Introduction « Properties of rocks with respect to the fluids contained and injected are important characterisation parameters. « Influence reserves and mobility. « Reservoir engineer concerned with: ¢ The quantities of fluids contained ¢ The transmissivity of fluids through the rocks and related properties Chartacteristics of Reservoir Rocks e Factors which effect capacity and flow of fluids are: porosity permeability capillary pressure (ofoyan oe) fluid saturationChartacteristics of Reservoir Rocks « For economic viability for oil & gas production reservoir rock must exceed a: minimum porosity minimum thickness minimum permeability minimum area Chartacteristics of Reservoir Rocks « For fluid production the rock must be permeable. « Sufficient large and interconnecting pores. « A permeable rock is porous. « Porous does not necessarily imply permeable. « Volcanic rocks, porous BUT pores not interconnecting. « Shale, porous BUT pores very small.Physical Characteristics of Reservoir Rocks « Atypical reservoir rock - sandstone. « The shape and size and size distribution reflect: 5 meee ces) ¢@ physical and chemical processes exposed to: —_ erushing & grinding — tumbling action in streams or on dunes. Physical Characteristics of Reservoir Rocks « Pore spaces in the reservoir rock provide the container for accumulation of fluids. « Most commercial reservoirs occur in : sandstones limestone dolomite. Some occur in fractured shale LeF-T Tan 1a) (oon Porosity is one of the most important rock properties. Measure of the space available for accumulation of fluidsPorosity « Complex « Space between grains or limestone caves « sometimes good estimates from laboratory studies Peo URL ee MMU sr U Kut IMRAN ZA Porosity « Complicated nature illustrated by metal cast of poresOne classification based on pores space. whether original or formed subsequently Dementing material Sand grain fective porasity 25% latet porosity 5% Total porasity 30% Total Pore Space Effective Pore Space Isolated Pore Space Isolated pores cannot feat ra Lele lcomre) Dead End Pore 1 1 ‘ Figure 2 - Pore SpacesPorosity = Pore volume x 100% Bulk volume Porosity = Bulk volume—Grain volume x 100% y Bulk volume Porosity = Pore volume x 100% Pore volume+Grain volume Bulk Volume Grain Volume Pore Volume Representation Representation Representation Total Porosity is the ratio of volumes of ALL pores to the Etective ore Space ‘ 9 bulk material | Permeable Pore SpacePorosity-Range of values Consider a assembly of mono size spheres Minimum packing gives porosity of 47.6% Maximum packing gives porosity of oy Porosity-Range of values e Packing & size of grains « Absolute size does not have a large impact. « Particle size distribution « Wide size distribution leads to low porosity « Particle shape « Strong impact in sedimentary process « Cementing material «Clays and mineralsPorosity-Range of values « Size distribution of grains effects porosity Pore Space B Porosity-Range of values « Reservoir Porosity can range from 50% to 1.5% « Typical values are: lo bob 20 - 35% 15 - 20% 5 - 20% STO) 5 - 40% Unconsolidated (young) Sands Consolidated Sandstone Strong (low permeability) Sandstone Limestone Dolomites (erieSubsurface Measurement « Surface measurements made on recovered (ole)icm « Down hole measurements very sophisticated. « Downhole porosity related to acoustic and radioactive properties of the rock. Density Log « Density log attributed to the porosity of the rock. e Needs good description of the mineralology. PL =Pm (1-6)+p.6 p - Quartz = 2.65 g/cm? p Limestone = 2.71 g/cm$Sonic Log » Measures response to acoustic energy through sonic transducers + Time of travel related to acoustic properties of the aColtuir- 0) « If mineralogy is not changing then travel time related density and hence porosity. » Formation fluids will effect response. AT, =ATy (1-6) + AT; NERO Aah a AT Limestone = 47 us ft" Alclad eR Neutron Log « Another radioactive logging technique - Measures response of the hydrogen atoms in the formation « Neutrons of specific energy fired into