DUCTILITY OF CONCRETE H. B, H. Roy! and Mete A. Sozen” With discussion by P, R, Barnard, S, Stéckl, Vitelmo Bertero and C. Felippa, and H. E, H. Roy and Mete A. Sozen INTRODUCTION In the application of limit design to reinforced concrete structures, it is essential to know the rotation capacity of the connections, The rotation capacity seldom limits complete moment redistribution in moderately rein- forced members subjected to transverse loads, However, it may prove to be a limitation for overreinforced members or members subjected to combined axial and transverse loads, Usually the rotation capacity of the section is governed by the ductility of the concrete which can be improved with the use of transverse reinforcement, This paper reports and discusses the effect of rectangular ties on the load-deformation characteristics of concrete, ‘The effect of circular ties or spiral (helical) reinforcement has received attention (1, 2, 3, 4)3 because of its common use in columns, In contrast, there has been relatively little work done directly on the effect of rectangular ties (5, 6, 7). Since it is more convenient to use rectangular transverse reinforcement in rectangular members, it is desirable to know the effect of such reinforcement on the strength and ductility of the confined concrete. OUTLINE OF TESTS Tests were carried on 60 axially loaded Sby 5 by 25-in, prisms, Fabrica- tion and instrumentation of the test specimens and the test setup are described in the appendix, The major variables in the experimental program were the spacing of the ties and the amount of longitudinal reinforcement, All specimens were 25-in, long and had 5-in, square cross sections. The volumetric ratio of the transverse reinforcement was kept constant at 0.02 and the target cylinder strength was 3500 psi. Test specimens were cast in sets of four. In each set, one specimen had no reinforcement, The other three had the same distribution of transverse reinforcement but the longitudinal reinforcement varied: one specimenhad no longitudinal reinforcement, one had four No, 2 bars and one had four No, 3 bars (corresponding to reinforcement ratios of 0.8 and 1,8 percent), The T Assoc., John B, Parkin Assocs., Toronto. 2 Prof. of Civ. Engrg., Untv, of Ilinois, Urbana, Ill. 3 Numbers in parentheses refer to corresponding item in the Appendix I, 213214 FLEXURAL MECHANICS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE center-to-center spacing of the ties was varied from 2 to 8 in, in 2-in, increments, The bending resistances of the transverse and longitudinal reinforcement were also involved as secondary variables, The properties of the specimens are given in Table 2. All specimens were loaded to failure under axial compression. Each test took about 30 minutes, BEHAVIOR ‘The primary objective of the investigation was to obtain data on the load-deformation characteristics of concrete as related to the rotation capacity of reinforced concrete connections. Consequently, the emphasis is on response in advanced stages of deformation where the concept of unit strain, a dimensionless quantity with ready convertibility from the control specimen to the structural member of any type under any condition, becomes somewhat strained as explained below in reference to Fig. 1. Three load-deformation curves all measured on a single specimen are shown in Fig, 1, The solid curve 1 represents the over-all deflection divided by the length of the specimen, The two broken curves 2 and 3 refer to unit deformations measured over two contiguous four-in, gage lengths at mid- height. Thus, each curve can be construed as a load vs, strain curve, ‘The three curves coincide up to about 80 percent of the maximum load where curve 3 breaks away from the other two, since spalling of the con- crete is initiated in the area covered by gage 3. As deformations increase deviations between the indications of gages 2 and 3 increase to the point that, toward the end, gage 2 registers a lengthening while gage 3 shows rapid shortening, because destruction of the concrete is limited to the lower part of the specimen, As would be expected, curve 1 represents a crude average between curves 2 and 3, ‘The rotation capacity of a reinforced concrete member is a function of the response of the concrete in the immediate vicinity of the connection, Hence, information pertinent to rotation capacity should come not from the over-all deflection of the test specimen but from the shortening measured in the zone of failure, Fig. 5 of Appendix II contains curves of load vs, unit deformation in the failure zone for all specimens, General features of the test phenomena are described in the following paragraphs. The instrumentation for the tests re- ported here was limited to the measurement of longitudinal deformations. Quantitative information essential for the description of behavior was drawn from data obtained by Szulezynski (6) on similar specimens. The load-deformation curves and visual observations of the reinforced specimens indicated three stages of behavior: Stage 1, where the load- deformation relationship was essentially linear; stage 2, where deformations inereased at an increasing rate until the ultimate load was reached, and stage 3, where the load decreased with increase in deformation, Stage 1.