16/01/2017

StimulatingMusic:ThePleasuresandDangersofElectricMusic,17501900

Configurations.AuthormanuscriptavailableinPMC2014Feb26.
Publishedinfinaleditedformas:

PMCID:PMC3935454
EMSID:EMS56901

Configurations.2011Spring19(2):191211.
doi:10.1353/con.2011.0018

StimulatingMusic:ThePleasuresandDangersofElectricMusic,1750
1900
JamesKennaway
DurhamUniversity
CopyrightnoticeandDisclaimer

Thepublisher'sfinaleditedversionofthisarticleisavailableatConfigurations

Abstract

Goto:

Farfrombeingapurelymodernidea,thenotionofelectricmusicwasalreadycommonintheeighteenthand
nineteenthcenturies.Theshiftinthinkingaboutmusicfromcosmicharmonytonervousstimulationmade
metaphorsandspeculativetheoriesrelatingmusicandelectricityirresistible.Thisessayconsidersthedevelopment
oftheideaofelectricmusic,lookingatitsassociationswithasexualbodyelectric.Itwillthenexaminehowthis
conceptionofmusicwentfrombeingthesubjectofsympathytobecomingpartofamedicalcritiqueofmusicasa
dangerousstimulant,withechoesinmusiccriticismandbeyond.
Sincethebeginningofthetwentiethcenturytheideaofelectricmusichasbeendominatedbytheobjective,
machinelikeaestheticoftheFuturistsandmodernpopularmusic,butcomparisonsbetweenmusicandelectricity
gobackmuchfurtherthanthat.Asthisessaydemonstrates,metaphorsandspeculativetheorieslinkingmusicand
electricityhaveinfactbeencommonsincetheeighteenthcentury,whentheyprovidedalanguagetoexpressanew,
morematerialistviewofmusicasaformofphysicalstimulationthatchallengedolderPythagoreantraditionsof
musicasamatterofuniversalorder.Especiallyinthenineteenthcentury,theassociationofelectricitywiththe
humannervoussystemanditssensualpleasuresmeantthatithadverydifferentassociationsfromtoday.Fromthe
Enlightenmenttothewaveoftechnologicaladvancesinaround1900,comparisonswithelectricitylinkedmusic
nottobloodlessmachinesbuttothesexualbodyelectric.1Manyobserversexpressedprofoundambivalence
aboutthemedicalandmoraleffectsofsuchthrills.Inthecontextoftheeighteenthcenturycultofsensibility,
musicseffectonthenervesanditsWahlverwandschaftwithelectricitywerelargelyregardedasbenign.Music,as
thegalvanicfluidofharmony,wasquicklyincorporatedintomuchofthemedicineoftheperiodasapotential
sourceoftheenergygivingeroticlifeforce.Ontheotherhand,fromthe1790sonwardtheideaofelectricmusic
increasinglybecameacentralpartofamedicalcritiqueofmusicasadangertohealthandmoralsthatreflected
deepanxietiesaboutsensuality.Bythenineteenthcentury,theprincipalresultofthisdiscoursewasthatmusics
electricaleffectsonthenerveswereviewedasillegitimate,superficial,andpotentiallypathological.
Lookingatawiderangeofsourcesfrommainstreamandspeculativemedicinetomusiccriticism,literature,and
etiquettebooksfromthroughoutEurope,thisessaywillanalyzetheshiftfromcosmologytophysiologyand
pathologyindiscussionsofelectricmusic.First,itwilllookatthedevelopmentoftheideaofmusicasamatterof
nervestimulationandthedebateaboutwhetherthosenerveswereelectricalincharacter.Itwillthenconsiderthe
waythatelectricityandmusicwerewidelyportrayedasrelatedformsofasexualizedlifeforce,andtherolethis
understandingofmusicseffectonthenervesplayedintherapeuticusesofmusic,especiallyinthelate
EnlightenmentmedicineofthelikesofFranzAntonMesmerandJamesGraham.Thisconceptionofmusicas
quasielectricalsexualstimulation,asthefollowingsectionwillshow,eventuallybecamethebasisofathorough
medicalattackonmusic,givinglongstandingmoralqualmsaboutmusicsphysicalityamedicalveneer.Finally,I

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3935454/

1/13

16/01/2017

StimulatingMusic:ThePleasuresandDangersofElectricMusic,17501900

willconsiderhowthispathologicalunderstandingofelectricmusicwasincorporatedintomusiccriticism,with
increasinglynegativeconnotationsofsensuality,banality,andemptyvirtuosity.

Nerves,Music,andElectricityintheEnlightenment

Goto:

Theideathatmusicislikeelectricitywasbasedonthematerialistunderstandingofsoundasanervestimulantthat
emergedasmusicwasdisenchantedintheearlymodernperiodandcametobeunderstoodaspartofbrutenature
ratherthananaspectofcosmicharmony.2InwhatPenelopeGoukhasdescribedasaFoucauldianepistemological
shift,naturalphilosopherslikeGalileobegantogroundthinkingonacousticsandmusicaltuningonthesensesand
theobservationofnatureratherthanonabstractreason.3Atthesametime,thephysicalmechanismbywhichit
affectedthebodycametohavemuchmoreimportanceandwassimilarlydisenchanted.Thelisteninghumanbody
becamelessamicrocosmofuniversalorderandmoreamatterofnervousstimulation.Althoughtherewasno
consensusaboutjusthowthenervesfunctioned,bytheeighteenthcenturymostobserverstookaviewoftheeffects
ofmusicthatlargelyeschewedmetaphysicalspeculationinfavorofanimplicitacceptanceofthemechanistic
attitude,asoneseesintheworkoftheperiodsmostsignificantmusictheorists,JohannMatthesonandJean
PhilippeRameau.4
Thenervoussystemrepresentedamorematerialistwayofnotjustunderstandingmusic,butalsosubjectivityand
thebody.5TheOxfordphysicianThomasWillisspioneeringworkinneurologyprovidedthebasisforthe
influentialEnglishsensationalistepistemologyofhisstudentJohnLocke,whichportrayedthemindasessentiallya
questionoftheirritationofthenerves.6FrenchEnlightenmentphilosophes,mostfamouslyJulienOffraydela
Mettrieinhis1748bookLhommeMachine,providedevenmoremechanicalconceptionsofmanasakindof
nervemachine.7Thestimulationofthehumannervesseemedtomanyobserverstobeanalogoustothe
mechanismofanautomaton,or,fascinatingly,thestrikingofkeysonakeyboard.Forinstance,inDAlemberts
Dream,DenisDiderotwroteofhumansasinstruments:Oursensesaremerelykeysthatarestruckbythe
naturalworldaroundus,keysthatoftenstrikethemselvesandthis,accordingtomywayofthinking,isallthat
wouldtakeplaceinaharpsichordorganizedasyouandIareorganized.8Thedebateontheelectricaleffectsof
musicwasbasedonpreciselythiskindofmaterialistconceptionofsensationthatcoulddepictmusicasaformof
stimulationofthehumankeyboard.
Themovetoanerveparadigminmodelsofhearingwasalsoreflectedinthinkingaboutmusicandmedicine
forexample,inRichardBrownesMedicinaMusicaof1729.AsGoukhasnoted,Browneandhiscontemporary
RichardBrocklesbybothassumedthatmusicsimpactontheemotionsisexperimentallyverifiable,thatthebody
worksonNewtonianprinciples,andthatthenerves(describedastheflowofanimalspirits)areresponsiblefor
musicsemotionaleffect.9AsBrowneputit:
SoundsthenmaybesupposedtorisefromsmallVibrations,ortremulousMotionsoftheAir,andtobe
propagatedinUndulationsandthesebeingcollectedbytheexternalEar,arefromthencecarrydthroughthe
auditorypassagetotheDrum,onwhichbeating,thefourlittleBonesthataretherebymovdandtheymove
theinternalAir,which,accordingtoDegreeofMotion,makesanImpressionoftheAuditoryNervesinthe
LabyrinthandCochlea,sothataccordingtothevariousRefractionsoftheexternalAir,theinternalAirmakes
variousImpressionsupontheAuditoryNerve,theimmediateOrganofHearing,andthesedifferent
ImpressionsrepresenttotheMinddifferentsortsofSound.10
Thisneatlysummarizeswhatbecamethestandardviewofhowmusicfunctions,leavinglittleroomforabstract
ratioorcosmicharmony.However,itstillleftmanyquestionsopenaboutthenatureofthosenervesandtheir
relationshiptothemind.
Ontheoneside,therewereaestheticiansandphysicianssuchasJohannJosephKauschwhosuggestedthatmusic
influencedthemindviatheimagination,applyingLockeantheoriesoftheassociationofideas.11Accordingtothis
approach,nervesarethemeansbywhichsensationreachestheimagination,butmusicremainsamatterofthemind
andthepassionsratherthanofthebody.Otherstookamoremechanisticview,arguingthatmusichadadirect
effectonthenerves,notnecessarilymediatedbythelisteningsubjectorthepassions.12Unlikenovels,itwas
argued,musicdidnotjuststimulatethenervesviatheimaginationitseffectwasdirectandmorelikeelectricity.
ThisistheviewonefindsintheworkoftheIrishwriterDanielWebb,whoarguedthat[w]earethentotakeitfor
granted,thatthemind,underparticularaffections,excitescertainvibrationsinthenerves,andimpressescertain
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3935454/

