KEEPING COOL

WALLS FOR KEEPING COOL
A CENTRAL WATER FEATURE
MOSAICS

ISLAMIC GARDEN PLANTS: CREATING ISLAMIC GARDENS AND LANDSCAPES

BY BONNIE L. GRANT
THE URGE TO CREATE BEAUTY IN ONES SURROUNDINGS IS A HUMAN CHARACTERISTIC BUT, IN
MANY CASES, IT IS ALSO A REFLECTION OF RELIGIOUS BELIEFS. ISLAMIC TRADITION INCLUDES HISTORIC
GARDENS BUILT AS A RESULT OF THE KORANS TEACHINGS AND AS A REACTION TO THE ARID
CONDITIONS IN WHICH THESE PEOPLE LIVED. THE ISLAMIC GARDEN DESIGN OF ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS
SUCH AS PERSIA, TURKEY, ASIA, INDIA, EGYPT AND MOROCCO TO NAME BUT A FEW, IS STILL IN
EVIDENCE AS ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES AND, OCCASIONALLY, CONTINUED GARDENS.
ISLAMIC GARDEN DESIGN DESERT CONDITIONS AND SPARSE VEGETATION DOMINATE MUCH OF
THE MIDDLE EAST AND WESTERN TO SOUTH-EASTERN ASIA. THE LACK OF WATER AND PRESSING SUN,
WIND AND HEAT REQUIRE SURCEASE AND SHELTER FROM THE CONSTANT WEATHER. WALLED GARDENS
FILLED WITH TREES, WATER FEATURES, FRUITS AND FLOWERS WERE THE ANSWER TO THIS NEED AND
ALSO GLORIFIED GOD BY SURROUNDING THE FAITHFUL WITH HIS RICHES.
IN THESE SERENE GARDENS, MUSLIMS COULD CONTEMPLATE AND MEDITATE UPON NATURE IN
PEACE AND SERENITY. SOME MUSLIM GARDENS STILL PERSIST AND BEAR SIMILAR FEATURES AS THE
EARLY 7TH TO 16TH CENTURY EXAMPLES OF THE ART FORM. ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS HONORED GOD WITH
ARTS OF MANY KINDS. BUILDING AN ISLAM GARDEN PARADISE WAS A WAY OF HONORING GOD AND
ENJOYING THE BEAUTY HE HAD GIVEN THEM. THE GARDENS CONTAINED ELEMENTS SPECIFICALLY
MENTIONED IN THE KORAN, ALONG WITH FEATURES BORROWED FROM ASIAN AND EUROPEAN GARDEN
TRADITIONS. CREATING ISLAMIC GARDENS AND LANDSCAPES AROUND ESTATES AND PALACES
ENHANCED THE BUILDINGS AND THE LIFESTYLES OF THOSE THAT LIVED THERE, BUT ALSO PROVIDED
COMMON GROUNDS WITH PLAY FIELDS AND CULTURAL ACTIVITIES. ISLAMIC GARDEN PLANTS WERE
OFTEN BROUGHT IN FROM OTHER COUNTRIES, BUT SOME OF THE FLORA WAS NATIVE AND CULTIVATED
FOR MAXIMUM EFFECT. MOST ISLAMIC GARDENS CONTAINED COURTYARDS, PATHS, FOUNTAINS AND
PLAYING AREAS. SOME EVEN HAD ZOOS AND RACECOURSES. AN ELEMENT THAT IS NOT SEEN IS
STATUARY BECAUSE THE KORAN STRICTLY FORBIDS SUCH ARTWORK. THE WATERWAYS HELPED
IRRIGATE THE PLANTS BUT ALSO PROVIDED DIMENSION AND SOUND TO THE GARDEN. OFTEN THE
GARDEN FEATURED A KIOSK, WHICH MIGHT BE A SMALL SEMI-OPEN STRUCTURE OR EVEN A CLOSED,
CLOSELY FORTIFIED EDIFICE.
ISLAMIC GARDEN PLANTS INCLUDED: DATE PALMS, OTHER NATIVE PALMS, MELONS, GRAFTED
FRUIT TREES, HERBS, OTHER TREES AND VEGETATION
CREATING ISLAMIC GARDENS AND LANDSCAPES WATER WAS NOT ONLY LIFE BUT ALSO A
SYMBOL OF WEALTH AND PROSPERITY IN ANCIENT ISLAM. THE DRY LOCATIONS OF MANY OF THE
PRACTITIONERS OF THE RELIGION MEANT WATER WAS A VALUABLE COMMODITY. GARDENS WITH
WATERWAYS AND FEATURES DOMINATED THE THEME AND NOT ONLY CREATED OASES OF SHADE,
HUMIDITY AND CALM, BUT PRACTICALLY WATERED THE LANDSCAPE. THE ISLAMIC GARDEN IS USUALLY
DESIGNED AS A FOUR-FOLD, WHICH IS WHERE THE LAND IS DIVIDED INTO SQUARES BY CHANNELS OF
WATER. IDEALLY, ISLAM GARDEN PARADISE WAS FOUND IN EACH SQUARE NO MATTER HOW LARGE OR
SMALL. SKETCHING OUT THE PATHS AND WATERWAYS FIRST WILL HELP THE MODERN GARDENER MIMIC
THE ISLAMIC GARDEN STYLE. ONCE THESE BASIC ELEMENTS ARE LAID, PLANTING TALL SHADE TREES,
FRUIT TREES, SHRUBS, AND LOWER APPEALING FLOWERING PLANTS TIE IN THE OTHER EXISTING
FEATURES.