—In this stage which extended up to longitudinal strains of 0.0015, there was nothing to distinguish the reinforced specimen from the plain, other than the stiffening effect of the longitudinal reinforcement. The distribution of longitudinal and transverse strain over the middle three quarters of the specimen, where local deformations were measured, was quite uniform, The ratio of transverse to longitudinal strain varied between 1/8 and 1/6. ThereAxial Lood Ultimate Load-Lood Resisted by Long. Reinf. CONCRETE DUCTILITY oor 002003008 Unit Deformation FIG, 1 Load Resisted by Plain Specimen FIG. 3 215216 FLEXURAL MECHANICS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE was a resultant decrease in volume, The deflections of the ties were hardly perceptible, ‘The first indication of the end of Stage 1 was the formation of extremely fine longitudinal cracks which were visible under magnification, This usually occurred when a stress of about 80 percent of the concrete strength had been reached, Further loading resulted in rapid increase in both the longitudinal and transverse deformations, Stage 2,—The salient visible characteristic of Stage 2was the local flaking of the concrete which became evident as the load approached the maximum, The deformation readings indicated an accelerated rate of deformation and a disruption of uniformity of response along the length of the specimen, The relative increase in the transverse strain rate was greater than that in the longitudinal strain rate, Near maximum load, the transverse strain (expansion) was about half the longitudinal strain (contraction) in the failure zone, Strains measured in the ties indicated axial yielding, Bending of the ties was negligible, It was on the order of 15 percent of the tie diameter and 1 percent of the tie span, at maximum load, Stage 3.—The maximum load was reached at a strain of approximately 0.003. Since the yield strain of the longitudinal reinforcement was less than 0.002, the amount of reinforcement was not expected to have a significant effect on the strain at maximum load, ‘As the deformation was increased beyond the maximum load, conerete started spalling heavily over a length of the specimen usually shorter than its width, The depth of spalled concrete was greater in between the ties, so that the net section resisting the load was considerably smaller than the gross section, Failure was consummated by a sliding motion, restrained by the transverse reinforcement, along inclined planes. Ties fractured in some of the specimens with 2 and 4-in, tie spacings. Photographs of four sets of specimens after failure are shown in Fig, 2. There was no indication of bar buckling until after the concrete was completely crushed or sliding of one part of the specimen with respect to the other was started, ANALYSIS OF TEST RESULTS Strength.—The effect of the confinement provided by the transverse and longitudinal reinforcement can be studied with the help of Table 1 and Fig. 3. The last column of Table 1 lists the ratio of the load carried by the concrete (total load carried less the contribution of the longitudinal reinforcement determined from measured deformations and the pertinent stress-strain curve) in reinforced specimens to the load carried by the companion plain specimen (prism strength). These strength ratios are plotted in Fig. 3 against the tie spacing. The average and maximum values are summarized below. Longitudinal Reinforcement Average Maximum Minimum None 1.01 1.07 0.97 4#2 (Ag = 0.2 sq. in.) 0.97 1.02 0.90 4#3 (Ag = 0.44 sq. in.) 0.96 1.02 0.91TABLE 1,-STRENGTH OF TEST SPECIMENS CONCRETE DUCTILITY 217 Maximum) Maximum [Maximum Not Stross | Priam on 7 irk | Yond”) Not toad | qvot Land/crose Aven) | strongth | Maximum Not stro tp tip ost al miano | 90 90 3600 3560 LoL Atgzaa | 93 80.0 460 oon aizas | 100 saz 3580 0.99 azaa | 80 80 3560 azo 1.07 Azam | O40 | 88a ioo Lez azazs | * . 2 as.azo | 102 102 4080 4200 o.o7 Asaza | i030 | ‘9.7 3000 0.08 Aas | ine? | ont 3850 oot pio | 86 se aso 400 LoL pia | 930 | ea 3390 00 piss | ion | ea giz De nooo | 929 | 938 180 3520 1.06 pao | 98 | a8 3500 100 pea | 0 86.2 3400 oor naao | 95 | 29.5 3500 3680 0.08 pas | oot | ba 3580 ot pao | 0 852 34oo 098 ci.s40 | 90 90 3600 190 1.05 cis | 95 85.8 iso 00 cies | uaa on 2490 Loa c2.si0 | 86 86 siso aso 0.99 |. sho O98 cass | 08 2 2320 0.96 caso | oo | one 2670 3800 oot cao | oot | sy 480 0:90 cases | ld 3580 94 i260 | 985 400 3400 1.00 pizez | 90 2220 0.98 bivees | 105 noo 94 2.200 | 95 400 360 01 pase | 90 iso 095 paca | ore ao 0.99 s.200 | 95 85 s4oo 3400 1.00 pase | 90 80.1 3200 Osa pass | i000 | 825 3500 oot wi.280 | 85 8s 3400 3310 1.01 2s | 80 196 100 85 mass | aon | 108 30e0 oot 2.260 | 95.5 ago sudo 1.00 wees | 90 ; Boo o8 mozss | aie | god ado hor a.ze0 | 90 90 3600 400 1.06 poze | 89 73.9 180 oi99 ozs | 100.90 | ans 3300 ot218 FLEXURAL MECHANICS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE This information indicates that square ties, with or without longitudinal reinforcement, did not enhance the load-carrying capacity of the concrete in the specimens, It appears that the contribution of the longitudinal reinforce- ment (based on coupons from bars used in each specimen) has been slightly overestimated, It is not justifiable to ascribe this to buckling since the strength ratio was about the same for specimens with different tie spacings. The difference between gross and net section, 1.8 percent in the case of No, 3 bars, would make the strength ratio approach unity. A case can be made for an increase in unit strength, if the unit strength of the reinforced specimens is not based on the gross area. For example, if the net section is assumed to be bounded by the center line of the No, 2 ties, in the apparent unit strength would increase by about 10 percent. However, then the specimens reinforced with No. 3 ties wouldbe expected to give perceptibly higher results in terms of the gross strength ratio, and they did not. This was also true for the specimens tested by Szulczynski (6), Rectilinear transverse reinforcement did not improve the strength of the concrete, This conclusion is compatible with the observed action of the ties. The confining force, which did reach the yield capacity of the ties at maximum load, was applied at the corners of the cross section, The bending resistance of the ties was not suf- 006, 004] 003 02 001 Strain ot 50 % of Max. Load Tie Spocing , in FIG. 4 ficient to restrain effectively the expansion of the concrete and, therefore, the disruption of a considerable portion of the cross section, This mechanism has been simulated analytically with the use of a physical analog for concrete