2/13

16/01/2017

StimulatingMusic:ThePleasuresandDangersofElectricMusic,17501900

movementsontheanimalspirits.Ishallsupposethatitisinthenatureofmusictoexcitesimilarvibrations,to
communicatesimilarmovementstothenervesandspirits.13Thatistosay,thatmusicaffectsthenervesdirectlyin
awaythatisparalleltothecontrolofthemindoverthenerves.TheSwissaestheticianJohannGeorgSulzers
descriptionofmusicasshocksdeliveredtothenervesofthebodymadethecharacterofmusicasaphysical
stimulantevenmoreexplicit.14Combinedwithamaterialistviewofsubjectivity,thisdirectconceptionofmusics
effectswastobecomethebasisforawholediscourseofelectricmusic.
However,theactualwaythosenervesfunctionedandwhatroleelectricitymightplayremainedcontroversial.15
Whilesome,liketheScottishphysicianGeorgeCheyne,followedHippocratesinarguingthatnerveswerefine
tubescontainingasubtlefluid,otherspromotedtheideaofsympatheticvibrationbetweenmusicandliterally
vibratingnerves.16NerveshadbeencomparedtothestringsofamusicalinstrumentatleastasfarbackasGalen,
andIsaacNewtonsexplanationofthevibrationofmusicalstringsmadeitafashionableconceptinthefollowing
decades,eventhoughmany,includingAlbrechtvonHaller,pointedouttheflawsintheargument.17Forexample,
theItaliananatomistAntonioMariaValsalva,whomadeaparticularstudyoftheear,accountedfortheeffectof
soundsbythevibrationsofthenerves.Moresystematically,theEnglishphilosopherDavidHartleys1749book
ObservationsonManattemptedanearlyformofneuropsychologywithhisNewtonianandLockeandoctrineof
vibration.18Others,suchasEdmundBurke,suggestedthatthenerveswereindeedstrings,butonesthatwere
tightenedorloosenedratherthanvibrating.19Similarly,inhis1745workonmusictherapy,theGermanphysician
ErnstAntonNicolaitalkedaboutthetoneofthebodysfibresasbeingliterallylikeatightenedstringonamusical
instrument,thestateofwhich,thetensioninthestrings,woulddeterminehealth.20
TheideathatthenervoussystemwaselectrichadbeenraisedintheearlyeighteenthcenturybythelikesofIsaac
NewtonandStephenHales.21Alreadyin1730,StephenGrayhadshownthatthehumanbodyconducted
electricityandthatelectricpolaritycouldbeinducedwithsuspendedobjectsinhisflyingboyexperiment.In
1748,JeanJallaberthadprovedthatmusclesreacttoelectricity,andin1781,AbbBertholondeSaintLazare
enjoyedhugesuccesswithhisLlectricitducorpshumain,arguingthatillnessisduetoalackofelectricity.22
Drawingontheseantecedents,LuigiGalvanisworkonanimalelectricity,especiallyhisfamousexperimentwith
frogslegs,didmuchtomakeanimalspirits,vibratingstringsandfluidmodelsofnervousfunctionredundant,and
ensuredthatfromthe1790suntiltheestablishmentofmodernelectrophysiologyinthe1840s,nerveswere
principallyunderstoodinthecontextofgalvanicanimalelectricity.Thewidespreaduseoftermslikegalvanic
fluidwellintothenineteenthcenturygivesasenseofthelevelofcontinuityandinteractionbetweenthe
competingtheoriesofneurophysiology.Nevertheless,thebeliefthatstimulantslikesoundcouldhavealiterally
galvanizingeffectonthebodyreinforcedthesensethatmusicwasadirectandpowerfulphysicalagent.

MusicandElectricityasErotic/TherapeuticStimulantsintheEnlightenment

Goto:

Thestrengthenedassociationbetweenelectricityandthenervesbroughtwithitacertaineroticcharge,since,as
PaolaBertuccihasdemonstrated,sexualityandelectricitywereseenasnaturalbedfellows.23Asearlyas1643,the
JesuitpolymathAthanasiusKircherhadspeculatedontheconnectionbetweensexandErotomagnetism.
Mysticalandoccultelementsofthiskindcontinuedtobeimportant,buteighteenthcenturyspeculationonthe
relationshipbetweenthetwowasincreasinglybasedonmaterialistmodelsofnervousstimulation.24Thedominant
toneinEnlightenmentdiscussionsoferoticelectricityisindulgentsympathy,ofteninthecontextofentertainment,
insharpcontrasttothemedicalfearsonthetopicinthenineteenthcentury.GeorgMatthiasBose,professorof
physicsatWittenberg,forexample,distinguishedbetweenmaleandfemaleelectricalfireandpromotedthe
VenusKiss,inwhichprettygirlsgavemenelectricshockswhentheykissedthem.25Similarly,theMozart/Da
PonteoperaCosifantutteandElizabethInchbaldsfarceAnimalMagnetismbothmakefunoftheconnection
amonglove,eroticism,andmesmericelectricity.26InconversationwithhisamanuensisEckermann,Goethespoke
ofaneroticelectricaattractioinverypositiveterms,usinganelectricalparalleltothechemicallanguageofhis
ElectiveAffinities.27
Music,asakindofnervousstimulation,wascaughtupintheseRomanticspeculationsaboutasexualizedelectrical
lifeforce.Theideaofmusicandelectricityastwoformsofthesameessenceorforcereachedanapogeeinthe
decadesaround1800,withmany,especiallythoseassociatedwithNaturphilosophie,believingthatelectricmusic
wasnomeremetaphor.Traditionsofthinkingofhearingasthenervesvibratinginsympathywiththemusicwere
mixedwithmysticalcorrespondencesandgalvanicanimalelectricitytocreateadiscourseofelectricmusicthat
wascaughtbetweenscience,theoccult,andmusiccriticism.Forexample,theRomanticphysicistJohannWilhelm
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3935454/

