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Curs Materiale PT Constructii PDF
Curs Materiale PT Constructii PDF
BABO R
Basic notions
for building
materials
Ia i 2 0 0 5
691(075.8)
Scientif ic reviewers:
profes s or. Ciprian D ariescu, Ph.D., ass ociate profess or
Dept. of Theoretical Physics
Al.I. Cuza University, of Ia i
F O RE WO R D
material
reac ts
entropic ally
to
the
stimulation
of
t he
bas ic s
not i ons
a b out
physic al
a nd
c h e m ic a l
Autor
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
1.UNITS, MEASURES, & DIMENSIONS
1.1. MEASUREMENTS
1.2. DIMENSIONS, UNITS, AND SYMBOLS
1.3. METRIC SYSTEM vs. "ENGLISH SYSTEM"
1.4. LENGTH
1.5. AREA
1.6. VOLUME
1.7. TIME
1.8. MASS
1.9. FORCE
1.10. W EIGHT
1.11. VELOCITY
1.12. ACCELERATION
1.13. PRESSURE
1.14. DENSITY
..
1.15. TEMPERATURE
..
1.16. ENERGY
..
1.17. HEAT
1.18. CONCENTRATION
1.19. DEFINITIONS TO CHANGE UNITS
..
..
7
7
9
10
10
11
11
12
12
13
13
14
14
14
15
15
.. 1 6
.. 1 6
17
..
.. .....
.
...
.
.
...
..
.. ..
..
.
. .
..
.
..
..
...
..
..
.
CHAPTER II
2.1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
2.2 ATOMIC W EIGHTS AND ATOMIC NUMBERS
...
2.3 FORMULA W EIGHT OR MOLECULAR W EIGHT OR FORMULA
MASS OR MOLAR MASS
..
2.4 ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
...
2.5 LEW IS STRUCTURES OF THE ELEMENTS
..
2.6. IONS AND THEIR FORMATION
...
2.7. IONIC BONDING
...
2.8. COVALENT BONDING
2.9. METALLIC BONDING
...
2.10. VAN DER W AALS BONDS
...
2.11. SIMPLE AND COMPLEX MOLECULES
...
.. 2 0
22
27
.. 2 9
. 33
. 37
38
. 40
.. 4 3
... 4 6
. 49
CHAPTER III
3.1.TRANSFORMATION OF THE AGGREGATION STATES
... ... 5 2
3.2. RECIPROCAL TRANSFORMATION BETW EEN THE SOLID AND
LIQUID STATES
. 54
...
61
63
. 67
..
..
CHAPTER IV
INTERFACE PHENOMENA
4.1. ADSORPTION
4.2. SUPERFICIAL STRESS
4.3. LYOPHILY AND LYOPHOBY
4.4. CAPILLARITY
...
..
... ..
...
..
...
.
68
69
69
71
...
74
76
...
CHAPTER V
DISPERSE SYSTEMS
5.1. DEFININTIONS AND CLASSIFICATIONS
5.2. SSOLUTIONS
...
CHAPTER VI
NOTION OF CHEMICAL KINETICS IN THE FIELD OF BUILDING
MATERIALS
6.1. REACTIONS IN HOMOGENEOUS SYSTEMS
..
.
6.2. TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS ....................................... .. .
6.3. CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
...
.
. .
6.4. REACTIONS IN HETEROGENEOUS SYSTEMS
..
6.5. COLLOIDAL SYSTEMS
...
... .
80
83
84
86
92
CHAPTER VII
94
98
112
116
121
123
140
Bibliography
165
CHAPTER I
1.UNITS, MEASURES, & DIMENSIONS
1.1. MEASUREMENTS
Measurement is the most useful form of description in
science. Often the most useful measurements are those that have a
number and a unit, such as 12.7 inches.' Here '12.7' is the number
and 'inches' is the unit. This unit of inches in the example is one of
the common units in the dimension of length. A number, then, is an
expression in numerals. A unit is a recognized way to divide the
essence of a dimension for measurement, and a dimension is a
measurable physical idea. Here is a bit of advice you can overlook
only at your peril: To become fluent in the subject we should
memorize the basic background of information. The following units,
dimensions, and measures are so basic to the study of Chemistry.