in Reference 8, By the time the ties had deflected enough to develop membrane action, the concrete was destroyed. Deformation,—The ties effected a significant improvement in the deforma- tion capacity of the concrete, It should be emphasized that many of the load- deformation curves given in Fig, 5 extended beyond a strain of five percent. A measure of the ductility of the concrete is provided by the magnitude of the strain corresponding to the decay of the concrete resistance of 50 percent of the maximum value, €59. Values of €59 for the specimens without longi- tudinal reinforcement are plotted against the tie spacing in Fig, 4, There was a severe reduction as the tie spacing increased from 2 to 4 in,, but even at a spacing of 6 in, which is greater than the side dimension of the specimen, €59 was about 0,015. There was detected no consistent effect of the longitudinalCONCRETE DUCTILITY 219 reinforcement on the ductility of the concrete, Values of €59 (based on net load) for the specimens with longitudinal reinforcement were on the same order as those plotted in Fig. 4. It is questionable to suggest a generalized stress-strain curve on the basis of the limited data presented here and in Reference 6, However, a rough basis for projecting the information given here tobe used in the analysis of rotation capacity of reinforced concrete members can be obtained by assuming that the stress-strain curve can be represented by two straight lines meeting at the strength of the concrete inthe member at a strain on 0,002, The first line, with the positive slope, starts at the origin and the second straight line goes through the point defined by €59 to meet the strain axis, If it is assumed that the effect of the tie spacing is related to the side dimension (the shorter side in rectangular sections) of the compressed concrete, the data in Fig. 4 can be represented by h € 59 = 0.015 5 The test results in Reference 6 indicate that € 59 may be assumed to vary linearly with the volumetric ratio of the transverse reinforcement. Thus, the expression cS eth 50° 405 would serve to provide a rough estimate of € 59. It should be noted here that, just as in the case of unconfined concrete, it would be an oversimplification to use directly the load-deformation curve obtained from a specimen in axial compression to predict the behavior of concrete in a connection subjected to stress gradients in at least two direc- tions (in the directions of the span and depth of the member) and to the possible restraining effect of the connecting members, CONCLUSIONS Although the load-carrying capacity of the concrete in the axially-loaded specimens was not improved by the use of rectilinear ties, there was a consi- derable increase of its ductility as demonstrated by the load-deformation curves shown in Fig, 5. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The tests reported were carried out inthe Structural Research Laboratory of the University of Illinois Civil Engineering Department in connection with an investigation, sponsored by the Portland Cement Association, of the duc- tility of reinforced concrete connections,220 FLEXURAL MECHANICS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE APPENDIX I.-REFERENCES 1, Richart, F, E., Brandtzaeg, A., and Brown, R. L., “A Study of the Failure of Con~ crete under Combined Compressive Stresses,” Bulletin No. 185, Univ, of Illinois Engrg. Experiment Sta., Urbana, Il1., 1928, 2. Richa E., Brandtzaeg, A., and Brown, R. L., “The Failure of Plain and Spirally Reinforced Columns in Compression,” Bulletin No. 190, Univ. of Illinois Engrg. Ex- periment Sta,, Urbana, Ill., 1929, 3, Richart, F. E., and Brown, R. L., “An Investigation of Reinforced Concrete Col- umns,” Bulletin No, 267, Univ. of Illinois Engrg. Experiment Sta., Urbana, Tll., 1934, 4, Richart, F. E fin, J. O., Olson, T. A., and Heitman, R. H., “The Effect of Eo- centric Loading, Protective Shells, Slenderness Ratios, and Other Variables in Reinforced Concrete Columns,” Bulletin No. 368, Univ. of Illinois Engrg. Experi ment Sta, Urbana, Ill., 1948. 5. Chan, W. W. L., “The Ultimate Strength and Deformation of Plastic Hinges in Rein- forced Concrete Frameworks,” Magazine of Concrete Research, Vol. 7, No. 21, London, England, November, 1955. 6. Szulezynski, Tadeusz, and Sozen, M. A., “Load-Deformation Characteristics of Con- crete Prisms with Rectilinear ‘Transverse Reinforcement,” Structural Research Series No. 224, Univ. of Illinois Civ. Engrg. Studies, Urbana, Ill., September, 1961. 7. Rusch, Hubert, and Stockl, Siegfried, “The :ffect of Stirrups and Compression Rein- forcement on ‘the Flexural Compressive Zone of Reinforced Concrete Beams | in German] ,” Deutscher Ausschuss fiir Kisenbeton, No. 148, Berlin, West Germany, 1963, 75 pp. 8, Roy, H. E, H., and Sozen, M. A., “A Model to Simulate the Response of Concrete to Multi-Axial Loading,” Structural Research Series No. 268, Univ. of Illinois Ci Engrg. Studies, Urbana, Tll., June, 1963. APPENDIX I Fabrication. Concrete,—Marquette brand type III portland cement was used in all speci- mens, The mix proportions were 1:3.6:3.9 and the water/cement ratio was 0.76 (corrected for absorbed water). Aggregates were Wabash River sand and gravel, The maximum size of the gravel was 3/8 in. Both aggregates were oven-dried, Forms,—The forms were made of steel channels and constructed rigidly so as to maintain the dimensions of the test specimens with a tolerance of 1/32 ir Reinforcement.—Both plain No. 2 bars and deformed No. 3 bars were used, A 24-in, coupon from each length of bar used was tested to determine its stress-strain characteristics in tension, Both sizes of bars exhibited a well- defined yield point at about 50,000 psi. While the No, 3 bars developed no in- crease in stress between yield anda strain of about 0.015, No. 2 bars developed a stress on the order to 3000 psi in the same range. The ties were cold-bent to fit snugly into the forms, lapped two in, and welded along the lap, The longitudinal bars were located at the corners of theCONCRETE DUCTILITY TABLE 7,—Al. PROPE! 