28

3/13

16/01/2017

StimulatingMusic:ThePleasuresandDangersofElectricMusic,17501900

Rittersuggestedin1810that,everysoundiselectrical,andeveryelectricalfigureisasound.28Likewise,in
1815,theprominentCzechphysiologistGeorgProchaskadescribedmusicasanalogoustothevibrationofthe
electrictensionoftheprocessesoflife,andthewellknownGermanphysicianandreligiousthinkerGotthilf
HeinrichvonSchubertcalleditahigherorratheradifferentlymodifiedelectricity.29Norwasthisideajustafad.
AfigureasmainstreamasthecomposerandmusiccriticHectorBerlioz,whoasaconductorintroducedtheelectric
metronome,alsoregardedmusicaselectrical,explicitlycomparingthemusicalfluidtotheelectricalfluid.30
Likewise,aslateas1846,HectorChomet(aliasAntoineJosephChomet),inhisTheInfluenceofMusiconHealth
andLife,wasstillspeculatingthatsonorousandelectricalfluidsmightwellbecalledvariedmodificationsof
thesamefluid,usingGalvanisterms.Heevensuggestedthatelectromusicalstimulationcouldexplainthepower
ofsomesingerstobreakglasswiththeirvoices.31
Thesexualizedcharacterofmuchofthisspeculativethinkingabouttherelationshipbetweenmusicandelectricity
isapparentinthediscourseonthesubjectofMesmer,thepopularandcontroversialdiscovererofanimal
magnetism.32Heemployedmusicinhistherapeuticwork,usingtheglassharmonicainhissessionsandarguing
thatmusiccouldeasetheflowofanimalmagnetismintothesickpersonsbody.33Therearemanyaccountsof
mesmericcuresachievedwiththeaidofelectricmusic,musicalhallucinationsexperiencedbymesmerizedpatients,
andtalesoftonedeafpatientsdevelopingmiraculousmusicaltalentswhilemesmerized.34Formanymesmerists,
musicandelectricanimalmagnetismwerereallyjustdifferentformsofsympatheticvibration,oraninvisible
subtlefluid,astheItalianmesmeristLuigiMagrinisuggestedin1842.35Inthiscontext,bothmusicand
electricitywereoftenportrayedastherapeuticanderoticstimulants,especiallyinrelationtofemalesexuality.
Alreadyin1784,theFrenchRoyalCommissiononMesmerismhadcomparedthemesmericcrisistoafemale
orgasm.36In1818,CarlAlexanderFerdinandKluge,whoattemptedtocombinemesmerismwithdevelopmentsin
neurophysiologyandwhowasveryinterestedinmusicalstimulation,wasstilllinkinganimalmagnetismtofemale
reproduction.Hesuggestednotonlythatwomenweremoresensitivetomesmerismthanmen,butalsothatthis
wasparticularlythecaseiftheywereabouttomenstruate,or,forsomereason,iftheywereblonde.37
Malesexualitywasalsolinkedtoelectricityinthiscontext.In1822,aGermanmedicaljournallinkedtheelectric
powersofthemesmeristtothespermaticeconomy,goingasfarastoarguethat[i]fthedoctor,thesocalled
magnetist,wantstoaffectothers,hashiscompletemanlystrengthandhasnotshortlybeforelostanysemen,since
theanimalelectricalmaterialinthespineandinthesemenisbasicallynothingbutanimalmagnetism.38The
electrospermeticeconomycouldbemanagedwithbleedings,emetics,andalsowithmusic,itwassuggested.39
Norweresuchideasrestrictedtomesmeristcircles.Decadesearlier,oneofFrancesleadingexperimentalscientists,
JosephAignanSigauddelaFond,recordedanexperimentin1781involvingpassinganelectricshockalonga
groupofpeople.Whentheshockfailedtopassbeyondthesixthpersoninthechain,itwassuggestedthatthe
youngmanformingtheobstaclewas,astheexperimenterputit,notendowedwitheverythingthatconstitutesthe
distinctivecharacterofaman.Totestthehypothesis,theexperimentwasrepeatedwiththreefamouscastratifrom
theroyalchoir,buttheysuccessfullytransmittedtheshocktotheirneighbors.40
Similarwidespreadideasonthesexualpowerofelectricityandmusiccanbeseenintheworkofthepopular
medicalentrepreneurJamesGraham,evenifsomeofhisviewswereeccentric.41Hetooktheideaofelectrical
sexualitybeyondmetaphor,arguingthatthevenerealactitself,atalltimes,andundereverycircumstances,isin
fact,nootherthananelectricaloperation,onethatinvolvedthedischarging,orpassageofthebalmy,luminous,
activeprinciple,fromtheplusmaletotheminusfemale.42In1781,heopenedhisTempleofHymen(thegoddess
ofmarriage),whichpromisedtoaidpotencyandfertilityusingamedico,magnetico,musico,electricalCelestial
Bedwithacanopieddomecoveredbymusicalautomataandissuingorientalfragrancesandetherealgases.43
Althoughitwascertainlyunorthodox,Grahamsconceptionofsextherapywasmainstreaminusingmusicnotas
asourceofharmonyforthepassions,aswouldhavebeenthecasewiththedieteticregimenofearliermusic
therapy,butasastimulant,anexpressionofwhathesawasaneroticelectricallifeforce.However,itwasprecisely
theseconnotationsofsensualitythatwerebecomingthefoundationforwarningsofthedangersofmusical
stimulation.

ElectricMusicasaPathologicalNervousStimulant

Goto:

Theideaofmusicasatherapeuticagenthasalonghistory,stretchingbacktoDavidsharpintheBibleand
probablytotheshamansofprehistory,buttheideathatmusiccanoverstimulatethebodyandcauserealsickness
hasamuchpatchierandshorterhistory.CheynesTheEnglishMaladyof1733putthenervesatthecenterof
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3935454/

4/13

16/01/2017

StimulatingMusic:ThePleasuresandDangersofElectricMusic,17501900

discussionsofhealthandmentalhygiene.Drawingonthis,andalsoonAlbrechtvonHallersdistinctionbetween
irritabilityandsensibility,physicianssuchasRobertWhyttandWilliamCulleninEdinburghandS.A.D.Tissotin
Lausannearguedthatmostsicknesswas,inasense,nervous.44However,musicwasrarelyincludedineighteenth
centurymedicalcritiquesofoverstimulatingmoderncultureinstead,mostEnlightenmentobserversarguedthat
musicalstimulationessentiallyrefinedthenerves,seeingitinthecontextofthecultofsensibility.
Itisonlyduringthe1790sthatadiscourseofpathologicalmusicreallyemerged.Onereasonforthiswastheway
excessivesensibilitywasincreasinglytreatedasamedicalproblematatimewhentheFrenchRevolutionhadmade
itsdefenseofindividualfeelingagainstsocialconventionlesspalatabletomainstreamopinion.Asthecultof
sensibilityhadtriedtosublimatethephysicalintomentalcategories,sothesemedicalcritiquesofsensibility
reducedtheidealandthespiritualtophysicalandindeedpathologicalcategories.Anothercrucialfactorwasthe
developmentofgalvanismandamoredirectelectricallinkbetweenmusicalstimulationandthebodyifmusicwas
astimulantlikeelectricity,thenthathadconsiderableconsequencesatatimewhennerveshadcometohavea
centralplaceinideasabouttheetiologyofillness.Thisstimulationmodelofdiseasereacheditsapogeeinthework
ofmaverickEdinburghphysicianJohnBrowninthe1780s.Brunonianism,ashisdoctrinewascalled,proved
highlyinfluential,partlybecausehisideaofabodysstockofexcitabilityeasilyfitintothefashionforgalvanism,
andmuchoftheanxietyaboutmusicaloverstimulationwasexpressedinovertlyBrunonianterms.45
Theviewofelectricityasaneroticlifeforcemeantthatanxietyaboutthepotentialpathologicaleffectsofmusic
generallyfocusedonsexuality.Fearsofexcessivesexualexcitementhadbeenattheheartofamoralcritiqueof
musicthatwentbacktoPlato,butduringthenineteenthcenturythistraditiontookonanincreasinglymedical,
indeedelectrophysiological,guise.Whereaseighteenthcenturyviewsoftheeffectsofmusictendedtoassumethat
itrefinedthenervesinthecontextofaregimenofselfcontrol,after1800themoralandmedicalqualmsabout
musicaleroticismbecamemoreintense.Thiswas,inpart,seenintermsofolderideasaboutmoralphysiology
thatis,thenotionthatmusiccouldaffectthebodybyoverexcitingthemind,buttheviewofmusicasaquasi
galvaniceroticchargethatstimulatedthebodydirectlyalsoaffectedthedebate.AsThomasAnzhasobserved,by
thelateeighteenthcentury[t]hehealthmovementwentasfarastoregardimmoralbehavioranillness.Illness
wasinterpretedmorallyandimmoralitywaspathologized.46ThisreflectedthedevelopmentofwhatFoucault
calledbiopolitics,theincreasingpowerofmedicineinsociety,aswellasthegrowingprofessionalizationand
prestigeofmedicine.
Sinceitwasacommonplaceofeighteenthandnineteenthcenturymedicinethatwomensnerveswereweakerand
morevulnerabletostimulationofallkindsthanmens,thedangerofoverstimulatingtheelectricnerveswithmusic
wasofparticularconcerninrelationtowomenandfemalesexuality.Theemergingtwospheres(worldlyand
domestic)modelofgenderrelationsreinforcedtheassumptionsofthedifferencesbetweenmaleandfemalenervous
systems.47Echoingthelongheldmedicalconsensus,PraguephysicianLeopoldRaudnitz,inhisbookonmusic
therapy,wroteinthe1840sthat
[a]sfarassexisconcerned,onefindsagreatersensitivityformusicamongwomenthanamongmensince
mensnerveshaveafarlowerdegreeofsensitivitythanthoseofwomen,whosenervesareverymobileand
sensitive.Menarenotaseasilystimulatedorexcitedaswomen.Thisisespeciallytrueinyoungeryearswhen
theyareapproachingmaturity,whenalivelysound,aquickandunexpectedtransitionfromonekeyto
anothercansetwomensnervestrengthinremarkablemotion.48
Thisvulnerabilitytophysicalstimulation,whetherelectricalormusical,meantthatwomenweredeemedbymany
doctorstoneedprotectionfromelectricalmusic.Thiswasimplicitlyconnectedtosexuality,asRaudnitzsslightly
coyreferencestoapproachingmaturityandwomenbeingexcitedmakeclear.Eroticstimulation,includingthat
relatedtomusic,thatcouldnotbelegitimatelyassuagedinmarriagewasregardedastoomuchforweakfemale
nervestostandwithoutpotentiallyseriousmedicalconsequences.Theetiquetteanddieteticbooksoftheearly
nineteenthcenturythatexplainedtowomenhowtobehealthyandrespectableofferinnumerableexamplesof
jeremiadsaboutthedangersofelectricaloverstimulationcausebymusic.
JamesJohnson,who,asKingWilliamIVspersonalphysician,wasamainstreammedicalfigure,issuedavery
explicitwarningaboutthequasielectricalperilsoflisteningtomusicforthevulnerablenervesofyoungEnglish
ladies.Thegalvanicfluidofharmony,hesuggested,vibratestheearelectrifiesthesoulandthrillsthrough
everynerveinthebody.Suchelectrificationcould,itseems,haveterribleeffectsonthemindandbody,sinceit
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3935454/