REFERENCES/ RESOURCES
HTTPS://WWW.GARDENINGKNOWHOW.COM/SPECIAL/SPACES/CREATING-ISLAMIC-GARDENS.HTM
HTTP://ISLAMIC-ARTS.ORG/2011/THE-SYMBOLISM-OF-THE-ISLAMIC-GARDEN/
HTTP://PEOPLEOF.OUREVERYDAYLIFE.COM/ELEMENTS-TRADITIONAL-ISLAMIC-GARDENS-4542.HTML
HTTPS://WWW.CRITICALMUSLIM.IO/ISLAMIC-GARDENS/
HTTP://LIBGUIDES.SOUTHERNCT.EDU/C.PHP?G=7341&P=35311
ISLAMIC ART AND ARCHITECTURE: THE SYMBOLISM OF THE ISLAMIC GARDEN
RELIGIOUS EDUCATION AND ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME: KEY THINGS ABOUT ISLAMIC GARDENS
RELIGIOUS EDUCATION AND ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME: ELEMENTS WHICH ALL ISLAMIC GARDENS
SHARE
ISLAMIC GARDENS AND LANDSCAPES; D. FAIRCHILD RUGGLES

TAJ MAHAL: THE ARCHITECTURE OF LOVE

TAJ MAHAL (CROWN OF THE PALACE)

AN IVORY-WHITE MARBLE MAUSOLEUM

LOCATION: SOUTH BANK OF THE YAMUNA RIVER IN THE CITY OF AGRA, INDIA

COMMISSIONED BY: THE MUGHAL EMPEROR, SHAH JAHAN (REIGNED 16281658)

INSPIRATION: TO HOUSE THE TOMB OF HIS FAVOURITE WIFE, MUMTAZ MAHAL

DATE CONSTRUCTED: 1632-1653

COURT ARCHITECT: USTAD AHMAD LAHAURI.

THE TOMB IS THE CENTREPIECE OF A 17-HECTARE (42-ACRE) COMPLEX, WHICH INCLUDES

A MOSQUE AND A GUEST HOUSE, AND IS SET IN FORMAL GARDENS BOUNDED ON THREE SIDES
BY A CRENELLATED WALL.