1 .2 .
DIMENSION
SYMBOL
LENGTH
S, l, d, r
AREA
VOLUME
TIME
V
t
MASS
FORCE (weight)
VELOCITY
ACCELERATION
PRESSURE
DENSITY
TEMPERATURE
ENERGY
F, Fw
v
a
P
D
T
E
HEAT
CONCENTRATION C**
METRIC
UNITS
SYMBOL
ENGLISH
UNITS
meter (+m.p.)
m
Ft, in,Yd, mi, etc.
sq.meter,
2
sq.Ft, etc., acre
m
etc,hectare
cu.meter, etc., liter m3, L
cu.Ft,cu.in,etc.,gal,Floz.
sec (+m.p.) sec,min,hr,day, yr,etc.(both metric & English)
Kilogram
(+
kg
(slug, rarely used)
m.p.), AMU
Newton (+ m.p.) N
Pound , Oz, etc.
meter/sec,KPH,etc m/sec
Ft/sec, MPH, etc.
meter/sec.sq., etc. m/sec2.
Ft/sec sq., etc.
N/sq.m, atm.,Pa atm,Pa*
N/sq.in (PSI), inHg, etc.
g/cc, Kg/liter, etc. g/cc
g/cu.Ft, Kg/gal, etc.
Celsius or Kelvin C
Fahrenheit or Rankine
Joule (+ m.p.)
J
foot-pound
BTU (British Thermal
calorie (+ m.p.)
cal
Unit)
gram/L,
mol/L,
M
(g/gal or mol/cu.ft,
Molar
per
hour,
MPH=miles
per
hour,
h e r e ."
The table above lists almost all the dimensions you will need
in this course, the symbol for each dimension as it will be used in
common formulas, and the units of each dimension. Notice
Chemtutor has two systems of measurement displayed that you
should know. There are really two commonly used metric
subsystems. Most chemistry texts will use the MKS system (meter,
kilogram, second) rather than the less-used CGS (centimeter, gram,
second) system. A system is defined by its basic measure of
distance, mass, and time.W e will use the MKS system, also called
the S.I., or International System. The symbol for only the basic unit
of each dimension in the metric system is on the list.
1.3. METRIC SYSTEM vs. "ENGLISH SYSTEM"
The metric system typically uses only one root word for any
basic dimension such as for length, the meter. All the metric units of
length use the root word 'meter' with the metric prefixes . United
States s system is not really a system, but is a thrown-together
mess of measurements with no overriding order. Chemtutor, as
does most of the United States, calls this group of measurements
the English system. You will want to know how to relate the
English System to the metric system. Particularly notice the large
number of units of length in the English system. This is only a small
number of the common ones. There are many little-used English
length units such as the barleycorn (one third of an inch) that may
be picturesque, but are not used today. Notice that we define the
11
1.6. VOLUME
Volume is length multiplied by length multiplied by length.
You may have heard that volume is length times height times width,
but it means the same thing. You may think of a volume as the
space inside a rectangular (block-shaped) fish tank. Volume is the
measure of an amount of space in three dimensions. Because
volume is such a common type of measurement, it is unique in that
it has two types of commonly used root word in both metric and
English systems. The metric roots are liter and cubic meter. The
English system also uses cubic length and an extensive array of
units that are not in the cubed length format. Again, analagously to
area measurements, a cubic meter is a meter multiplied by a meter
multiplied by a meter, and a cubic foot is a foot by a foot by a foot.
1.7. TIME
Time is also a bit odd in its units. In both systems the units of
less than a second are in the metric style with prefixes before the
second. Time units of more than a year are in a type of metric
configuration because they are in multiples of ten. (Decades,
centuries, millennia, etc.) The dimension of time is messy for good
reason. The more commonly used time units from day to year are all
dependent upon the movement of the earth. The unit of 'month,'
particularly if it is directly related to the moon, is useless as an
accurate unit because it does not come out even in anything.
Having sixty seconds in an hour and twenty-four hours in a day
come about from the ease of producing mechanical clocks.
13
1.10. WEIGHT
W eight is a downward force due to the mass of an object and
the acceleration of gravity. The English system can conveniently
use the idea of weight to measure amount of material because there
is very little difference in the acceleration of gravity over the surface
of the earth. There are certainly other forces besides gravity.