5/13

16/01/2017

StimulatingMusic:ThePleasuresandDangersofElectricMusic,17501900

waslikelytoinflametheimaginationanddisorderthenerves.Johnsonregardedthiselectricmusicasliterally
fatal:Themaniaformusicinjuresthehealthandevencurtailsthelifeofthousandsandtensofthousandsannually,
ofthefairsex.Andmanyofhiscontemporariesagreed,pointingtomanycasesofsuchmusicleadingtodeath,
infertility,andbrainfeveramongladieswhooverindulged.Forwomenofthelowerorders,thedangersofmusic
werelessintense,Johnsonsuggested.Factorygirlswereonlywastingtheirtimewithmusic,butforthoseyoung
femaleswhoseorganizationismoredelicate,thequasielectricalstimulationofmusiccouldbelethal.49Other
respectableBritonsevenregardedthehymnsoftheMethodists,oftenviewedbyrespectableAnglicansasfanatical,
asexertinganexcessiveelectricinfluencethatcouldproduceamorbidsensibility,whichsoondegeneratesinto
habitualsensuality.50
Oneinstrumentinparticularwasregardedasespeciallyelectricandthereforedangeroustheglassharmonica.51
Mesmerviewedtheharmonicaasanelectricalgenerator,andmanyofhissupportersexplicitlydiscussedelectric
musicinthiscontext.52InEngland,twofemalevirtuosioftheinstrument,MarianneandCecilyDavis,felt
themselvesforcedtogiveitupbecauseoftheoverstimulationoftheirnervesitwascausing,andthedeathof
MarianneKirchgssner,whoaccompaniedMozart,waswidelyattributedtoitsnervousstrain.53Itsdangersto
womenwereacommonplaceinmedicalliteratureintheearlydecadesofthenineteenthcentury.54TheAnglo
PrussiandieteticwriterAnthonyFlorianMadingerWillichsuggestedthat[t]hereareotherkindsofmusical
instrumentswhich,inadieteticalview,deservetobecondemned.Suchistheharmonica,which,bytherotationof
theglassesonthefingers(akindofnegativeelectricity)inducesagreatdegreeofnervousweakness.55The
consequencesforwomenshealthofplayingtheinstrumentwerealsothesubjectofliterarytreatmentatthehands
ofthelikesofE.T.A.Hoffmann.56
Theelectricaldangersforwomenofplayingmusicwerenotlimitedtothethreatposedtotheirauralnerves,forit
wasalsowidelybelievedtooverstimulatethenervesviathefingertips.57Willicharguedthatthepointsofthe
fingers,arethestrongestconductorsofthesupposednervousfluid.Toplaytheinstrumentwell,hecontinued,
requiresamorethancommonsensibilityofthenerves,whichindeedmaybesometimeartificiallyacquired,
buttothedetrimentofhealth.Foritcannotbedoubted,thatalocalexcitementofirritabilitymaybegradually
propagatedoverthewholenervoussystemandthat,fromraisingsomepartsofthebodytoapreternatural
stateofsensibility,thecommoncharacterofthosewhoarecalledVirtuosi,isgenerallymarkedwithnervous
debility.58
ThepioneerofacousticsErnstChladniwasoneofseveralscientistsandmusicianstodesignaformofglass
harmonica(theeuphon)thatcouldbeplayedwithakeyboardandtherebysavethefingersfromsuchdangerous
overstimulation.59Althoughanxietyaboutthemedicaleffectsonthefingersprovedrelativelyshortlived,theidea
thatmusicwasapotentandpotentiallypathologicalquasielectricalstimulantfortheauditorynervesremained
highlyinfluentialintothetwentiethcentury.

ElectricMusicinMusicCriticism

Goto:

Overthefirstfewdecadesofthenineteenthcentury,theideaofelectricmusicbegantofocuslessonthe
harmonica,whichwasgoingoutoffashioninanycase,andstartedtobeusedinthecontextofmusiccriticism.
Whereastheeighteenthcenturyaestheticoffeelingallmusichadbeenregarded,inasense,asaquestionofthe
nerves,bytheearlynineteenthcenturytherewasagrowingdichotomybetweenelectricalmusicthatstimulatedthe
nervesandseriousnoumenalmusicforthemind.Idealistmusicalaestheticsendeavoredtomakeseriousmusica
matteroftheheroicmasculinetranscendentalsubject,leavingmusicitdidnotapproveofintheinferior,implicitly
femininerealmofnervousstimulation.IntheworkofGermancriticslikeA.B.MarxandLudwigRellstab,a
divisiondevelopedbetweenseriousmusicthatwasaboutformandGeist(mindorspirit)andsensualorshallow
virtuosicmusicthatmerelytickledthenerves.60Suchmusicwasstillwithineliteculture,butinamarginalized,
domesticated,female,andoftenpathologicalcontext.
Bythe1840s,electricalmetaphorswerebeingincorporatedintothisunderstandingofmusic,andelectricmusicand
itsattendantmedicalconcernswereincreasinglyfocusedonspecificstylesofmusicinparticular,thesocalled
neudeutscheSchuleofFranzLisztandRichardWagner.61Thethrilloflisteningtoavirtuosoandnotorious
womanizerlikeLisztwasoftencomparedtoanelectricshock,withdubioussexualovertones.Forexample,when
Lisztplayedtoafemalementalpatientinanasylum,onecontemporarywrotethat[t]hepassageheplayed
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3935454/