7 SPECIMENS 221 Mark Transvorso Reinforcoment Long. Reinforcement Concrete Strength Spacing in, Number, Tze # Numbor ~ Siz0 Compressive pai “Tensile psi 1,220 Al,222 AL.223 A2,220 2,222 ‘42.223 A3,220 ‘A3.222 ‘A3.223 B1,240 BL.242 B1.243, 2,240 32,242 1B2.243 B9.240 B3,242, 1B3.243 1,340 1.342 1.343 2.340 02.342 02.343 03.340 3,342 63,343 1.260 D1.262 1.263 2.260 2,262 2.263, 3.260 3.262 3,263, 1.280 1,282 1,283, 2,280 2,282 2.283, 3,280 3,282, 3.283 2 2 2 — 2 2 2 2 3 2 3 3080 2980 3700 3480 3480 3370 3320 3440 3390 3150 8200 3380 3330 3410 3460 320 290 310 350 340 340 360 320 340 310 310 820 820 340222 FLEXURAL MECHANICS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE ties. In specimens without longitudinal bars, the ties were held in place by connecting them to each other with No, 14 gage annealed wires. Additional ties were placed in the ends of the specimens to prevent local failure, Casting and Curing.—All specimens were cast with the long dimension of the specimen in a horizontal position, The conerete was placed using a mechanical hand vibrator. Slump varied from 2,5 to 3 in, A few hours after 1201 80 40 I Series A * of #2 Ties ot 2in. 20] 40] | 20] 0] | 0] aolf—! Series 8 2-#2 Ties at 4in. Total Axial Load, kips o| 80) 40] | #35] | Longitudinot aga, 7 |e 0] Bor Size 40ff—|—] °% Gor 008 0s Goa Gos Unit Deformation in The Failure Zone FIG. 5 casting, the concrete was covered with wet burlap, After 24 hours, the forms were struck and the specimens were stored for 5 days at 100 percent relative humidity and 74°F, They were then placed in the laboratory for one to three days before testing, Control Specimens,—The compressive strength of the concrete was deter- mined using 6 by 12-in, cylinders, The tensile strength was based on splitting tests of 6 by 6-in, cylinders, Each strength value listed in Table Al represents an average of four tests, except those for series Al which refer to three tests,Total Axiol Lood, kips Total Axial Load, kips CONCRETE DUCTILITY 120 us a ‘a fs ae oi i Sais 3-2 Ti 4 ao 4a , 9} 7 i Sales of} SS sS E a = = - Unit Deformation in The Failure Zone 129 Tyne al aes of in | |_+, ° oo 4 q 7 _. «a % ‘001 002 ‘003 004 005, Unit Deformation in The Failure Zone FIG. 5 223224 FLEXURAL MECHANICS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE Instrumentation.—The over-all deflection of the specimen was measured using two 0,001~in, dial gages located on opposite sides, Local deflection over two contiguous 4-in, gage lengths at mid-height were measured using a special assembly attached to the specimens, This device used eight 0.001-in, dial gages, one on each gage length on each face of the specimen, If failure occurred outside the two 4-in, gage lengths, the deformation in the failure zone was obtained by subtracting from the over-all deflection the deflection of the intact portion of the specimen, Test Procedure,—Tests were conducted in a 300,000-Ib capacity screw- type testing machine, The specimen was positioned in the machine to insure that, after seating, the top surface of the specimen was parallel to the loading head of the machine which could not rotate. A load of about 10 Ib was applied before initial readings. The load was increased and decreased (after the maximum) in 10,000-Ib steps, The test was discontinued when the load was reduced to about ten percent of the maximum or if a tie fractured, DISCUSSION P. R. BARNARD,4—The writer should like to commend the authors on the conciseness and lucidity of the paper which they have written, It is a pleasure to read a paper that is so direct and to the point. Furthermore, the writer believes that the subject is very important for the future of ultimate load design since, without a knowledge of the basic load-deformation properties of plain and reinforced concrete, it would be impossible to understand fully the be- havior of structures loaded to failure. The paper confirms that concrete is a “ductile” material in that it can undergo large compressive strains, but, contrary to the behavior of steel, increasing strain beyond maximum stress is accompained by a decrease in stress, For too many years, researchers have believed that conerete lacked this property and the assumption that concrete ruptures at comparatively low strains has been one of the main stumbling blocks to the development of a rational untimate load design method for indeterminate structures, When tested axially in a suitably stiff testing machine, a conerete specimen can withstand strains in the order of 10 to 20 times the strain at maximum load and it has been shown that continuous beams can undergo strains of a similar magnitude,” However, the behavior of concrete at these large strains is very complex and there are several aspects that merit further research, One of these is brought out very clearly in Fig, 1. The failure of specimens where the length 4 Head, Research and Development Dept., Reicher, Bradstock and Assocs. Ltd., ‘Toronto. 5 Nylander, N., and Sahlin, S., “Investigation of Continuous Concrete Beams at Far Advanced Compressive Strains in Concrete,” Betog, Vol. 40, No, 3, 1955 (In Swedish), Cement and Concrete Assn. Library ‘Translation No, 66, London, England, 34 pp.CONCRETE DUCTILITY 225 is, say, more than twice the least lateral dimension is localized within the specimen length, When the load resistance of the specimen is decreasing along the falling branch of the stress-strain (or load-deformation) curve, the major amount of the deformation occurs in one region of the specimen and as the test progresses further down the falling branch, this region soon con- tributes the total deformation of the specimen. Other areas of the specimen may actually begin to decrease in strain; or in other words, to lengthen. It is possible that this could result in an unstable situation since parts of the specimen may unload into the failing region causing