THE TAJ MAHAL COMPLEX IS BELIEVED TO HAVE BEEN COMPLETED IN ITS ENTIRETY IN 1653 AT A
COST ESTIMATED AT THE TIME TO BE AROUND 32 MILLION RUPEES, WHICH IN 2015 WOULD BE
APPROXIMATELY 52.8 BILLION RUPEES (US$827 MILLION).
"THE TEAR-DROP ON THE CHEEK OF TIME" -RABINDRANATH TAGORE

INSPIRATION
THE TAJ MAHAL WAS COMMISSIONED BY SHAH JAHAN IN 1631, TO BE BUILT IN THE MEMORY OF
HIS WIFE MUMTAZ MAHAL, A PERSIAN PRINCESS WHO DIED GIVING BIRTH TO THEIR 14TH CHILD, GAUHARA
BEGUM. THE IMPERIAL COURT DOCUMENTING SHAH JAHAN'S GRIEF AFTER THE DEATH OF MUMTAZ
MAHAL ILLUSTRATE THE LOVE STORY HELD AS THE INSPIRATION FOR TAJ MAHAL. THE PRINCIPAL
MAUSOLEUM WAS COMPLETED IN 1643 AND THE SURROUNDING BUILDINGS AND GARDEN WERE FINISHED
ABOUT FIVE YEARS LATER.

ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN

THE TAJ MAHAL INCORPORATES AND EXPANDS ON DESIGN TRADITIONS OF PERSIAN AND
EARLIER MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE. WHILE EARLIER MUGHAL BUILDINGS WERE PRIMARILY CONSTRUCTED
OF RED SANDSTONE, SHAH JAHAN PROMOTED THE USE OF WHITE MARBLE INLAID WITH SEMI-PRECIOUS
STONES.

CHARBAGH - THE TAJ GARDEN

WALKWAYS BESIDE REFLECTING POOL

IN ISLAMIC STYLE OF ARCHITECTURE, THE GARDEN IS NOT JUST ANOTHER FEATURE BUT HAS A
WELL-DEFINED MEANING AND IT SYMBOLIZES THE SPIRITUALITY. ACCORDING TO THE HOLY KORAN, A
GARDEN IS SYMBOLIC OF PARADISE. IN ISLAM, IT IS BELIEVED THAT THERE ARE FOUR RIVERS IN
PARADISE, ONE OF WATER, OTHER OF MILK, THE THIRD OF WINE, AND FOURTH OF HONEY. FROM THIS
CONCEPT THE CHARBAGH STYLE OF GARDEN PLANNING TOOK ROOT.
ON ENTERING THE TAJ GATEWAY, YOU CAN VIEW A SPRAWLING GARDEN IN FRONT OF YOU
GOING ALL THE WAY UP TO THE PLINTH OF THE TAJ. THE TAJ GARDEN COVERS MOST PART OF THE TAJ
COMPLEX IN AGRA. OUT OF A TOTAL AREA OF 580 M BY 300 M, THE TAJ GARDEN ALONE COVERS 300 M
BY 300 M.
AFTER THE COMPLETION OF TAJ MAHAL THE FOUR REGIONS OF THE GARDEN WITHIN THE
CHARBAGH WAS DIVIDED INTO 16 FLOWERBEDS, MAKING A TOTAL OF 64. IT IS SAID THAT EACH
FLOWERBED WAS PLANTED WITH 400 PLANTS. TREES WERE PLANTED CAREFULLY IN ACCORDANCE WITH
THE SYMMETRY OF THE OVERALL PLAN. THE TREES, WHICH WERE GENERALLY PREFERRED, WERE EITHER
CYPRESS (CUPRUSSUS) (SIGNIFYING DEATH) OR DIFFERENT FRUIT BEARING TREES (SIGNIFYING LIFE).
THESE TREES WERE HOME TO MANY BIRDS, WHICH MIGRATED FROM DISTANT PLACES TO ENHANCE THE
LIVELINESS OF THE TAJ MAHAL. THE WATER CHANNELS WERE FILLED WITH COLORFUL FISHES.
NATURE & SYMBOLS
THE 300 BY 300 METER TAJ MAHAL GARDENS IS BASED ON GEOMETRIC ARRANGEMENTS
FOUND IN NATURE AND COMBINES FLOWERS, FRUITS, BIRDS, LEAVES, SYMMETRY, AND SUBTLETY
PORTRAYING BOTH SYMBOLIC AND ABSTRACT ELEMENTS OF PARADISE AND ISLAMIC BELIEF. IN FACT,
THE SYMBOLISM PORTRAYED BY THE GARDEN AND ITS GEOMETRY CAN EVEN BE FOUND IN ISLAMIC
TEXTS. THE FOUR RIVERS OF PARADISE DEPICTED WITHIN THE GARDEN ARE WATER, MILK, HONEY AND
WINE.
A MAGNIFICENT RAISED MARBLE LOTUS-TANK CONTAINS A STUNNING REFLECTING POOL. WITHIN
ITS MIRROR LIKE WATERS CAN BE SEEN THE SPARKLING WHITE IMAGE OF THE MAUSOLEUM IN ALL ITS
GRACE AND BEAUTY. ONE COULD SPEND AN ENTIRE DAY WATCHING THE COLORS CHANGE IN THE
REFLECTING POOL AS THE SUN RISES AND SETS WHILE LOSING ONESELF IN THE MUSICAL CHATTER OF
THE PARAKEETS AND MONKEYS.