62

6/13

16/01/2017

StimulatingMusic:ThePleasuresandDangersofElectricMusic,17501900

producedavisibleeffectonhersimilartothatofanelectricaldischarge.62ThepoetandcriticHeinrichHeine
turnedtothefullpanoplyofearlynineteenthcenturymedicalfads,includingelectricityinvariousforms,toexplain
Lisztseffectsasapianist,againespeciallyonwomen:
Aphysician,whosespecialityisfemalediseases,andwhomIaskedtoexplainthemagicourLisztexerted
uponhispublic,smiledinthestrangestmanner,andatthesametimesaidallsortsofthingsaboutmagnetism,
galvanism,electricity,ofthecontagionofaclosedhallfilledwithcountlesswaxlightsandseveralhundred
perfumedandperspiringhumanbeings,ofhistoricalepilepsy,ofthephenomenonoftickling,ofmusical
cantherides,andotherscabrousthings,which,Ibelieve,havereferencetothemysteriesofthebonadea.63
In1844,HeineagaincomparedLiszttoelectricalandmagneticoverstimulation,suggestingthattounderstand
Lisztoneshouldlookmoreintherealmofpathologythaninaesthetics.Lisztsperformancesseemedtohima
terrifyingexhibitionof[t]heelectriceffectofademonicnatureonthecrowdsqueezedtogether,theinfectious
poweroftheecstasy,andperhapsthemagnetismofthemusicitself,thatspiritualistsicknessofourtimethat
vibratesinalmostallofus.64
Thisunderstandingofelectricmusicintermsofmedicalizedhostilitytowardmusicalsensualitywasalsoreflected
inportrayalsofthemusicofRichardWagner.TheRevueTrimestrielle,inacartoon,portrayedBerliozandWagner
inamesmerizingcompetition,tryingtodefeateachotherelectrically.65Likewise,J.L.Klein,inhis1871
GeschichtedesDramas,wroteaboutfemaleWagneriansintermsofGalvaniselectrocutionoffrogslegstoput
femalelistenersfirmlyinapathologicalandsexualcontext.Wearinghishorroroffemalesexualityuponhissleeve,
hesuggestedthattheblashystericalfemalecourtparasiteswhoneedthisgalvanicstimulationbymassive
instrumentaltreatmenttothrowtheirpleasurewearyfrogslegsintoviolentconvulsions.66Theelectricallanguage
usedbynineteenthcenturycritics,justlikethatofphysiciansoftheperiod,thusdisplayednoneoftheindulgence
ofsensualitycommonduringtheEnlightenment.However,insomecircles,skepticismwasgrowingaboutthe
wholenotionofmusicasaformofquasielectricalstimulation.ThecriticandaestheticianEduardHanslick,for
instance,wasscathing,comparingbeliefinmusicselectricalcurativepowerstoProfessorGoldbergersgalvano
electricrheumatismchains.67
Bythetwentiethcentury,electricitywouldbeunderstoodinaverydifferentcontext.Alreadyinthe1880s,the
radicalrecastingofelectricalmusicasmachinelikewasalreadybeginning,drivenonbyadvancesinelectrical
motorsinthewakeofMichaelFaradaysworkearlierinthecentury.Electricalinstrumentsofvariouskindswere
beinginventedandjoiningtherapidlyexpandingranksofelectricaltechnologyavailable.68In1881,Wagners
musicwasplayeddownatelephone,andtheSwanUnitedElectricLightCompanyinstalledelectriclightsinthe
LondonSavoytheater.By1894,theGuildofSaintCecilia,aLondonexperimentalmusictherapygroup,was
proposingbuildingalargehall,inwhichmusicshallbegiventhroughoutallhoursofthedayandnight.This
musictobeconveyedbytelephoneattachedtocertainwardsineachofthechiefLondonhospitals.69Although
theideaofelectricitykeptmanyofitseroticassociationsforseveraldecades(electricgirdlesforfertilityand
potencydidaroaringtrade),thebodyelectricwasgraduallyreplacedbythedecidedlyuneroticelectricappliance
astheprincipalcontextinwhichelectricitywasunderstood.70In1903,RichardStrauss,stillregardedasafire
breathingmodernist,wasportrayedinacartoonaselectricallyexecutingsomeonewithhisoperaElektra,alluding
toEdisonsnewelectricalchair.71Electricmusicwaslosingmanyofitssexualovertonesasitwasredefinedasa
wayofrepresentingfuturisticutopiasandalienationinatechnologicalworld.
Duringtheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturies,however,themeaningsattributedtoelectricmusictellusagreat
dealabouttheperiodsassumptionsaboutmusic,thebody,andsexuality.Inparticular,debateonelectricmusic
illuminatestheimplicationsofthereplacementoftheoldcosmologicalviewofmusicbytheideaofmusicasa
formofstimulation.Thepowerofmusictodirectlyexcitethebodyandthesoul,seeminglytobypasstherational
mindandticklethesenses,couldbebothtitillatingandalarming.Musicspowertooverwhelmtheselfcontrolof
listenershadbeenthesubjectofamoralcritiquesincePlato.Fortheemergingbourgeoisselfconstitutingsubject,
withitscultureofrestraintandautonomy,thethreatofmusictotheselfseemedespeciallyacute.Theideaofmusic
asastimulant,aselectric,createdthebasisforamedicalversionofthiscritique,providingaphysicalbasisfor
hostilitytotheuncannyeffectsofmusic.Alongwithmanyotheraspectsoflife,thedangersoferoticelectricmusic
werethusrecastasaconcernforthephysicianratherthanforthepriest.Later,manyofthesamefearswouldbe
expressedintermsofmusicssupposedabilitytohypnotizeorbrainwashlistenersapanicthathasbeen
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3935454/

7/13

16/01/2017

StimulatingMusic:ThePleasuresandDangersofElectricMusic,17501900

especiallyinfluentialduringthelastthirtyyearsregardingrockmusic.Thelanguageofelectricmusicmayhave
changeditsassociationssincethenineteenthcentury,butthesameanxietiesaboutmusicsimpactonthebodyand
themindcontinuetoaffectdiscussionsofmusictothisday.

References

Goto:

1.SeeAspizH.TheBodyElectric:Science,SexandMetaphor.WaltWhitmanReview.1978(4):24,137142.
2.SeeGoukPenelope.RaisingSpiritsandRestoringSouls:EarlyModernMedicalExplanationsforMusics
Effects.In:ErlmannV,editor.HearingCultures:EssaysonSound,Listening,andModernity.BergOxford:2004.
pp.87105.andGoukPenelope.Music,MelancholyandMedicalSpiritsinEarlyModernThought.In:HordenP,
editor.MusicasMedicine:AHistoryofMusicTherapysinceAntiquity.AshgatePublishingFarnham,UK:2000.
pp.173194.
3.GoukPenelope.Music,Science,andNaturalMagicinSeventeenthCenturyEngland.YaleUniversityPress
NewHaven,CT:1999.pp.1415.FoucaultMichel.TheOrderofThings:AnArchaeologyoftheHuman
Sciences.VintageNewYork:1973.
4.SeeEhrmannHerfortSabine.DasVornehmsteinderMusikisteinegute,fliessende,beweglicheMelodie:
JohannMatthesonunddieEmpfindsamkeit.In:SchmalzriedtSiegfried.,editor.AspektederMusikdesBarocks:
AuffhrungspraxisundStil:BerichtberdieSymposienderinternationalenHndelAkademieKarlsruhe,2001
2004.LaaberVerlagKarlsruhe:2006.pp.227250.
5.ZimmerCarl.SoulMadeFlesh.FreePressNewYork:2004.
6.RousseauGS.ScienceandtheDiscoveryoftheImaginationinEnlightenedEngland.EighteenthCentury
Studies.19693(1):108135.[PubMed]
7.OffraydelaMettrieJulien.LhommeMachine.Leiden1748.SteigerwaldJrn,SteigerwaldJrn,Watzke
Daniela.Reiz,Imagination,Aufmerksamkeit:ErregungundSteuerungvonEinbildungskraftimklassischen
Zeitalter(16801830)Knigshausen&NeumannWrzburg:2003.VomReizderImagination.TheorieundPraxis
derEinbildungskraftimFeldderSexologie:dasBeispielLaMettriepp.105126.Formoreonautomata,nerves,
andgender,see:ParkJulie.PainsandPleasuresoftheAutomaton:FrancesBurneysMechanicsofAbjection.
EighteenthCenturyStudies.200640(1):2349.andWetmoreAlex.SympathyMachines:MenofFeelingandthe
Automaton.EighteenthCenturyStudies.200943(1):3754.
8.DiderotDenis.DAlembertsDream.In:BarzunJacques,BowenRalphH.,translators.RameausNephewand
OtherWorks.HackettPublishingCompanyIndianapolis:2001.pp.92176.(quoteonp.101)See:Christensen
Thomas.BemetzriedersDream:DiderotandthePathologyofTonalSensibilityintheLeconsdeclavecin.In:
AusternLindaPhyllis.,editor.Music,Sensation,andSensuality.RoutledgeNewYork:2002.pp.3956.and
ErlmannVeit.ReasonandResonance:AHistoryofModernAurality.ZoneBooksBrooklyn,NY:2010.
9.Gouk,RaisingSpiritsandRestoringSouls(above,n.2),p.92BrocklesbywasDr.Johnsonsphysician.
10.BrowneRichard.MedicinaMusicaoraMechanicalEssayontheEffectsofSingingMusic,andDancingon
HumanBodies.J.CookeLondon:1729.p.33.
11.KauschJohannJoseph.PsychologischeAbhandlungberdenEinfluderTneundinsbesonderederMusik
aufdieSeelenebsteinemAnhangberdenunmittelbarenZweckderschnenKnste.JohannFriedrichKorn
Breslau:1782.
12.Thereisanextraordinarylevelofcontinuityfromoldertraditionshere.AsPenelopeGoukpointsout,theidea
ofsympathybetweenmusicandthebodypredatesthenerveparadigmseeGouk,Music,Melancholyand
MedicalSpiritsinEarlyModernThought(above,n.2).
13.WebbDaniel.ObservationsontheCorrespondencebetweenPoetryandMusic.J.DodsleyLondon:1769.p.
6.
14.RileyMatthew.MusicalListeningintheGermanEnlightenment.AshgatePublishingFarnham,UK:2004.p.
72.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3935454/