aCe) mnit- ela « The radiated energy is detected by the tool. « This is related to the hydrogen in the hydrocarbon and water phase. « The porosity determined by calibrationAverage Porosity « Porosity normally distributed e An arithmetic mean can be used for averaging. n the number of measurements Permeability The permeability of a rock is the description of the ease with which fluid can pass through the pore structure Can be so low to be considered impermeable. Such rocks may constitute a cap rock above permeable reservoir. Also include some clays,shales, chalk, anhydrite and some highly cemented sandstones.Permeability Term is used to link flowrate and pressure difference across a section of porous rock. In a rock the pore space , size and interconnection is very complex. The application of energy equations developed for flow in pipes is difficult. The parameter used for this flow behaviour is termed ‘permeability” The unit of permeability is the Darcy, named after a French scientist investigating flow through filter beds. Permeability « Darcy’s Law Q = flowrate in cm*/sec sectional area of flow in cm? re difference a ther sample, atme in centipoise L=length of sample in cm. k = permeability in DarcyPermeability e Darcy's Law @ The rate of flow of fluid through a given rock varies directly with the pressure applied, the area open to flow and varies inversely with the viscosity of the fluid flowing and the length of the porous rock. ¢ The constant of proportionality is termed Seer] 21118 Permeability « Unit of permeability - Darcy « Permeability which will permit flow of one centipoise fluid to flow at linear velocity of one cm per second under a pressure gradient of one atmosphere per centimetre.Permeability « Darcy’s Experiment « A sandpack through which water flowed Mariometic heads of water Flowrate, Q—= Length, L Flowrate, Q——! Area of the end of the sandpack Permeability Taking viscosity as a variable og pee) Poiseuille equation for laminar pipe flow mr‘ AP Saeco melo sRod yea Q= 8yuL Carmen Kozeny equation for flow in packed beds | k’ = shape factor Ne d= particle size . There is a very strong relationship between porosity and feral 19110Permeability « Comparing equations. Darcy Carmen Kozeny It is not surprising therefore that there is a strong relationship between permeability and porosity Permeability « Practical unit-millidarcy, mD, 10° Darcy « Formations vary from a fraction of a millidarcy to more than 10,000 millidarcy. e Clays and shales have permeabilities of 10-2 to 10° mD. « These very low permeabilities make them act as seals between layers.Factors Affecting Permeability « Permeability is anisotropic « Horizontal permeabilities in a reservoir are generally higher than vertical permeabilities. « Due to reservoir stresses « Particle shape as influenced by depositional process. Anisotropic permeability Impact of ordered deposition Horizontal permeabili Horizonfal permeability 900mD Vertical permeabi Vertical permeability 500mD Porosity 32%Horizontal extant 1 MILs) Sandstone Fractured CoreDimensions of Permeability Darcy’s Equation am ps az) . ds 1.0133x10° ds Assumptions in Darcy’s Law - Darcy’s Law assumes Steady State Flow ¢@ Laminar Flow ¢@ Single phase only occupying 100% of porosity @ No reaction between fluid & rock ¢ Homogenous rockNo transient flow regimes Rommel (cn flow jolxetI0 lcm le] OMe (0 (3 Lamingr Flow Turbulent Flow . >|>——> NhTurbulent Flow Non Darcy Flow Attributed to higher velocities Pressure drop due to kinetic energy losses For example near well bore flow in gas production Essentially appears as an extra pressure loss term in the| flow system Single phase only « Achieved in the laboratory through cleaning cores « In the reservoir except for aquifer water flow Ate cm Mtn) m UalcAROla = A oe kote « Concept of relative permeability used to describe more complex flow regime.No reaction between fluid & rock « Some cases when this will not happen « Hydraulic fracturing Acidising. « Water flooding sometimes generates fines from clays etc. Applications of Darcy’s