Magnetism produces a force. Electric charge produces a force.
1.11. VELOCITY
Velocity is a complex dimension. The unit of velocity is a
combination of more than one type of basic dimension. A velocity is
a distance per time. The word 'per' here means 'divided by,' and
distance divided by time is not only the definition of velocity, but it is
the easy way to remember the velocity formula, v = d/t. Velocity also
has the name of rate. You might know the same formula as, rate
times time equals distance.
15
17
V=lll
a = d/t2
Q=mc T
V=Al
P = F/A
vt=d
CV=n
F = m a ( Fw = m g)
D = m/V (D =Fw/V)
units,
English
system
definitions,
metric
system
1 cup = 8 Floz.
1 pint = 2 cups
2
1 acre = 43560 ft
PREFIX
SYMBOL
exa
E
peta
P
tera
T
giga
G
mega
M
kilo
k
hecto
h
deka
da
*ROOT WORD ONLY*
deci
d
centi
c
milli
m
micro
nano
n
pico
p
femto
f
atto
a
1 mL. = 1 cc = 1 cm3
1 ngstrom = E-10 m
1 qt. = 2 pints
*1 ft3 = 7.48 gal.
*not an exact def.
19
CHAPTER II
2.1. ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Etymology of "atom"
The word "atom" is derived from the Greek atomos,
"indivisible", from a-, not, and tomos, a cut. Until the 19th century
and the development of the Bohr model,, it was believed that atoms
were tiny, indivisible particles.
An atom is a microscopic structure found in all ordinary
matter around us.
Atoms are composed of 3 types of subatomic particles:
v electrons, which have a negative charge;
v protons, which have a positive charge; and
v neutrons, which have no charge.
Atoms are the fundamental building blocks of chemistry, and
are conserved in chemical reactions. An atom is the smallest
particle differentiable as a certain chemical element; when an atom
of an element is divided, it ceases to be that element. Only 90
elements have been identified as occurring naturally on Earth
although some elements (for example, technetium and californium)
have been identified in supernovae.
Each element is unique by the number of protons in each atom of
that element. Every atom has a number of electrons equal to its
21
through the gold. It was like shooting a rifle into a thin line of trees.
Some of the particles bounced off, some stuck inside, but the major
portion of them passed through the gold foil. Almost all the mass of
an atom is concentrated in the tiny nucleus. The mass of a proton or
neutron 1,6727 x10-24 grams or one AMU, atomic mass unit. The
mass of the neutron is1,675x10-24 grams. The mass of an electron
is 9,108x10-28 grams. This number is a billionth of a billionth of a
billionth of a gram. It is not possible for anyone or any machine that
uses light to actually see a proton using visible light. The
wavelength of light is too large to be able to detect anything that
small.
2.2. ATOMIC WEIGHTS AND ATOMIC NUMBERS
The integer that you find in each box of the Periodic Chart is
23
that of hydrogen
as
FIGURE 2.1.
Schematic illustration of the atomic structures of the first three
elements of the periodic table.
And so the periodic table of the elements is built up. And so the
periodic table of the elements is built up. For reasons which need not
concern us here, a structure of particular stability arises when the
outermost shell contains eight electrons. The order of filling the
various shells is complex and has its origins in the sophisticated
concepts of quantum physics. Suffice it to say that these octets, as
25
th e
th a t i s to
27
29
the more proper formula weight.' Since the unit of formula weight is
grams per mol, it makes good sense to use the formula weight of a
material as a conversion factor between the mass of a material and
the number of mols of the material.
2.4. ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
The electrons move around the nucleus, over a space known
as orbital, and also around their own axis, a movement called spin.
The atoms' electronic shell includes a number of electronic
layers, each one characterized by a "n" main quantum number that
may take values from 1 to n, and defining the energetic level of the
layers, conventionally noted - starting from the nucleus to the
exterior - by K ...
A maxi mum number of 2n electrons may be found in a layer
on
each
electronic layer
there
exist
electronic sublayers,
31
electrons. The spherical shape of the lone orbital in the first energy
level has given it the name s orbital. Helium is the last element in
the first period. Being an inert element, it indicates that that shell is
full. Shell number one has only one s subshell and all s subshells
have only one orbital. Each orbital only has room for two electrons.