8/13

16/01/2017

StimulatingMusic:ThePleasuresandDangersofElectricMusic,17501900

15.SpillaneJD.TheDoctrineoftheNerves.OxfordUniversityPressOxford:1981.LeschJohn.Scienceand
MedicineinFrance:TheEmergenceofExperimentalPhysiology,17901855.HarvardUniversityPress
Cambridge,MA:1984.RothschuhK.HistoryofPhysiology.KriegerNewYork:1973.HeilbronJL.Electricity
intheSeventeenthandEighteenthCenturies:AStudyofEarlyModernPhysics.UniversityofCaliforniaPress
Berkeley:1979.vonHallerAlbrecht.ADissertationontheSensibleandIrritablePartsofAnimals.Johns
HopkinsUniversityPressBaltimore:1936.SteinkeHubert.IrritatingExperiments:HallersConceptandthe
EuropeanControversyonIrritabilityandSensibility,175090.EditionsRodopiB.V.Amsterdam:2005.[PubMed]
MllerHJ.DieBegriffeReizbarkeitundReiz.GustavFischerVerlagStuttgart:1975.
16.WelshCaroline.TnesindTastenhhererSayteninunsDenkfigurendesbergangszwischenKrperund
Seele.In:BrandstetterGabriele,NeumannGerhard.,editors.RomantischeWissenspoetikum1800.Knigshausen
&NeumanWrzburg:2004.pp.7390.
17.StillingfleetBenjamin.PrinciplesandPowerofHarmony.ThoemmesPressBristol,UK:1771reprint2003.
pp.138140.
18.HartleyDavid.ObservationsonMan,hisFrame,hisDuty,andhisExpectations.ThomasTeggLondon:1749
reprint1834.p.5.
19.See:SarafianosAris.TheContractilityofBurkesSublimeandHeterodoxiesinMedicineandArt.Journalof
theHistoryofIdeas.200869(1):2348.
20.Ichbildemirsogarein,dasderMenschegesundsey,wennalleFsercheneineihrerDickeundLnge
dargestaltproportionierteSpannungbesitzen,dasichihreTonewiedieConsonantieninderMusikverhalten,und
kranck,wennsiesichwiedieDissonantienverhalten.Hemeantthisquiteliterally,arguingthatsensationandlife
itselfcouldnotoccurwithoutsuchavibration.See:NicolaiErnstAnton.DieVerbindungderMusikmitder
Arzneygelahrheit.CarlHermannHemmerdeHalle:1745.pp.viiix.
21.See:RothschuhKE.VonderIdeebiszumNachweisdertierischenElektrizitt.SudhoffsArchiv.
196044(1):2544.(esp.pp.2627)RothschuhKE.PhysiologieimWerden.GustavFischerVerlagStuttgart:
1969.pp.111138.ReeseWalter.AHistoryofNeurology.NewYork:1959.pp.5354.andHagnerMichael.
DieelektrischeErregbarkeitdesGehirns:ZurKonjunktureinesExperiments.In:RheinsbergerHansJrg,Hagner
Michael.,editors.DieExperimentalisierungdesLebens:ExperimentalsystemeindenbiologischenWissenschaften,
18501950.AkademieVerlagBerlin:1993.pp.97115.
22.See:SuttonGeoffrey.ScienceforaPoliteSociety:Gender,Culture,andtheDemonstrationofEnlightenment.
WestviewPressBoulder,CO:1995.
23.BertucciPaola.SparksintheDark:TheAttractionofElectricityintheEighteenthCentury.Endeavour.
200731(3):8893.[PubMed]
24.BenzErnst.FranzAntonMesmerunddiephilosophischenGrundlagendesanimalischenMagnetismus.Franz
SteinerVerlagWiesbaden:1977.pp.1415.
25.Beingofaratherpoeticalbent,Bosewroteofhisexperimentaltrick:IkissedVenus,standingonpitch/It
painedmetothequick.Mylipstrembled/Mymouthquivered,myteethalmostbroke.See:WoskJulie.Women
andtheMachine:RepresentationsfromtheSpinningWheeltotheElectronicAge.JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress
Baltimore:2001.p.68.
26.InchbaldElizabeth.AnimalMagnetism,aFarce.P.ByronLondon:1789.
27.Goethewrotethat[w]earehavesomethingofanelectricalandmagneticpowerinusandhave,likemagnets
themselves,apowerofattractionandrepulsion,dependingonwhetherwecomeintocontactwithsimilaror
dissimilarthings.Thismagneticforceisespeciallystrongbetweenloversandevenworksoverdistances.See:
EckermannJP.GesprchemitGoetheindenletztenJahrenseinesLebens(18231832)F.A.BrochLeipzig:1868.
pp.1137.(3vols.)
28.RitterJohannWilhelm.FragmenteausdemNachlasseeinesjungenPhysikers.Heidelberg:1810.p.229.
(addendum)Seealso:BirrellGordon.St.CeciliaandthePowerofElectricity.GermanQuarterly.62(1):7284.and
StraessleThomas.DasHrenisteinSehenvonunddurchinnen:JohannWilhelmRitterundtheAestheticsof