LANDSCAPE DETAILS
THE DETAIL OF THE TAJ MAHAL GARDENS IS INCREDIBLE, AND THE OVERALL SYMMETRY AND
HARMONY ARE ASTOUNDING. THE WELL MAINTAINED GARDEN IS DIVIDED INTO FOUR MAIN PARTS WITH
TWO MARBLE CANALS FORMING THE CENTRAL BOUNDARIES. THE SYMBOLISM OF THIS ARRANGEMENT IS
UNMISTAKABLE AS FOUR IS THE HOLIEST NUMBER IN ISLAM.
WITHIN EACH QUARTER OF THE GARDEN ARE PLANTED 16 COLORFUL FLOWER BEDS EACH
CONTAINING 400 INDIVIDUAL PLANTS. THE FLOWER BEDS ARE FURTHER DIVIDED BY RAISED STONE
PATHWAYS PLACED FOR THEIR SYMBOLIC MEANING.
EVERYTHING ABOUT THE TAJ MAHAL GARDENS IS SPECTACULAR. EVEN THE TWO TYPES OF
TREES FOUND WITHIN THE GARDEN ARE SYMBOLIC. THE NOBLE CYPRUS TREES IN THE GARDEN SIGNIFY
DEATH, WHILE THE VARIOUS FRUIT BEARING TREES SIGNIFY LIFE, WITH EACH INDIVIDUAL GROUPING OF
TREES ARRANGED IN SUBTLE SYMBOLIC PATTERNS.

WATERWORKS
WATER FOR THE TAJ COMPLEX WAS PROVIDED THROUGH A COMPLEX INFRASTRUCTURE. IT WAS
FIRST DRAWN FROM THE RIVER BY A SERIES OF PURS - AN ANIMAL-POWERED ROPE AND BUCKET
MECHANISM. THE WATER THEN FLOWED ALONG AN ARCHED AQUEDUCT INTO A LARGE STORAGE TANK,
WHERE, BY THIRTEEN ADDITIONAL PURS, IT WAS RAISED TO LARGE DISTRIBUTION CISTERN ABOVE THE
TAJ GROUND LEVEL LOCATED TO THE WEST OF THE COMPLEX'S WALL. FROM HERE WATER PASSED INTO
THREE SUBSIDIARY TANKS AND WAS THEN PIPED TO THE COMPLEX. THE HEAD OF
PRESSUREGENERATED BY THE HEIGHT OF THE TANKS (9.5M) WAS SUFFICIENT TO SUPPLY THE
FOUNTAINS AND IRRIGATE THE GARDENS. A 0.25 METRE DIAMETER EARTHENWARE PIPE LIES
1.8 METRES BELOW THE SURFACE, IN LINE WITH THE MAIN WALKWAY WHICH FILLS THE MAIN POOLS OF
THE COMPLEX. SOME OF THE EARTHENWARE PIPES WERE REPLACED IN 1903 WITH CAST IRON. THE
FOUNTAIN PIPES WERE NOT CONNECTED DIRECTLY TO THE FOUNTAIN HEADS, INSTEAD A COPPER POT
WAS PROVIDED UNDER EACH FOUNTAIN HEAD: WATER FILLED THE POTS ENSURING AN EQUAL PRESSURE
TO EACH FOUNTAIN. THE PURS NO LONGER REMAIN, BUT THE OTHER PARTS OF THE INFRASTRUCTURE
HAVE SURVIVED WITH THE ARCHES OF THE AQUEDUCT NOW USED TO ACCOMMODATE OFFICES FOR
THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA'S HORTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT.