So the first shell, called the K shell, has only two electrons.
Beginning with lithium, the electrons do not have room in the
first shell or energy level. Lithium has two electrons in the first shell
and one electron in the next shell. The first shell fills first and the
others more or less in order as the element size increases up the
Periodic Chart, but the sequence is not immediately obvious. The
second energy level has room for eight electrons. The second
energy level has not only an s orbital, but also a p subshell with
three orbitals. The p subshell can contain six electrons. The p
subshell has a shape of three dumbbells at ninety degrees to each
other, each dumbbell shape being one orbital. W ith the s and p
subshells the second shell, the L shell, can hold a total of eight
electrons. You can see this on the periodic chart. Lithium has one
electron in the outside shell, the L shell. Beryllium has two electrons
in the outside shell. The s subshell fills first, so all other electrons
adding to this shell go into the p subshell. Boron has three outside
electrons, carbon has four, nitrogen has five, oxygen has six, and
fluorine has seven. Neon has a full shell of eight electrons in the
outside shell, the L shell, meaning the neon is an inert element, the
end of the period.
Beginning again at sodium with one electron in the outside
33
the shell number. The letter is the orbital type (either s, p, d, or f).
The smaller superscript number is the number of electrons in that
orbital.
The octet rule states that atoms are most stable when they
have a full shell of electrons in the outside electron ring. The first
shell has only two electrons in a single s subshell. Helium has a full
shell, so it is stable, an inert element. Hydrogen, though, has only
one electron. It can lose an electron to become H+, a hydrogen ion
or it can gain an electron to become H-, a hydride ion. All the other
shells have an s and a p subshell, giving them at least eight
electrons on the outside. The s and p subshells often are the only
valence electrons, thus the octet rule is named for the eight s and p
electrons.
35
position. The reasoning behind that is that the electrons really do try
to move as far away from each other as possible.
37
39
FIGURE 2.3
41
FIGURE 2.4.
43
FIGURE 2.5
Schematic 'free-electron' structure for a monovalent metal. In
the absence of an electric field the electrons are in ceaseless
random motion, but the overall distribution remains uniform over any
period of time.
The positive ions are arranged in a space lattice, and the
electrostatic attraction between the positive ions and the negative
free electrons provides the cohesive strength of the metal. The
linkage may thus be regarded as a very special case of covalent
bonding, in which the urge to attain the octet grouping is satisfied by
a generalized donation of the valence electrons to form a cloud
which permeates the crystal lattice, rather than by electron sharing
45
47
FIGURE 2.6
W eak Van der W aals linkage between atoms arising from fluctuating
electronic fields.
The V der W forces are determined by the initial attraction
between the electrons of one molecule's elements and the nuclei of
atoms belonging to a neighboring molecule, being not wholly
compensated by the repulsive forces between electrons and,
respectively, nuclei.
49
contact each other, then decrease with the increase of the distance
between molecules; consequently, the interaction (the resultant of
the repulsion and attraction forces) - as an attraction force attain a
maxi mum when the molecules get closer, then decrease rapidly,
being transformed into repulsive forces, the distance between
molecules corresponding to the "d0" zero resultant characterized the
spatial structure of each substance.
The size of the V der W forces increases with the number
of electrons from the molecules' elements and, respectively, with the
molecular weight.
The V der W forces induce attraction between the
molecules of the real gases, assure cohesion of liquids and of the
crystalline solid state with the molecular networks, determine the
molecular substances' melting point, explain liquids' condensation
and decrease of the solidification points, etc.
2.11. SIMPLE AND COMPLEX MOLECULES
Structure of simple molecules
The most simple molecular structures are the symmetrical and
linear ones: monatomic - the noble gases, diatomic - natural gases ,
triatomic formed by symmetrical covalent links and, respectively
triatomic ones formed by un-symmetrical covalent links (fig. 2.8.)
51
CHAPTER III
3.1.TRANSFORMATION OF THE AGGREGATION STATES
A substance
may
occur
(in nature) in
different
53
equal to the rate between the part from the space available to a gas
and the gas' weight.