Law - Horizontal Linear Incompressible System Basic Darcy EquationThe laboratory set up for this would be: oO Valve Ab Flow measurementComparing Equations In some circumstances the mean flow fel RMU eRe Ma Oke ee Ree BURR Ru Cee upstream and downstream pressure. The ideal gas permeability can be calculated from the liquid equation using the mean flow measured at mean pressure.Radial slow ye t[e ids 1.0133x10° ds DRE __ 2nkh(P,—P,,) ~ Inr, Inr,,Horizontal-Radial Linear Compressible Gas System (cle mOlaliccy « Measurements in the field often quoted in field units. A conversion is required for compatibility with Darcy Celt tela Flow rate, Q - bbl/day or ft3/day or m3/day Permeability, k - darcy A(P 1 Thickness, h - feet or metre Q uL Pressure, P - psia a 5 - , - to oil field units iscosity, 1- centipoise — Radius. R - feet or metre Length, L - feet or metreKlinkenberg Effect « Darcy’s law should be the same irrespective of transmitted fluids. « Since viscosity is in the equation « Measurements on gas compared to liquid give higher values than the liquid for some conditions. « The phenomena is attributed to Klinkenberg. Klinkenberg Effect « Considered due to the effect of slippage of gas molecules along grain surfaces. Occurs when the diameter of the pore throat approaches mean free path of the gas. DET AMIN A-U LUM Iie Lae NY ee male) a specifies zero velocity at the boundary. Not valid when mean free path approaches diameter of pore. Result there is insufficient gas molecules to form a zero velocity.NY Tame tom osm ae ola) (oleae) Maile ee Smaller the molecule , RU ale mules ‘Gas Permesbliy: Mildarcies yaromen Measurements made in gas permeability setReactive Fluids « Darcy's law assumes no reaction with the io) dnar- ela « Many formation with clays react with water to give lower permeability. « Lower permeability in formation than gas based measurements in the laboratory. « Water injected into the formation may severely reduce permeability due to clay swelling. Average Permeability « Permeability is not normally distributed but has an exponential function. « Geometric mean is used to obtain average reservoir permeability.Stress Effects on Core Measurements- Stress Regimes « Impact of reservoir stresses on reservoir flow and capacity an increasing interest. « Removing a core from the formation is to remove all confining forces. « Allows rock matrix to expand in all directions. « Partially changing fluid flow paths. Influence of Reservoir Stresses e Certain formations are subject to consolidation when the net overburden stress is increased. « Subsidence of reservoir and surface formations. « Reduction in permeability and porosity of formation « Relevance of measurements under simulated reservoir stress conditionsCore plug for hofizontal k measurement Core plug for vertical K measurement Within a reservoir stresses can be expressed in blir ome lik reo a 9 Major Principal Suess. Minor Principal Stress. Minor Principal StressEqual Stresses a SEE] combination of major and minor BS SCC mel 3 Equal Siresses. tere tad Friable GF Fraction of Or Unconsolidatod ° 000 4000 ‘e000 000 110000 Not Overburdon Prossure: PSIIsothermal Compressibility Pm Ora Rl -acela mee etl Peta ce meat) e dV is the change in volume e OP is the change in pressure. « Negative sign as pressure increases volume decreases. Types of Compressibility « Matrix volume compressibility Smee atmerat- lire [eae a elm mele ae ¢@ This is very small and usually not of interest in sandstones e Bulk volume compressibility ¢@ The change in unit volume of the rock. Se MMe aie eee aoa ox ener} where subsidence might occur. « Pore volume compressibility ¢ Change in pore volume. ¢ Of interest since it affects porosityPermeability stress sensitivity for various sandstones As effect of stress effects pore volume. Permeability (mD) Hydrostatic stress (MPa) Permeability — h maxi Frackice closing under stress Tam eC m Eb dr sme a) hy maxircam Sh minieary hy mraxitnum perpendicular te fracture Pecmeabilty| Sumaxien Fractsre opening understress h micicnam — Sr