a sudden decrease in load resistance, or breakthrough, to a new equilibrium position on the load- deformation relationship. The actual behavior obviously depends onthe energy balance within the specimen where all portions are decreasing in load but where one is increasing in deformation while the areas either side of it are decreasing in deformation. This is analogous to the situation in which the system made up of the specimen and the testing machine can become unstable causing the sudden destruction of the specimen through an energy release from the testing machine while load is falling off.6,7 Have the authors observed this lengthening of parts of the specimen, and has this behavior ever resulted in a sudden decrease inthe load resistance of the specimen? As the writer has mentioned elsewhere,8 this energy release from one partof the specimen into another may bethe only possible source of a disruptive failure of a concrete specimen while it is on the falling branch of its load-deformation relationship, The writer has never heard of such a failure occurring and suspects that itis of minor importance when considering the behavior of compression zones in reinforced concrete beams, 8, STOCKL.9—The authors have reported on tests of concentrically loaded columns having across section 5 by 5 by 25 in. Some of the specimens were of plain conerete, others were reinforced with either stirrups only or stirrups and longitudinal reinforcement, The major aim of these tests was to investi- gate the effect of reinforcement onthe strength and deformation properties of concrete. In Fig. 6, the circles inthe graph represent the ratio of maximum concrete stress of reinforced to unreinforced columns as found in this investigation, These values vary between 0.9 and 1.1, approximately. As an average, there is no systematic deviation from a value of 1.0, ‘This finding is contrary to various other test reports which treated similar problems. E.g., Heft 148 of the “Schriftenreihe des Deutschen Ausschusses filr StahIbeton” describes tests on the effect of stirrups and longitudinal reinforcement onthe properties of the compression zone of reinforced concrete beams. They indicated a systematic increase of strength due to the restraint, If one assumes that the results as gained from eccentrically compressed prisms can be applied to the behavior of concentrically loaded columns, then 6 Thompson, J. M. T., “Instability of Elastic Structures and Their Loading Devices,” Journal, Mechanical Engrg. Science, Vol. 3, No. 2, 1961, pp. 153-62, Turner, P, W., and Barnard, P, R., “Stiff Constant Strain - Rate Testing Machine,” The Engineer, Vol. 214, No, 5557, London, England, July, 27, 1962, pp. 146-8. Barnard, P. R., “Researches into the Complete Stress-Strain Curve for Concrete,” Magazine of Concrete Research (to be published), Dipl. Ing., Research Engr., Materialprdfungsamt fr das Bauwesen der Techni- schen Hoschule Munchen, Germany.226 FLEXURAL MECHANICS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE ratios as given by the curve drawn on Fig. 3 (given here as Fig, 6) can be expected, Thus, the tests of Roy and Sozen should give, e.g., for a distance of stirrups of 2 in, an inerease in strength of approx. 16%. The question arises, if the results as reported in Heft 148 can be at least approx. applied to concentrically loaded prisms. This question has been answered by comparing the present results to results from another investiga- tion carried’out in Munich, The report about this investigation will be published in the near future, Inthis case prisms 15 by 15 by 60 em having stirrups 6 mm in diameter ata distance of 7,5 cm and a longitudinal reinforcement of 4 14 mm bars, were concentrically loaded, In comparison to Heft 148 the following re- sults were gained: ratio of strength of restrained concrete strength of plain concrete computed according to Heft 148 mean value from 9 tests of the DAfStb for eccentrically for concentrically loaded loaded prisms prisms 1,09 1.10 Thus, the values computed according to Heft 148 were confirmed by these test results, & To 2 ° Load Resisted by Plain Specimen Ultimate Load-Lood Resisted by Long. Reinf. rr Tie Spacing, in FIG. 6 Of course, it is difficult to state with some degree of certainty, based upon the given information, the reasons why the tests carried out by Roy and Sozen did not show any appreciable increase of strength of the concrete restrained by reinforcement, Most of the significant test conditions were similar in both investigations (welded stirrups, similar casting procedures, similar curing conditions), In the following, some possibilities are given which may have led to differences in test results: 1, The increasing strength due to the restraining actionof stirrups placed in comparatively large distances may be less effective for long time tests thanCONCRETE DUCTILITY 227 it is for tests carried out rather quickly. Roy and Sozen do not indicate the duration of their tests, However, it is unlikely that it deviated considerably from the Munich tests (20-40 min), 2, In several test series Roy and Sozen increased the percentage of stirrup reinforcement by placing 2 to 4 stirrups on top of each other, It is possible that by this procedure local disturbances in the conerete have been caused. Actually it is unlikely that such an experienced institution did not follow up this question, 3, In the tests of Roy and Sozen the stirrups were placed immediately at the surface of the prisms, however the Munich tests had a concrete cover of 0,5 cm, A conerete cover which is not present can not fall off. However this difference, if it is of any significance, would rather lead to higher strengths in the Roy and Sozen tests compared to the Munich tests. 