The measuring unit for the specific volume is m3 / kg.
In 1885, Le Chatelier formulated the principle of
constraint according to which, exercising of a constraint upon a
system in equilibrium causes its movement, as that the constraint
should be minimum. A system's constraint involves modification of
one of the parameters that assure the equilibrium, when modifying
the aggregation states (temperature, pressure, specific volume).
W hen increasing a substance's temperature, the Kinetic
energy also increases - the amplitude of the particles' motion
increases - , the equilibrium being shifted towards the state
characterised by several possibilities of the particles' motion; the
solid state is shifted to the liquid state (vibration and translation with
higher amplitude than that of solids), while the liquids are
transformed into gases, known as offering the highest liberty of
movement.
Instead on reducing the temperature, the kinetic energy
decreases, which induces transformations in the reverse direction,
namely gas - liquid - solid.
As
state
parameter,
pressure
conditions
the
of
substances
which,
under
normal
55
and
solidification
ar e
accompanied
by
57
increases
with
raising
pressure;
instead,
with
3.3.a Icicles
3.3.b
59
Types of ice
pure ice.
Ice can also form icicles, similar to stalactites in appearance, as
water drips and re-freezes.
61
THE
CRYSTALLISATION S
MECHANISM
FROM
MELTING
Is well known that solidification mode depends on the
speed of cooling and on the chemical nature of the melting. At a
rapid cooling, the substances
solidification is realised in a
amorphous state.
If an liquid solidified by a moderate cooling, without subcooling phenomena, near the solidification s temperature, the
molecular associates from the liquid increase, becomes stable and
form centres of crystallisation or
63
65
may
be
attained
by
dropping
the
67
CHAPTER IV
INTERFACE PHENOMENA
4.1. ADSORPTION
The disequilibrium of forces in which the molecules at the
interface of two substances are found induces different effects in
their structures. Consequently, in the structure of substances with
higher cohesion forces, molecular pressure occurs. At the same
time, the non-equilibrium cohesion forces oriented towards the
interface will attract (towards them) the molecules from substances
with lower cohesion forces, so that the concentration of the
substance is higher than in the rest of the space it occupies.
The physical phenomenon of attraction of a substance's
molecules at the interface with other substance, as a result of the
cohesion
forces
disequilibrium,
is
called
adsorption
or
physiosorption.
Thus, the substance possessing higher cohesion forces,
which therefore causes adsorption, is called adsorbant, while the
substance being attracted at the interface is called adsorbate.
The adsorption's effect decreases quickly, in the
adsorbate's structure, with the increase of the distance at the
interface. The forces performing adsorption are of the Van der
W aals type, so that, with the modification of the physical
parameters, the phenomenon may be reversible.
The phenomenon of the adsorbate's removal off the
69
or
chemisorption
represents
th e
three
aggregation
states
(A),
th e
superficial
stresses
sg = sl + lg cos
The resultant of superficial stresses, in the triple point of
contact, is called force of adhesion to the solid.
= sg ( sl + lg cos )
The degree is called wetting degree and is the
variable parameter in order to obtain the equilibrum which is
expressed by equation bellow. So, for minim , must be satisfied
the following relation:
0, if sg > sl;
180, if sg < sl.
The notion of legophily defines the solid's affinity
towards the liquid (the liquid wets the solid), and it is attained when
the wething angle is below 90.
The notion of lyophoby defines the lack of the solid's
affinity towards the liquid (the liquid does not wet the solid), and it is
71
th e tu b e .
the lyophily
the lyophoby
73
d 2
d =
gh
4
h=
14
dg
where:
d = tubes diameter
= liquids density
g = gravitational acceleration
5. Liquids miscibility
As a result of interfacial surface, the interface of two
liquids behaves as an impermeable membrane for the molecules of
liquids.
Liquids' miscibility expresses the capacity of the
molecules of two liquids of being reciprocally diffused one into
another.
CHAPTER V
DISPERSE SYSTEMS
5.1. Definitions and classification
In nature, substances are usually found in mixtures, thus
forming systems of substances.
Individual substances, defined from a chemical point of
view, forming a system, are called the system's components.
Therefore, the components define the system as to its
chemical composition.