mexiraun Sh mavimum parallel to fractureUNIAXIAL B, BIAXIAL, B-0, HYDROSTATIC = A=B TRIAXIAL AB % Change In K 120 100 1000 2000 3000 4000 Confining Pressure ps! 5000 6000Porosity-Permeability Relationships Whereas for porosity there are downhole measurement techniques. There are no downhole methods for permeability. Downhole permeability is usually obtained by flow and pressure monitoring. - Well Testing. Continued interest in porosity-permeability correlations. If there is no recovered core for the section of interest, the approach is to use downhole porosity to determine lab equivalent porosity and then use a porosity-permeability correlation to calculate permeability. Porosity-Permeability Relationships « Porosity is an absolute property « Permeability is a secondary property. « It is influence by a range of basic parameters. « Size, shape and porosity. « Carmen -Kozeny equation It is not surprising therefore that there are correlations between porosity and permeability. Different correlations probably reflect the impact of other parameters, grain size and shape etc.Oolitic Limestone Suerosic Dolomite Hard Sand Intercrystaling Dolomite ° 5 10 6 2 2 30 3 Porosity: Percent Ideas discussed so far assume ONLY one fluid present in the pore spaces Reservoir rocks contain two or more phases andSurface tension « Surface free energy exists on all surfaces between states of matter and between immiscible fluids Pesaro maemo CM elma tel 100] Ll elke Malmo Ua od surface of a liquid to assume smallest possible size. « The equilibrium in force between two dissimilar fluids is disrupted at the interface Oil-Water Boundary Surface tension « Surface or Interfacial tension deforms the outer surface of immiscible liquids to produce droplets. « If the two liquids are on a surface, the IFT deforms the liquids to produce a contact angle.A wetting phase is one which spreads over the solid and preferentially wets the solid. The contact angle approaches zero and will always be less Intexfacial tension, s, defined as force / unit tengtth xo Interfacial tension between the water and oil “sy Intertacial tension between the solid and water Sgq_ Interfacial tension between thre solid and oil Napthenic acid The composition 35° of the surface Eocm ul Ociane Napthenic acid 106° Ze OC CalciteWetting on Reservoir Rocks if . Water era on silica 9fains a ni Det WD Exp F-———1 204m eA ech 7 ecast « Difference a between solid water and solid oil interfacial tension.Net force upwards = 2nro,,,Cos0 Net force downwards =(p,,gh-p,gh) mr” =(p, —p,) ghmr? Interface is at equilibrium A Ema) the level with zero capillary pressure Capillary rise is also a function of|reducible Water The shape of capillary pressure curve depends on nature of rockFluid Distribution in Reservoir Rocks Wettability sce ST AES) Sereate ne catt Rock property ec-Tenal == 1 e110 eee iN Fluid Distribution in Reservoir Rocks « Water wet, coarse grained sand and oolitic and vuggy carbonates with large pores have low capillary pressure.. « Silty, fine grained sands have high capillary fo) c ULM LALO cl Clmer- ele an « Water saturation reduces with increased height above the hydrocarbon water contact. « The base of the 100% water sat’n limit is termed the water table. « The non identifiable level, the free water level is the level of zero capillary pressure.High Pc needed to reach limiting ¥/ water saturation. (Pw Po) gh Inreducible (or non = communicating) water approach at low Pe Largest connecting pores: about the same size, Therefore simular hy ——— s—— Po Irreducible water saturation | Water saturation—* 100%.Parameters affecting capillary pressure Rock wettability affects Pc. Oil wet rocks have reduced transition zones ey eB -ceL0 (ec Ue- TaN (0) rol) eTclM Lamm Cure U-laTItCe) High Imertanial Tension zone Height Above Water Level Low Intartaciai Tensiort Interfaciat f 400 Water Satiiratian’ Percent Pore Space Saturation history « Drainage saturation « Drainage of the wetting phase « Represents saturation before fluid production ¢ Level of saturation dictated by capillary