4, In order to conclusively judge the portion of the load carried by the longitudinal reinforcement, special measures have to be taken in order to guarantee equal strains inthe concrete and inthe steel. The report by Roy and Sozen does not give any detailed information on this question, However, this problem is important only for some ofthe tests, The results as obtained from the columns, which had only stirrups reinforcement, of course, will not be affected by a somewhat uncertain portion of the load carried by the longitudinal reinforcement, It would be most desirable to clarify the causes of these differences in test results, The discussion presented herewith may serve as some basis, VITELMO V, BERTERO,10 AND C, FELIPPA.11—The authors should be congratulated for their valuable contribution toward the solution of the impor- tant problem of predicting the moment resistance and rotation capacity of reinforced conerete members where the concrete is confined by closely spaced ties, Because of its application to their current study on the effect of compressive and transverse reinforcement on the moment-rotation relationship of rein- forced concrete elements, the data in this paper has been of considerable interest to the writers, The following presentation is intended to add data and to comment on some of the paper’s points which the writers have encoun- tered in their own observations and analysis. Economy in design dictates that structures which must resist dynamic loadings must be designed for energy absorption capacity rather than strength. In this type of structure the improvement of ductility is of paramount impor- tance, It is not only important to insure complete moment redistribution but to have a structure which will be capable of deflecting as much as possible under the maximum load it can carry, In their introductory remarks the authors have correctly stated that usually the rotation capacity of the section is governed by the ductility of the concrete, which can be improved through transverse reinforcement, The writers would like to go even further to state that proper use of transverse and compressive reinforcement can improve rotation capacity of reinforced concrete members to the point that it will be controlled by the 10 Assoc, Prof. of Civ. 11 Graduate Student of grg., Univ. of California, Berkeley, Calif. IM, Univ. of California, Berkeley, Calif.228 FLEXURAL MECHANICS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE we ESOT T 7 3 COMPRESSION aAns| ans" TIES @ 2 ue" = 2 No.3 COMPRESSION BARS. sf tao} 120} 19} 40] 20} 9002 0.004 0006 0008 0010 012 0014 G016 G0I6 0020 d022 024 0026 0028 0030 maximuu AveRAGE cunvatune p (iA) « MAXIMUM MEASURED ROTATION (840) FIG. 7.-MOMENT-CURVATURE DIAGRAMS, GY ors ar din, mes ar a} im, 249 COMPRESSION BARS, fe" ties arid, 24 3 COMPRESSION mans, FIG. 8,~APPEARANCE OF BEAMS AFTER FAILURE ILLUS- RATING SPREAD OF INELASTIC DEFORMATIONS IN THE REGION OF CONSTANT MOMENTCONCRETE DUCTILITY 229 ductility of the reinforcement rather than the conerete, This statement is based on the following results obtained by the writersin their current investigation, Fig. 7 shows in the form of moment-curvature curves some of the results obtained in a series of tests carried out on beams subjected to pure bending moment in their center parts, All beams were cast of concrete having a target cylinder strength of 6,500 psi. The longitudinal reinforcement consisted of ASTM-A432 bars with a well defined yield point of about 62 ksi. Although no increase in strength was obtained by the addition of 3/16 in, ties spaced at 1-1/2 in,, the ductility was increased considerably. However, an improvement in the overall inelastic behavior of the member was obtained when the 3/16 in, ties were spaced at 2-1/2 in, and two #3 bars were used as compressive reinforcement, Here the initiation of the descending branch of the curve was controlled by buckling of the compression reinforcement, although this oc~ curred when the tensile reinforcement was near to neck down. When two #3 compression bars were used in combination with 3/16 in, ties spaced at 1-1/2 in,, the rotation capacity of the member was controlled by the ductility of the tensile reinforcement, The element rotated under a practi- cally constant moment up to the starting of the tensile bars’ necking, In connection with these results it is interesting to analyze the effect of transverse and compressive reinforcement on the spread of the inelastic deformation, This can be done by analyzing the photos in Fig, 8, As it can be seen in the case of beams without transverse and compression reinforcement, inelastic rotation was concentrated in one small region where length was smal- ler than the effective depth, When ties at 1-1/2 in, were used, the inelastic rotation spread over a longer length but most of the damage was still con- centrated in a region of length approximately equal to the effective depth. On the other hand, when two #3 bars were used as compressive reinforcement together with ties at 2-1/2 and 1-1/2 in,, the inelastic deformations spread over the whole region subjected to constant moment, Also, in the case where ties were spaced so closely (1-1/2 in.) that they prevented the buckling of the compression steel, no visible damage was observed in the confined concrete. Quantitative information regarding the spread of inelastic deformation in the region of constant moment is given in Fig, 9, In this figure are plotted the ratios between the curvatures—computed from the rotation measured over different zones along the region of constant moment—and their average value vs, this average value, From the analysis of the curves presented in Fig. 9 it is clear that compression reinforcement—added to the concrete confined by closely spaced ties—stabilizes the inelastic deformations and permits them to spread along the whole zone of constant moment, The results presented in this figure have the same significance as those offered by the authors in their Fig. 7, The writers would like to use these results to illustrate and emphasize the validity and importance of comments the authors made in discussing the behavior of their specimens and in sup- porting the manner in which inelastic deformations should be measured. ‘These comments may be summarized in their own words as follows: “Informa- tion pertinent to rotation capacity should come not from the overall deformation of the test specimen but from the deformation measured in the zone of failure,” Results presented here make it obvious that the addition of ties can improve the rotation capacity of reinforced concrete members under pure bending, ‘The results suggest that proper combination of ties and compressive reinforce- ment may offer economic advantages and perhaps result in better overall230 FLEXURAL MECHANICS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE FIG. 9.