STYLE: PERSIAN
DIVIDED INTO: FOUR PARTS
CANALS: TWO (CROSSING IN THE CENTRE)
FLOWERBEDS: SIXTEEN
TREES: CYPRUS & FRUIT BEARING

THE GARDEN THAT STARTS FROM THE END OF THE MAIN GATEWAY AND ENDS NEAR THE SQUARED
BASE OF THE MAUSOLEUM IS AN INTEGRAL PART OF THE TAJ MAHAL STRUCTURE AND IS, UNDENIABLY,
ONE OF THE MAJOR HIGHLIGHTS OF THE VISIT FOR MANY. THE GARDEN THAT BEAUTIFIES TAJ COMES
FROM THE PERSIAN TIMURID STYLE OF GARDENS, AND IS BASED ON THE CONCEPT OF PARADISE
GARDEN' AND WAS BROUGHT IN BY BABUR. THIS GARDEN, FILLED WITH FLOWERS, FRUITS, BIRDS,
LEAVES, SYMMETRY, AND DELICACY, SERVED MANY FUNCTIONS ALONG WITH PORTRAYING STRONG
SYMBOLIC OR ABSTRACT MEANINGS ABOUT PARADISE. A PARADISE WHICH, ACCORDING TO ISLAMIC
BELIEFS, CONSISTS OF FOUR RIVERS: ONE OF WATER, ONE OF MILK, ONE OF HONEY, AND ONE OF WINE.
AND IT IS FROM THIS CONCEPT THAT CHAR BAGH OF TAJ MAHAL ORIGINATED. ALSO, THE SYMBOLISM OF
THE GARDEN AND ITS DIVISION ARE NOTED IN THE ISLAMIC TEXTS THAT DESCRIBE PARADISE AS A
GARDEN
FILLED
WITH
ABUNDANT
TREES,
FLOWERS,
AND
PLANTS.
OUT OF THE TOTAL AREA OF 580 METER BY 300 METER OF THE TAJ COMPLEX, THESE GARDENS ALONE
COVER AN AREA OF 300 METER BY 300 METER DISTANCE AND ARE BASED ON GEOMETRIC
ARRANGEMENTS OF NATURE. NO ATTEMPT WAS MADE TO GIVE THEM A "NATURAL" LOOK. ANOTHER
ARCHITECTURAL ATTRIBUTE THAT HAS BEEN FOLLOWED IN THE CASE OF THE ENTIRE MONUMENT,
ESPECIALLY THE GARDENS OF THE TAJ MAHAL OF AGRA, IS THE USAGE OF NUMBER FOUR AND ITS