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3935454/

9/13

16/01/2017

StimulatingMusic:ThePleasuresandDangersofElectricMusic,17501900

Music.In:DonovanSiobhn,ElliottRobin.,editors.MusicandLiteratureinGermanRomanticism.Camden
HouseRochester,NY:2004.pp.2742.
29.MitdenSchwingungenderelektrischenSpannungderLebensprozesseanalogseinsee:ProchoskaGeorg.
VersucheinerempirischenDarstellungdespolarischenNaturgesetzes.CamesinaVienna:1815.p.61.von
SchubertGotthilfHeinrich.AhndungeneinerallgemeinenGeschichtedesLebens.Leipzig:1806.Einehhere
Elektrizittodervielmehreineandersmodificiertepp.1330.
30.BerliozHector.In:TheArtofMusicandOtherEssays.CsicseryRnayElizabeth.,editor.IndianaUniversity
PressBloomington:1994.pp.6067.
31.ChometHector.TheInfluenceofMusiconHealthandLife.G.P.PutnamsSonsNewYork:1875.pp.238pp.
175176.
32.See:DarntonRobert.MesmerismandtheEndoftheEnlightenment.HarvardUniversityPressCambridge,
MA:1968.andWinterAlison.Mesmerized:PowersofMindinVictorianBritain.UniversityofChicagoPress
Chicago:1998.FormoreonMesmersdebttoKircherandothers,seeBenz,FranzAntonMesmer(above,n.24)
andHadlockHeather.MadLoves:WomenandMusicinOffenbachsLesContesdHoffmann.Princeton
UniversityPressPrinceton,NJ:2000.pp.4266.Mesmerscareerwascloselyconnectedtomusicinmanyways.
HecametopublicnoticeaftercuringthepianistMarieParadisofherblindness,attheprice,itseems,ofruining
bothhernervesandpianotechnique.Mesmerisprincipallyknowninmusicalcirclesbecauseofhislinkstothe
MozartfamilyandthesatiricalportrayalofanimalmagnetisminCosifantutte.See:SteptoeA.MesmerandCosi
fantutte.MusicandLetters.198667(3):248255.PolzonenettiP.MesmerizingAdultery:Cosifantutteandthe
KormannScandal.CambridgeOperaJournal.200214(3):263296.andPattieFrank.MesmerandAnimal
Magnetism.HamiltonEdmonton,AB:1994.pp.11pp.3033.
33.SchneiderPJ.UeberMesmersPersnlichkeit.MorgenblattfrgebildeteLeser.1820383:11331134.Gallo
DavidA.,FingerStanley.ThePowerofaMusicalInstrument:Franklin,theMozarts,Mesmer,andtheGlass
Armonica.HistoryofPsychology.20003(4):326343.(esp.p.337)[PubMed]
34.WirthJU.TheoriedesSomnabulismusoderdesthierischenMagnetismus.ScheibleLeipzig:1836.p.180.
KretschmarGeschichteeinesmitmerkwrdigenErscheinungenverbundendenIdiosomnambulismus.Archivfr
denthierischenMagnetismus.182412(1):158.(esp.p.4142)SpiritusBeobachtungenuberdieHeilkraftdes
animalischenMagnetismus.ArchivfrdenthierischenMagnetismus.18195(3):73107.
35.MagriniLuigi.Sullamusicaesulmagnetismoanimale.GiovanniResnatiMilan:1842.p.30.Therelationship
betweenmusicandtheelectriceffectsofanimalmagnetismwasportrayedinavarietyofdifferentcontextsby
mesmerists,reflectingthedivisionsbetweenpractitionerswholongedforscientificrespectabilityandthosewho
weremoreopentothemoreoccultaspectsofmesmerism.Anexampleofthelatterrelatedtomusicwasprovided
byGeorgKieserin1822,whenhesuggestedthatminorchords,alongwithmoonlight,garlic,incense,andmirrors,
wasgoodforencouragingthefunctionofanimalmagnetismsee:Kieser.SystemdesTellurismusoderthierischen
Magnetismus.EinHandbuchfrNaturforscherundAerzte.Vol.1.HerbigLeipzig:1822.pp.448478.(2vols.)
36.Womenarealwaysmagnetizedbymenthelaststage,whichterminatesthesweetestemotions,isoftena
convulsioncitedinBinetAlfred,FrCharles.AnimalMagnetism.KeganandPaulLondon:1887.pp.1920.
37.KlugeCarlAlexanderFerdinand.VersucheinerDarstellungdesanimalischenMagnetismusalsHeilmittel.
RealschulbuchhandlungBerlin:1818.p.304.Withrhetoriclikethis,itisnotsurprisingthat,alongwiththemusic
teacher,themesmeristbecameastockcharacterinsocialfearsabouttheseductionofinnocent,respectableladies.
In1790,waggishScottishphysicianJamesMakittrickAdairwroteasatireonmesmerismthatmockedwhathesaw
asitslasciviousnessandhypocrisy.Hehashismesmeristexplainthatmagneticalinfluencewasconveyedchiefly
bytwoorgansofsense,thesightandthetouch.Henceinpublicmagneticalcures,theformerwaschiefly
employedbutthat,inprivatepracticethelatterwasmoresuccessful:andhenceitwasthatmatronswereless
subjecttohystericsthanwidowsormaidens,whoinconsequenceofmatrimonialconnexionwithpropersubjects,
oftenexperienced,ifnotthecure,atleastamitigationoftheirdistress.Heaccountedforthisdifferenceinthe
effectsonthetwosensesbyobservingthatasinmineral,soinanimalmagnetism,theattractionwasstrongestat
thepointofcontact.See:G.F,AdairJamesMakittrick.EssayonaNonDescript,orNewlyInventedDiseaseIts
Nature,Causes,andMeansofRelief.J.P.BatemanLondon:1790.p.15.Tounderlinethispoint,Adairwrotean
anecdotedowninthemarginsofhisowncopyofthebook:NotmanymonthsagoacertainBaronetdetectedhis
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3935454/

10/13

16/01/2017

StimulatingMusic:ThePleasuresandDangersofElectricMusic,17501900

LadysmagnetizingDoctorintheactofadministeringtoherLadyshipinamodenotstrictlyprofessional.Hemade
hisescapefromthehouse,followedbytheenragedBaronet,whomheoutstrippedintheraceandleftthecuckold
tohaverecoursetolegalvengeance(ibid.,p.14).HandwrittennoteinauthorsowncopyintheRoyalCollegeof
PhysiciansEdinburghLibrary(catalogno.TLM5.5).
38.Entwicklungskrankheiten.JournalfrGeburtshilfe,FrauenzimmerundKinderkrankheiten.18223:160164.
(quoteonp.164)
39.SeeWilsonLindsay.WomenandMedicineintheFrenchEnlightenment:TheDebateoverMaladiesdes
Femmes.JohnsHopkinsUniversityPressBaltimore:1993.pp.104124.andBarkerBenfieldGJ.TheSpermatic
Economy:ANineteenthCenturyViewofSexuality.FeministStudies.19721(1):4574.
40.FaraPatricia.AnEntertainmentforAngels:ElectricityintheEnlightenment.IconBooksDuxford,UK:2002.
p.57.Seealso:SigauddelaFondJosephAignan.PrcisHistoriqueetExprimentaldesPhnomneslectrique.
Paris:1781.pp.283292.(quoteonp.285)
41.GrahamwouldendhisdayspromotingearthbathingandhisownidiosyncraticversionofChristianity.See:
PorterRoy.HealthforSale.ManchesterUniversityPressManchester:1989.pp.157174.andSysonLydia.
DoctorofLove:JamesGrahamandHisCelestialBed.AlmaBooksRichmond,UK:2008.
42.GrahamJames.ALectureontheGeneration,Increase,andImprovementoftheHumanSpecies!Interspersed
withPreceptsforthePreservationandExaltationofPersonalBeautyandLoveliness(1783)2010Gale
EighteenthCenturyCollectionsOnline.http://mlr.com/DigitalCollections/products/ecco/
43.See:GreenwayJL.NervousDiseaseandElectricMedicine.In:WrobelArthur.,editor.PseudoScienceand
SocietyinNineteenthCenturyAmerica.UniversityPressofKentuckyLexington:1987.pp.4673.(quoteonp.
50)AsGrahamexplainedhimself,themusicwasproducedbyalargefinetonedorgan,withtheusualvarietyof
stops.Thisorgan,acoupleofclarionettes,acoupleofmellifluousGermanflutes,andoneofthesweetestfemale
voicesinEngland,composemybandofmedicalmusic.See:Graham.ASketchor,ashortdescriptionofDr.
Grahamsmedicalapparatus,&c,erectedatthebeginningoftheyear1780,inhishouse,ontheRoyalTerrace,
Adelphi,London.Almon,Becket,RichardsonandUrquhartLondon:1780.p.48.
44.Spillane,TheDoctrineoftheNerves(above,n.15),p.138.
45.BrownJohn.ElementsofMedicine.WebsterPhiladelphia:1814.BynumWF,PorterRoy,editors.
BrunonianisminBritainandEurope.WellcomeInstitutefortheHistoryofMedicineLondon:1988.Henkelmann
Thomas.ZurGeschichtedespathophysiologischenDenkens:JohnBrown(173588)undseinSystemderMedizin.
SpringerVerlagHeidelberg:1981.
46.AnzThomas.GesundoderKrank?J.B.MetzlerscheVerlagStuttgart:1989.p.6.
47.MartensenRobert.TheTransformationofEve:WomensBodies,MedicineandCultureinEarlyModern
England.In:PorterRoy,TeichMikuls.,editors.SexualKnowledge,SexualScience:TheHistoryofAttitudesto
Sexuality.CambridgeUniversityPressCambridge:1994.pp.107133.Seealso:LaqueurThomas.MakingSex:
BodyandGenderfromtheGreekstoFreud.CambridgeUniversityPressCambridge:1990.StolbergMichael.A
WomanDowntoHerBones:TheAnatomyofSexualDifferenceintheSixteenthandEarlySeventeenthCenturies.
Isis.200394(2):274299.[PubMed]andParkKatharine,NyeRobert.DestinyisAnatomy.NewRepublic.1991
Feb18:5357.
48.RaudnitzLeopold.DieMusikalsHeilmittel.GottliebHaaseShnePrague:1840.pp.4041.
49.JohnsonJames.TheEconomyofHealth.S.HighleyLondon:1837.pp.3234.
50.NightingalesPortraitureofMethodism.TheAntiJacobin.180933:236253.361375(quoteonp.373)
51.HadlockHeather.SonorousBodies:WomenandtheGlassHarmonica.JournaloftheAmericanMusicological
Society.200053(3):507542.KingA.Hyatt.TheMusicalGlassesandGlassHarmonica,Proceedingsofthe
RoyalMusicalAssociation.72(1945):97122.
52.Lharmonicapouvaitavoirplusdefftssurlorganedelpuie,enraisondelelectricite,dontlesondevenait
conducteurjaifaitcommuniquerlefortpianoavecconducteurdelamachineelectriquesee:deVeaumorel
Caullet.AphorismedeM.Mesmer.Paris:1785.p.174.Seealso:HalleJohannSamuel.FortgesetzteMagie:oder,
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3935454/