—VARIATION OF CURVATURE ALONG REGION OF CONSTANT MOMENT INSTRUMENTATION GENERAL VIEW OF INSTRUMENTATION FIG, 10,—TEST SETUPCONCRETE DUCTILITY 231 behavior, This would seem to contradict the author’s findings, i.c,, that “there was not consistant effect of the longitudinal reinforcement on the ductility of the concrete.” This discrepancy may be explainedby the following observation correctly made by the authors: “It would be an oversimplification to use directly the load-deformation curve obtained from a specimen in axial com- pression to predict the behavior of conereteunder a different state of stress.” As the writers were interested in determining the possibility of predicting behavior obtained in the tests carried out on the beams, requiring knowledge of the load-deformation characteristics of the confined concrete, they carried out a series of tests similar to those reported by the authors, The first series of specimens tested consisted of 3 X 3 X 12 in, prisms with different types of reinforcement to reproduce conditions of the beams tested. 3/16 in, ties of 3 X 3 in, outsidedimensions were used in combinations with #2 and #3 A432 bars, Nine combinations were tested. The deflection over a 6 in, length at mid-height was measured using a special device attached to the specimen. This device consisted of two frames attached to small rods embedded in the concrete, Relative displacement of the frames was detected by two linear variable differential transformers (LVDT), one on each of the specimen’s two opposite faces, Output of the LVDT’s representing the average displacement for the 6 in, concrete region was fed into the horizontal scale of a 500 X-Y recorder. The vertical scale of this recorder was connected to a pressure cell built into the testing machine and therefore representing the load acting on the specimen. The photos of Fig, 10 illustrate the test setup, Results obtained in this series of tests are shown in Fig. 11 and discussed below in terms of their significance from the point of view of the strength and ductility of the confined concrete, Strength.—Use of longitudinal reinforcement without ties does not affect the strength of the conerete, Ties with and without longitudinal reinforcement did enhance the load carrying capacity of the conerete in the prisms, In the specimens with ties at 2-1/2 in, spacing, the increase was of the order of 13% with respect to the strength of plain prisms, For ties at 1-1/2 in., the increase was approximately 26 per cent, Ductility.—While the presence of longitudinal reinforcement alone does not seem to enhance the ductility of concrete, ties without longitudinal reinforce- ment considerably improve the deformation capacity of confined concrete, An even larger improvement in overall load deformation characteristics— toughness—of the confined conerete was obtained by using ties with longitudinal reinforcement, The improvement in the toughness of the confined concrete was particularly noticeable in the case that premature buckling of the longitudinal bars was avoided by closely spaced ties. This is illustrated in Fig. 11 by the curve corresponding to the specimen with four #3 bars and 3/16 in, ties at 1-1/2 in, In this case the ductility of the specimen was controlled by the ductility of the tie which failed at one corner, These results were confirmed from the data obtained in a second series of tests carried out on 4-1/4 x 4-1/4 in, prisms, Results are presented in Fig, 12, Although no definite conclusions can be drawn from the limited tests conducted to date, results of the tests did establish some trends that lead232, FLEXURAL MECHANICS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE to the following tentative ideas: 1, Although closely spaced rectangular ties produce an increase in strength of the concrete in axially loaded specimens, the significant effect of ties lies in the considerable increase in ductility, 2, The addition of longitudinal reinforcement enables concrete confinedby closely spaced ties to improve its toughness, While the first statement is in close agreement with the authors’ conclusion, the second appears to contradict their findings. Although the writers cannot offer a valid explanation for this apparent contradiction, they believe that besides the differences in the size of the prisms and amount of reinforcement, the two following factors may have been the cause for some of the observed discrepancies, First, the considerable difference in concrete strength—6500 psi vs, 3500 psi—and secondly, in the manner in which the unit deformation was determined, While the authors used a 4 in, length, the writers obtained their average strain over a 6 in, length, In spite of the fact that in all rein- forced prisms that were testedby the writers the inelastic deformation spread over a length equal or larger than 6 in., it was obvious that the authors’ results were more representative of the localized deformations at the zone of failure, ‘The writers would appreciate extra comments or clarification concerning one portion of the authors’ excellent description on behavior of the specimen, In the description of the stage 2 they state: “Near maximum load the trans- verse strain was about half the longitudinal strain in the failure zone. Strain measured inthe ties indicated axial yielding. Bending