pressure. « Imbibition saturation ¢ Results from increase in wetting phase and expulsion of hydrocarbons ¢ The situation resulting from natural or forced water drive ¢ The rising water tableDrainage effect Drainage Height Above Water Iabibition 0 100 Drainage Water Saturation: Percent Pore Space Imbibition effect Drainage \ imbibition Height.Above: Water Level oO 100 Water Saiuration: Pereent Pore Space: ImbibitionLarge density (water-gas) difference supresses transition zone. Small density differences \ Smal Density Diference . (flare Heavy OF) Large Density Diterence ‘water Gas} Height Above Water Level 109 Water Saturation: Percent Pore Space Fluid Density Difference Effect Water saturation water saturation) ACE pratile well C-oniy profile ° Well B-oniy Free Water beget | 0 . 100% ‘4 100% Water LevelaCelE- 1AM a =1an asx lel Ag « Relative permeability provides an extension of Darcy’s Law to the presence of more than a single fluid within the pore space. on ae qo Ho Kiosk - relative permeability k - absolute permeability Relative Permeability « Permeability to a particular phase is reduced when a second or third phase is present Relative Permeability = phase permeability when more than one phase is present permeability to that phase alone « Relative permeability is normally reported as a fraction or percentage. e It equals 1.0 or 100% when the phase is present on its own1.0 2 io o é n 3 ® 3 " ° ° 2 io . 3 6 ° ee 2 ee a sa5666 PeUed BANE|OY 5 2 3 £ & € 2 s 2 3 a 8 S Es = Qn HEINIES IO eNpISeY snid 18}eM e1EULED —— 02 0.3 04 0.5 06 0.7 08 09 1.0 Liquid Saturation = Sq + Swo) % o.4 ° ~ 6 é¢6 6 S66 S666 8 aInjosay JO UONDeIY ‘Ay qeEWJEd BANEIOYlat] °\-Melmc-1 oL-10t) (Via cmeal-lcle Cu enol wetting qualities. Water Wet Drainage, (Decreasing Sy Jaa Watrswet on {increasing 5 i. Wet Drain ‘ oft ae Shape of rel. perm 70 Relative Permeability, % 0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Water Saturation, Sw ° 0 10 one -end point relative foyer elo) Relative perm. to oil in presence of irreducible water proaang oe Relative Permeability, % 6 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Water Saturation, Sw 0 °Relative permeability « Imbibition relative permeability » Is displacement where the wetting phase saturation is increasing. » For example in a water flood of a water wet rock. « Drainage relative permeability. > Is where the non wetting phase saturation is increasing » For example gas expulsion during primary depletion. + The condition existing in the transition zone at discovery. Water displacement of oil « Prior to water displacement water exists as film around grain or in dead end pores. « Presence of water has little effect on oil flow. « Relative perm approaches 100%. Pen Ae lc-Tam ancl ela ceSTO]I MA oT eam al COm ear LL -Lale} large pores. « Imbibition relative permeability influences flow behaviour « Oil saturation decreases with decrease in oil relative permeability. « Oil remaining after flood out is termed residual oilOil remaining is influenced by capillary pressure and interfacial tension.Advancing water Caplillary forces have drawn water into narrower pore = Water InCapilliary forces have now isolated oil in large pore Oil trapped by Enhanced oil recovery methods:Mobility Ratio « An important perspective in oil displacement. « Relates mobility of displacing fluid to that of displaced fluid. e Aratio of Darcy’s law for each fluid. « At residual saturation of the other fluid. +: . k.,/ Mobility Ratio, M=—= Hw ko / He Lane is the relative permeability at residual oil saturation on is the relative permeability at irreducible water saturation End point relative permeabilities Mobility Ratio M <1 Stable displacement M21 Unstable displacement Water — Oil Water —*Water Saturation 100% Gas is a non-wetting phase. Gas permeability is Zero until a ‘critical’ gas 40 62 80 200 Gas Satsraton:Parcont Pare Spacea oH Water Dcas ies © % 0 fe| ® i. jek oh iol. Eo fa bal . erg b>» ie je 0, 0 aero o. O 2 4 60 8 i90 Oo 20 4 60 9G 100 @ 20 40 6 86 100 Ca nen a To EeatnRa adele eal al!