MULTIPLES. SINCE FOUR IS CONSIDERED THE HOLIEST NUMBER IN ISLAM, ALL THE ARRANGEMENTS OF
CHARBAGH GARDEN OF TAJ MAHAL ARE BASED ON FOUR OR ITS MULTIPLES. THE ENTIRE GARDEN IS
DIVIDED INTO FOUR PARTS, WITH TWO MARBLE CANALS STUDDED WITH FOUNTAINS CROSSING IN THE
CENTER. IN EACH QUARTER PORTION, THERE ARE 16 FLOWERBEDS THAT HAVE BEEN DIVIDED BY STONEPAVED RAISED PATHWAYS. IT IS SAID THAT EVEN EACH OF THE FLOWERBED WAS PLANTED WITH 400
PLANTS.
THE TREES OF THE TAJ GARDEN ARE EITHER THAT OF CYPRUS (SIGNIFYING DEATH) OR OF THE FRUIT
BEARING TYPE (SIGNIFYING LIFE) AND EVEN THEY ARE ARRANGED IN A SYMMETRICAL PATTERN. TAJ
MAHAL OCCUPIES THE NORTH-END CORNER OF THE GARDEN, INSTEAD OF BEING IN THE CENTER. IN FACT,
AT THE CENTER OF THE GARDEN, BETWEEN THE TAJ AND ITS GATEWAY, IS A RAISED MARBLE LOTUSTANK WITH A CUSPED BORDER, WHICH REFLECTS THE TAJ IN ITS WATERS. THE FOUR WALKWAYS THAT
ARE ALTHOUGH IDENTICAL ARE DIFFERENTIATED THROUGH THEIR CONTEXT. IN FACT, THE SYMMETRY
WITH WHICH THE WHOLE GARDEN HAS BEEN ORGANIZED AND LAID OUT, CAN BE CLEARLY OBSERVED AND
EXPERIENCED AS ONE CAN GET AN UNHINDERED VIEW OF THE MAUSOLEUM FROM ANY SPOT. THESE
AESTHETICALLY MAINTAINED GARDENS NOT ONLY BRING A NATURAL SENSE TO THE PROCEEDINGS, BUT
ALSO MAKE FOR SOME GREAT SNAP TAKING SPOTS.
MOST MUGHAL CHARBAGHS ARE RECTANGULAR WITH A TOMB OR PAVILION IN THE CENTRE. THE TAJ
MAHAL GARDEN IS UNUSUAL IN THAT THE MAIN ELEMENT, THE TOMB, IS LOCATED AT THE END OF THE
GARDEN. WITH THE DISCOVERY OF MAHTAB BAGH OR "MOONLIGHT GARDEN" ON THE OTHER SIDE OF THE
YAMUNA, THE INTERPRETATION OF THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA IS THAT THE YAMUNA RIVER
ITSELF WAS INCORPORATED INTO THE GARDEN'S DESIGN AND WAS MEANT TO BE SEEN AS ONE OF THE
RIVERS OF PARADISE. SIMILARITIES IN LAYOUT AND ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES WITH THE SHALIMAR
GARDENS SUGGESTS BOTH GARDENS MAY HAVE BEEN DESIGNED BY THE SAME ARCHITECT, ALI
MARDAN. EARLY ACCOUNTS OF THE GARDEN DESCRIBE ITS PROFUSION OF VEGETATION, INCLUDING
ABUNDANT ROSES, DAFFODILS, AND FRUIT TREES. AS THE MUGHAL EMPIRE DECLINED, THE TAJ MAHAL
AND ITS GARDENS ALSO DECLINED. BY THE END OF THE 19TH CENTURY, THE BRITISH
EMPIRE CONTROLLED MORE THAN THREE-FIFTHS OF INDIA, AND ASSUMED MANAGEMENT OF THE TAJ
MAHAL. THEY CHANGED THE LANDSCAPING TO THEIR LIKING WHICH MORE CLOSELY RESEMBLED THE
FORMAL LAWNS OF LONDON.
THE ORIGINAL PLANTING OF THE GARDEN IS ONE OF THE TAJ MAHAL'S REMAINING MYSTERIES. THE
CONTEMPORARY ACCOUNTS MOSTLY DEAL JUST WITH THE ARCHITECTURE AND ONLY MENTION 'VARIOUS
KINDS OF FRUIT-BEARING TREES AND RARE AROMATIC HERBS' IN RELATION TO THE
GARDEN. CYPRESS TREES ARE ALMOST CERTAINLY TO HAVE BEEN PLANTED BEING POPULAR SIMILES
IN PERSIAN POETRY FOR THE SLENDER ELEGANT STATURE OF THE BELOVED. BY THE END OF THE 18TH
CENTURY, THOMAS TWINING NOTED ORANGE TREES AND A LARGE PLAN OF THE COMPLEX SUGGESTS
BEDS OF VARIOUS OTHER FRUITS SUCH AS PINEAPPLES, POMEGRANATES, BANANAS, LIMES AND
APPLES.