of the ties was negligible. It was on the order of 15% of the tie diameter and 1% of the tie span at maxi- mum load.” The phrase “bending of 1% of the tie span” should be clarified, If the proper interpretation is the displacement of the tie at its midspan with respect to its corners, then lateral or transverse strain in the concrete would appear to be considerably larger than half the longitudinal strain—reported to be approximately 0.003. ‘The writers also believe that while the bending resistance offered by the ties was very small, the bending of the ties themselves was not negligible, For the size of ties used in the investigation, bending of 1 percent of the tie span requires the development of a considerable amount of flexural inelastic deformation, Therefore, considerable yielding due to bending developed even before axial yielding since the existence of the latter would require the devel- opment of a considerably large confining force, ‘The authors should be complimented for attempting to make available a method of constructing a generalized stress-strain diagram for the confined concrete, The writers agree with the authors thatit is questionable to suggest a generalized stress-strain curve on thebasis ofthe data available, and above all the writers believe that the equation proposed by the authors for the com- putation of € 59 may be valid only for a certain limited range of the variables involved in this problem, This belief is supported by the following considerations: In the case of a square cross section the expression233 CONCRETE DUCTILITY SWSTHa “NI ¥/1-¥X 4/T-¥ HOT SWSIUd ‘NIE X ¢ SHAUN NOLLYNYOSSA-AVOT—"2t “OLE ‘WOH SHAUNS NOLLYWHOLIG-AVOT—"Tt “OLE 193 9. a3K0 roo ___s200__ezo0_s190 | AN3W30¥03NIZY TWNIGNLIONOT LNOKLIM "4 ovoa avixy aviog234 FLEXURAL MECHANICS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE can be rewritten in which Atje is the cross-sectional area of the bar used as a tie. According to this expression, for a given size bar to be used as a tie and a selected spacing between ties, the stress-strain diagram will be the same no matter how large or small the side h of the square section, This does not seem quite logical. The writers would expect that in the case of members with small h the degree of confinement offered by the ties will be higher than in the case of sections with large h. Ina certain way this is confirmed by the comparison of the results obtained by the writers on the prisms 3 * 3 in, and 4-1/4 4-1/4 in. The writers hope none of the foregoing comments will be interpreted as unwarranted digression, but rather as a useful contribution to the authors’ excellent presentation. H, E, H, ROY AND METE A. SOZEN.—As Barnard points out, when deformation of a specimen is increased beyond maximum load, there is an energy release in those portions of the specimen outside the failure zone, and a simultaneous increase in energy within the failure zone. This phenomenon is evident from Fig. 1 in the paper. Although lenthening of the uncrushed region of the specimen was observed during this part of the test, there was no cor- responding sudden decrease in load resistance, Bertero and Felippa present pertinent and significant data on the load- deformation relations of specimens with rectangular ties, In tests on 36 specimens, Dr, Bertero and Mr, Felippa found that square ties increased the maximum stress significantly. In fact, the increase is on the order of that which would have been produced by circular ties, This result is surprising, and certainly deserves further experimental study. It appears that Bertero and Felippa may have misinterpreted the writers’ conclusions about the effect of longitudinal reinforcement on the results. The use of longitudinal reinforcement does, of course, enhance the behavior of the specimen as a whole, Certainly, in the compression zone of a beam, it would tend to make the conerete-steel combination more uniform. However, as is demonstrated in Table 1 and Fig, 3, the strength of the concrete itself was not affected by this reinforcement. As far as the question of the lateral deformation of the ties is concerned, the figure “1 percent of the tie span” was given only as a guide, to indicate that the bending or membrane resistance of the ties was, at best, slight, Finally, Bertero and Felippa have rewritten the equation for €59 in the form tie e. = g —tHe 50 2 ‘The implication of this expression isnot asillogical as it may at first appear. ‘There are two conflicting effects, For decreases in the size of the specimen, p'' is increasing, while the influence of spacing is decreasing. These two effects may cancel each other,CONCRETE DUCTILITY 235 ‘The comparison of the test results with those carried out in Munich, as submitted by Stockl, isa very worthwhile addition to the paper. It is, of course, always a difficult matter to second-guess test results and account for differ ences between one series and another. Mr. Stock] suggests that there may have been local disturbances in the concrete for the specimens with multiple ties at each location, However, this seems improbable, since the ties were side by side rather than on top of each other. In any case, the lack of agreement with the Munich tests cannot be attributed to this cause; the greatest strength difference occurred in the specimens with a tie spacing of 2 in,, and the ties for these specimens were single No. 2 bars, In order to clarify the question of the longitudinal reinforcement details at the ends of the specimens, it should be pointed out that all longitudinal bars were cut accurately so that they extended completely from one end of the specimen to the other, Furthermore, most of the specimens failed near mid-height, at which point the longitudinal reinforcement would have been developed fully in bond. ‘The writers are grateful to Barnard, Bertero, Felippa, and Stockl for their interesting and informative discussions, which have contributed greatly to the value of the paper.