T he
physically
homogeneous
and
distinct
parts,
75
Dimension of the
dispersoide
(m)
< 10-9
10-9 ... 10-7
> 10-7
Type of system
System s name
homogeneous
heterogeneou
solution
colloid
suspension
The
The total
Dimension of
Numbers of
the grain [cm ] cubes obtained surface of the corresponding
grains (m2)
through
disperse
divization
system
-4
1
1
6 x 10
3
-1
6 x 10-3
10
10
M
M
M
suspensions
12
-4
6
10
10
15
-5
6 x 10
10
10
M
M
M
colloids
3
21
-7
6 x 10
10
10
21
-7
solutions
6 x 103
10
10
5.2. Solutions
Solutions represent homogeneous disperse systems in
which the dispersoide is constituted of small molecules, atoms or
ions (< 10-7 cm).
In solutions, the compound constituting the dispersion
medium is called solvent or dissolving agent, while the dispersed
compound is called solute, solvate or dissolved agent.
Dispersion
is
performed
through
th e
solute's
77
Solvent
Solute
Symbol
Name
gas
gas
G-G
gas mixtures
gas
G-L
liquid
L-L
solid
S-L
gas
G-S
(alloys)
liquid
L-S
solid solutions
solid
S-S
liquid
solid
5 .2 .1 .
The
Mechanism
liquid solutions
of
Solid
Substances'
ionic network
molecular network
79
as
saturation
concentration,
while
th e
solution
temperature
CHAPTER VI
Notions of chemical kinetics in the field of building materials
T he
processes
causing
transformations
of
some
81
V=
dc
dt
( 6 .1 .)
where:
83
V1 = k1 [A]a [B]b
85
k1 [ C] c [D] d
k= = a
k 2 [ A] [B] b
( 6 .2 .)
where k = the equilibrium s constant, and the relation
(6.2.) is mathematical expression of the law of weights' action.
The displacement of the chemical equilibrium in
homogeneous systems it is realised taking into account the Le
Chatelier s
principle,
th e
perturbations
factors
being
the
action. The
87
89
Me + CO2;
the action of humidity and a CO2 from air over the lime ;
d) chemical reactions in systems formed from two
91
th e
decreasing
of
th e
solidification
poi nt
is
systems
and
ar e
applicable
in
thermo-technique,
cm.
93
Dispersion
Dispersoi
medium
gas
liquid
L-G
solid
S-G
air sols
gas
G-L
fine foams
liquid
L-L
colloidal emulsions
solid
G-S
sol
gas
G-S
xerogels
liquid
L-S
gels
solid
S-S
alloys
liquid
solid
Symbol
Name
CHAPTER VII
7.1. GENERAL PROPERTIES OF THE BUILDING MATERIALS
analysis
test
95
from
th e
material
to
be
processed,
it
is
called
usually, the tests lab can not reproduce accurately the actions
that the building material will endure in exploitation.
In order to acquire a technical characteristic representative of
97
x=
m
[g/cm3 ; Kg/m3 ;t/m3 ]
Vx
99
where:
m
constant mass
Vx
Real Volume (Vr) standing for the volume of the matter in the
sample (pore-free material)
Pile Volume (Vp) standing for the volume of the pile granular
material including that of
the gaps between granules
real density
apparent density
pile density g
stack density s
The multiplication of the density with the gravitational
acceleration (g) gives the technical characteristic called the specific
weight.
Specific densities and weights, in all shapes and forms,
represent technical characteristics of vital importance in all
temperature of ( 10
with one o of the pans shorter, so that it can permit the hanging,
with the help of a thin thread (of an insignificant volume), of a body
immersed into a bowl filled with liquid.
101
Fig.7.2..b
, it will represent the mass of the volume dislocated from the body
(Vb), hence:
m 1 x g =V c x
Lx
103
burette
mark of
volume
powder
105
Fig.7.5. - Picnometers
The mass (m) and the powder volume (Vp), inserted in the
picnometer, are calculated with the help of the following relations:
m = m3- m1, so
Vr =
One can notice the fact that, for the determination to be performed,
After the weighing (m3), over the powder in the picnometer, is being
inserted liquid (approx. 3/ 4 of the volume) and the disaeration
operation is performed; this operation can be carried on in two
ways:
107
109
V=
m
[cm3 ]
L
Bowl s v olume
111
(dm )
of grain
diameter
high
(m m )
7.1
108
109
3.15
185
186
>31.5
10
234
233
Table 1.
gi).In
ga),
respectively the
the material is inserted into a bowl, through free fall from constant
height of 10 cm (fig. 7.7.a. and b.) till a material cone over the bowl
is obtained.