11/13

16/01/2017

StimulatingMusic:ThePleasuresandDangersofElectricMusic,17501900

dieZauberkraeftederNatur.JoachimPauliBerlin:1788.p.328.andSchulerM.MusikimMesmerismus.
FreiburgerUniversiattsbltter.198693:2331.(esp.p.25)
53.MendelH.MusikalischesConservationsLexicon.R.OppenheimBerlin:1873.p.84.GalloandFinger,The
PowerofaMusicalInstrument(above,n.33),p.341.
54.See:VeringAlbertMathias.PsychischeHeilkunde.Vol.1.Leipzig:18171821.p.149.(2vols.)Bach
HeinrichAmadeus.Demusiceseffectuinhominesanoetaegroto.Berlin:1817.p.17.BeckerJohannesKarl.De
musicaevisalutari.Berlin:1821.p.22.vonLenhossekMichael.DarstellungdesmenschlichenGemuethsin
seinenBeziehungenzumgeistigenundleiblichenLeben.Vol.1.Vienna:1834.p.497.andSteinbeckFriedrichA.
Demusicesatquepoeseosvisalutarioperasprodromus.Berlin:1826.p.43.Seealso:KennawayJames.From
SensibilitytoPathology:TheOriginsofNervousMusicaround1800.JournaloftheHistoryofMedicineand
AlliedSciences.201065(3):396426.[PMCfreearticle][PubMed]
55.WillichAnthonyFlorianMadinger.LecturesonDietandRegimen.London:1799.pp.460461.(emphasis
added)
56.HoffmannETA.In:TheLifeandOpinionoftheTomcatMurr.BellAnthea.,editor.PenguinHarmondsworth,
UK:1999.p.106.BarkhoffJ.TneundStrme.ZuTechnikundAesthetikderGlasharmonikaimMesmerismus
undbeiE.T.A.Hoffmann.In:HerrmannB,ThumsB,editors.AesthetischeErfindungderModerne.Wrzburg:
KnigshausenundNeumann2003.pp.165191.Seealso:Barkhoff,vonEngelhardtD,WisskirchenH.Von
SchillersRubernzuShelleysFrankenstein:WissenschaftundLiteraturimDialogum1800.SchattauerStuttgart:
2006.MesmerismuszwischenWissenschaftundNarration.PathogenesundcurativesErzhlenbeiE.T.A.
Hoffmannpp.8396.Barkhoff.MagnetischeFiktionen:LiterarisierungdesMesmerismusinderRomantik.J.B.
MetzlerStuttgart:1995.and:BirrellGordon.KleistsSt.CeciliaandthePowerofElectricity.GermanQuarterly.
198962(1):7284.
57.See:Willich,LecturesonDietandRegimen(above,n.55),pp.460461.FingerStanley,GalloDA.TheMusic
ofMadness:FranklinsArmonicaandtheVulnerableNervousSystem.In:RoseClifford.,editor.Neurologyofthe
Arts.ImperialCollegePressLondon:2004.pp.207237.
58.Willich,LecturesonDietandRegimen(above,n.55),pp.460461.
59.HigginsWM.ThePhilosophyofSoundandHistoryofMusic.BradburyandEvansLondon:1838.p.107.An
alternativesolutionwastousemedicinaltreatmentstostrengthentheskinonthefingertipstoavoidnervous
feversbyputtingsulphateofalumenintinctureofgallsandaddingsawdustintoaglovesee:CrellAF.The
FamilyOracleofHealth:Economy,MedicineandGoodLiving.KnightLondon:1824.p.229.
60.MarxAB.LudwigvanBeethoven.LebenundSchaffen.GeorgOlmsHildesheim:1859.1979.(reprint)
RellstabLudwig.DieGestaltungderOperseitMozart.DieWissenschaftenim19.Jahrhundert.18594(5):242
296.(esp.p.272)Seealso:ApplegateCelia,PamelaPotter.,editors.MusicandGermanNationalIdentity.
UniversityofChicagoPressChicago:2002.
61.KennawayJames.SingingtheBodyElectric:NervousMusicinFindeSicleLiterature.In:StilesAnne.,
editor.NeurologyandLiterature,18601920.PalgraveMacmillanBasingstoke,UK:2007.KennawayJames.
TheWagnerCase:NietzschesUseofPsychiatryinHisWagnerBooks.NewGermanReview.200520:8495.
62.See:WalkerAlan.FranzLiszt.Vol.1.CornellUniversityPressIthaca,NY:1987.p.152.(2vols.)seealso:
WilliamsA.PortraitofLisztbyHimselfandHisContemporaries.ClarendonOxford:1990.pp.103105.
63.SonneckOG,MartensFH,editors.HeinrichHeinesMusicalFeuilletons.MusicalQuarterly.19228(3):435
468.(quoteonp.458)
64.HeineHeinrich.MusikalischeSaisoninParis,AllgemeineZeitung,25April1844,inHeine.In:Hansen
Volkmar.,editor.HistorischkritischeGesamtausgabederWerke.1.Vol.13.HoffmannundCampeHamburg:
1988.p.126.
65.RevueTrimestrielle,9January1864see:HordernPeregrine.,editor.MusicasMedicine:TheHistoryofMusic
TherapysinceAntiquity.AshgatePublishingFarnham,UK:2000.p.328.
66.SlonimskyNicolas.LexiconofMusicalInvective.UniversityofWashingtonPressSeattle:1965.p.237.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3935454/

12/13

16/01/2017

StimulatingMusic:ThePleasuresandDangersofElectricMusic,17501900

67.HanslickEduard.OntheMusicallyBeautiful.HackettPublishingCompanyIndianapolis:1986.p.53.Fora
fascinatingexampleofalaterdiscourseonelectricmusic,see:DierigSven,HagnerMichael.EcceCortex:Beitrge
zurGeschichtedesmodernenGehirns.WallsteinVerlagGttingen:1999.HirngespensteamKlavier:Ueber
ChopinisierteNervensaitenimBerlinerFindeSiclepp.5074.andMcCarrenFelicia.TheSymptomaticAct
circa1900:Hysteria,Hypnosis,Electricity,Dance.CriticalInquiry.199524(4):748774.
68.See:DonningtonRobert.MusicandItsInstruments.MethuenLondon:1982.pp.207208.Electric
instrumentshaveamuchlongerhistorythanonemightsuppose,datingbackatleasttoJeanBaptistedelaBordes
clavessinlectriqueof1761see:delaBorde.Leclavessinlectriqueavecunenouvellethoriedumchanismeet
desphnomenesdel'lectricit.MinkoffGeneva:1997.Seealso:GrossJohannFriedrich.ElektrischePausen.
ChristianGottlobHilschernLeipzig:1776.p.5.andSchifferMichaelB.DrawtheLightningDown:Benjamin
FranklinandElectricalTechnologyintheAgeofEnlightenment.UniversityofCaliforniaPressBerkeley:2003.p.
245.
69.MusicasMedicine.ChambersJournalofPopularLiterature,Science,andArt.1894532(6):145146.
70.See:AsendorfChristoph.BatteriesofLife:OntheHistoryofThingsandTheirPerceptioninModernity.
UniversityofCaliforniaPressBerkeley:1993.Wosk,WomenandtheMachine(above,n.25)GoodayG.
DomesticatingElectricity:Technology,UncertaintyandGender,18801914.PickeringandChattoLondon:2008.
KillenAndreas.BerlinElectropolis:Shock,Nerves,andGermanModernity.UniversityofCaliforniaPress
Berkeley:2006.p.20.andForthChristopher.NeurastheniaandManhoodinFindeSicleFrance.In:PorterRoy,
GijswijtHofstraMarijke.,editors.CulturesofNeurasthenia:FromBeardtotheFirstWorldWar.Rodopi
Amsterdam:2001.pp.329361.(esp.p.351)[PubMed]
71.See:StorckKarl.MusikundMusikerinKarikaturundSatire.LaaberOldenburg:1910.p.109.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3935454/

13/13