MOONLIGHT GARDEN (MAHTAB BAGH)

18TH CENTURY VIEW OF THE TAJ MAHAL COMPLEX WITH THE MOONLIGHT GARDEN SHOWN AT THE TOP OF
THE PAGE.
TO THE NORTH OF THE TAJ MAHAL COMPLEX, ACROSS THE RIVER IS ANOTHER CHARBAGH
GARDEN, MAHTAB BAGH. IT WAS DESIGNED AS AN INTEGRAL PART OF THE COMPLEX IN THE RIVERFRONT
TERRACE PATTERN SEEN ELSEWHERE IN AGRA. ITS WIDTH IS IDENTICAL TO THAT OF THE REST OF THE
TAJ. THE GARDEN HISTORIAN ELIZABETH MOYNIHAN SUGGESTS THE LARGE OCTAGONAL POOL IN THE
CENTRE OF THE TERRACE WOULD REFLECT THE IMAGE OF THE MAUSOLEUM AND THUS THE GARDEN
WOULD PROVIDE A SETTING TO VIEW THE TAJ MAHAL. THE GARDEN HAS BEEN BESET BY FLOODING
FROM THE RIVER SINCE MUGHAL TIMES. AS A RESULT, THE CONDITION OF THE REMAINING STRUCTURES
IS QUITE RUINOUS. FOUR SANDSTONE TOWERS MARKED THE CORNERS OF THE GARDEN, ONLY THE
SOUTH-EASTWARD ONE REMAINS. THE FOUNDATIONS OF TWO STRUCTURES REMAIN IMMEDIATELY
NORTH AND SOUTH OF THE LARGE POOL WHICH WAS PROBABLY GARDEN PAVILIONS. FROM THE
NORTHERN STRUCTURE A STEPPED WATERFALL WOULD HAVE FED THE POOL. THE GARDEN TO THE NORTH
HAS THE TYPICAL SQUARE, CROSS-AXIAL PLAN WITH A SQUARE POOL IN ITS CENTRE. TO THE WEST AN
AQUEDUCT FED THE GARDEN.

THE TAJ MAHAL'S GARDENS ALIGN WITH THE SUN

FOUR CORNERS OF INDIAN COMPLEX WERE BUILT IN LINE WITH THE WINTER AND SUMMER
SOLSTICES
o
o

DURING THE SUMMER SOLSTICE THE SUN RISES AND SETS AT THE NORTH CORNERS
THE WINTER SOLSTICE SEES THE SUN ALIGN WITH THE CORNERS IN THE SOUTH
-THIS IS IF YOU STOOD IN THE CENTRE OF THE WALKWAY WHERE THE PATHS MEET

THE PRINCIPLES OF SHAH JAHANI ARCHITECTURE

1. GEOMETRICAL PLANNING.
2. SYMMETRY. FAVORED IN PARTICULAR IS BILATERAL SYMMETRY, FOR WHICH WE EVEN HAVE A TERM IN
CONTEMPORARY DESCRIPTIONS OF BUILDINGS, NAMELY, QARONA, AN ARABIC WORD THAT EXPRESSES
THE NOTION OF PAIRING AND COUNTERPARTS BUT ALSO OF INTEGRATION, THUS FITTING CONCEPTUALLY
INTO THE IDEAS OF UNIVERSAL HARMONY THAT PLAYED A GREAT ROLE IN THE IMPERIAL IDEOLOGY OF
SHAH JAHAN. IN A TYPICAL SHAHJAHANI QARONA SCHEME, TWO SYMMETRICAL FEATURES, ONE
MIRRORING THE OTHER, ARE ARRANGED ON BOTH SIDES OF A CENTRAL, DOMINANT FEATURE.
3. HIERARCHY. THIS IS THE OVERRIDING PRINCIPLE, WHICH GOVERNS ALL THE OTHERS.
4. PROPORTIONAL FORMULAS EXPRESSED IN TRIADIC DIVISIONS.
5. UNIFORMITY OF SHAPES, ORDERED BY HIERARCHICAL ACCENTS.
6. SENSUOUS ATTENTION TO DETAIL.
7. SELECTIVE USE OF NATURALISM.
8. SYMBOLISM.