In order to obtain the clustered status, a prolonging collar is
attached to the bowl (fig. 77. d.), the bowl filled with material being
vibrated (on vibrating table) for 3 minutes.
The same clustering effect is obtained by filling the bowl in three
stages; within each of them the bowl is let to fall freely for 50 times,
from the height of approximately 5 cm, with a bottom on a wooden
table. After the filling, the material excess is removed with the help
of a metallic rule (fig 7.7.c.) and the bowl is being weighed, the
Stand-up culler
concrete etc)
The determination method consists of building a test stack; its
dimensions are weighed and its volume calculated after the
constituent material has been weighed.
113
7.3.1. Compactness
Compactness stands for the proportion in which a material
apparent volume consists of solid material.
C=
Vr
100 = a 100 [%]
Va
7.3.2. Porosity
Total porosity PT represents the proportion in which the
apparent volume of a material is formed of pores.
PT =
Vp
Va Vr
Vr
=
= 1-C (x100) [%]
= 1Va
Va
Va
ms m 1
(x100) [%]
x
L
Va
where:
ms
pL
115
Pi = Pt - Pa
The porosity, especially the apparent porosity, is in opposite relation
with the material
durability; the higher the apparent porosity, the higher the
penetration in the structure of the material of environmental and
chemical agents (gas, liquids) which can cause changes in its
structure or chemical composition.
Vsp
(x100)
Vga
[%]
W here:
Vsp
Vga
7.4. Ganularity
117
according to the size of the net eyes and will allow the smaller
granules to pass.
m0
m1
sieves
elementary sort if the set contains all the sieves indicated by the
standard series;
granular sort if the set contains only some sieves from the
standard series.
The sorts are defined by the size of the sieves between which
Table 2.
Passing (% f rom mass) through siev e (mm)
Material
grav el
0.2
3.15
7.1
12.5
25.28
32.24
48.51
16
31.5
71
60.37
80.66
100
Granularity example
1;
dimension
119
2;
121
123
m, water can
mw m
(x100) [%]
m
where:
mw
In d e x i
temperature
pressure
atmosphere
atmosphere
boiling
atmosphere
atmosphere
20 mmHg
atmosphere
15N/mm2
125
i=1
, the
a1 =
ms1 m Va m s m Va Pa
x
=
=
x
m
Va
Va
m a
where :
Va and a stand for apparent volume, respectively apparent density
for the material test.
In case that, during the test, another reference liquid instead
of water is used, the
liquid absorption (aL
a = aL x
127
water
a
1
= aL x
= L
L
L
L
The permeability index stands for the volume of water which passes
through the area of 1m and the thickness of 1 m of material, for one
hour, at constant water pressure and temperature.
As the permeability index is very difficult to determine and
building materials should be, as a rule, waterproof, this property is
being expressed by the impermeability degree.
The impermeability degree represents the water maximum
pressure in contact with a side of the material test for which in a
period of normalized time, no wet spots show up on the reverse side
of the test.
The practical application of this definition is carried out in a
different way, depending on the material and on the use area of this
one:
129
Rs
(x 100) [%]
R
W here :
Rs
constant mass.
7.6.4. Strength to repeated frost- thaw
m mg
m
(x100) [%]
where:
m
mg
thaw;
thaw.
The relative loss of strength to compression is called
coefficient of dipping at gelivity ( g) and it is calculated by the
relation:
Rm Rg
Rm
131
(x100) [%]
where:
Rm = strength to compression obtained on the basis of witness
tests (kept into water at the temperature of +(+ 20+- 5) C, during the
whole period of frost- thaw cycles).
Rg = strength to compression obtained on the basis of the tests
subjected to the frost and thaw cycles.
In case of granular materials, there is used a sifted test (of a
minimum di mension) and after its subjecting to frost
viscous
deformations
(dipping)
and
total
porosity
133
combustible if they catch fire and still burn when the fire
source has been removed;
= 1 K.
135
L
[K-1 ]
L0
= 1 K.
L
[K-1 ]
L0
=3
137
= 1 K.
QH
W
[
] (2.22)
A mK
2,
through
water
circulation
from
1,
th e
2) ;
139
th e
material
structural
characteristics
(compactness,
th e
por es
characteristics
(closed,
open,
isolated
or
141
F
A
[P ]
143
should define:
L
(X100) [%]
L0
t)the
T
L
and = E
145
smaller
compared
with
the
increase
of
th e
micro-fissure
of
the
structure)
within
th e
total
give the
effort
will
be
higher
Fig.7.16
th a n
th e
real
one.
147
effort is
attained;
the deformation is kept constant(through the blocking of the
devices of the test piece catching), the figure will be a vertical
line (AC) indicating the reduction of the effort till the
equilibrium necessary to the deformation is attained.
The phenomenon of modification of the state of effort at a
constant deformation, respectively of the state of deformation at a
constant effort, as a consequence of the equality of these states
throughout the structure of the material, is called the relaxation of
the material.
The relaxation of a material will increase with the speed of
the variation of the intensity of the exterior force, the trial
temperature being lower and the material a more reological
behavior more viscous.
differences(within
normal
tolerances)
and
149
Fmax
[Pa; N/mm2 ;N/cm2 ;daN/cm2 ]
A0
151
th e
circular
sections,
th e
deformation is equal
153
compression
resistance
represents
th e
bigger
Fmax
A0
[Pa]
155
A0
etc)of
Through the stretch trial through bending, prismatic testpieces are used (figure 7.22.), leaned on two supports at a
determined distance, called opening.
157
Rti =
Rti =
3 Fmax l
[Pa]
2 bh 2
Fmax l
[p a ]
bh 2
where:
Fmax= the maxi mal force recorded during the trial;
l = the opening;
b and h= the width and the height of the transversal section of the
test-piece, in the trial position, determined before the trial.
v The trial method through bending presents the
advantage of the simple form of thetest-piece and the possibility of
using the sepsis for compression. On the ends of theprism, resulting
in the trial version A compression trial can be performed with the
possibility to determine both resistances in the same test-pieces.
In the trial version of stretching through splitting, the test-pieces are
cylindrical, cubical test-pieces and prism tips being used as well.
The test-piece is placed in the compression press through
cartoon stretches; P.F.L. etc (figure 7.23) with the role of regulate
the transmission of the force on the generators. The compression
2 Fmax
[Pa]
A0
where:
Fmax
A0
159
Rt Rti Rtd
their eqivalent being calculated through coefficients experimentally
determined.
7.7.5. Dynamic compression trial
The dynamic compression trial (through shock) is performed in
cubical, cylindrical and prismatic test-pieces, using a pile driver type
device.(figure 7.24).
The mechanical action is realized through the fall of the ram, from
higher and higher heights, on the test-piece, till its cracking.
The behavior of the materials with short duration actions (at
shock) is elastically. The kinetic energy of the falling tup in the
moment of the hit is passed on to the test-piece as elastic
deformation energy, so that in the moment immediately following the
hit, the test-piece takes its initial form passing on in its turn the
energy of the ram which will hit back( it will recoil ).
G i =1
Rs =
V
where:
hi
[Nm/m3 ]
hi
161
GH
[N/mm]
A
where:
G
163
165
Bi b l i o g rap h y
1.
2.
Avram, C, Bob, C.
3.
4.
Bob, C, Vel i ca , P.
5.
Bob, C.
Materiale de construc ii
Editura Institutului Politehnic Timi oara, 1984
6.
Ciobanu, Gh.,
Constantinescu, C.
7.
Materiale de construc ii
Editura Institutului de Construcfii Bucureti, 1981
8.
9.
Ivanov, I.
10.
Mocanu, D. R.
(coordonator)
Chimie anorganica
Editura tehnica - Bucure ti, 1977
Materiale de constructii
Editura didactica si pedagogica - Bucuresti, 1978
ncercarea materialelor
Editura tehnica - Bucure ti, 1982