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PETROLEUM SCIENCE
AND ENGINEERING
(Volume 14)
S.L. Sah
KALPAZ PUBLICATIONS
Left Blank
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF
PETROLEUM SCIENCE
AND ENGINEERING
(Volume 14)
S.L.Sah
IB
PDBucmONS
KALPAZ PUBLICATIONS
DELHI-11 0052
S.L. Sah
ISBN: 978-81-7835-652-5
Left Blank
(CONTENTS )
Preface
11
1.
15
2.
Fundamentals of Pleontology
101
3.
Appendices
241
245
265
280
288
Left Blank
PREFACE
"We usually find oil in new pla<:e with old ideas. Sometimes we fmd
oil in an old place with a new idea. But we seldom find oil in an old place
with an old idea. Several times in the past have thought that we were
running out of oil, when actually we were running out of ideas".
Professor Parke A Dickey
Fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural ~as. currently supply around
85 per cent of the world's energy needs, and according to predictions
by the International Energy Agency, will continue to'do so for many years
to come. The burning offossil fuels is a major source-of excess CO 2, the
gas that has most contributed to the increased concentration of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. There is an urgent need to reduce
the atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases that are likely to
produce rapid, human-induced climate change. It is possible to decrease
greenhouse gas emissions through increased energy efficiency, switching
to lower carbon-intensive fuels, enhancing natural carbon sinks
(vegetation), making greater use of renewable energy and through
geosequestration, the long-term geological storage of CO2 ,
Changes in the exploration business require a new perspective on
technology development and implementation. Due to significant advances
in sensor technologies in electromagnetic and potential field technologies
as well as in seismic technologies, there is a real opportunity to exploit
new high resolution exploration method based on richer physical
principles that go beyond just conventional seismic technology, e.g.,
newly developed electromagnetic technologies allow for hydrocarbon
charge testing remotely. Combining several of these "non-seismic"
technologies together with seismic measurements allows for reducing
sub-surface risk more than any of the individual measurements would
be able to do. These new technologies will change conventional
exploration methods, which are largely based on seismic technologies,
e.g., rock physics requires to underpin quantitative interpretation. In the
immediate future, efforts will concentrate on developing 'joint inversion"
of engineering, geologic and geophysical data. Further progress in
geosciences is likely to be based on "coordinated advances" involving
12
Preface
13
S.L.SAH
Left Blank
CD
WELL LOGS INTERPRETATION
Introduction
When the interpreter comes to establish a tie between his seismic
sections and a borehole section he faces the problem of making a direct
correlation between patterns of reflectors which are scaled vertically in
tenns of two-way reflection time and the realities of sub-surface geology
as determined by lithological logging of rock chippings and cores
obtained from a borehole. The geologist's lithologic~l, log is of prime
importance in that it provides the basis for identification of reflectors in
tenns of boundaries between rocks of different type. Other geological
work on the cores and chippings aim to establish the age and stratigraphy
of the geological section and the presented results of exploration drilling
normally include a lithostratigraphic log (rocks described in tenns of
lithology) as well as a chrono-stratigraphic scale (the rock units
subdivided according to age).
It is standard industry practice that at various stages during the
drilling of a well and upon reaching total depth (TD) geophysical logging
tests are made with a variety of instruments. These are lowered to the
bottom of the well, as drilled at the time oflogging, on a wire line which
is usually a multicore electrical cable on which the logging tools can be
suspended. The logging tools are then drawn upwards through the
borehole, measurements of various parameters being made either
continuously or by tests at selected horizons. The processed results of
these geophysical tools provide data which allow identification of the
interrelation between the seismic section time scale and the borehole
section depth scale and thereby directly correlation between reflector
pattern and stratigraphy. These measurements also provide data on the
physical properties of the rocks penetrated by the borehole and such
data are important to a geological understanding of the variation in
reflector pattern which can be seen in seismic sections throughout an
exploration province. As far as the seismic interpreter is concerned, the
16
~;:"Hl i:.J,UC!\.'US
I.
..
rute\.\ tis1
ohr n.)
--'--r-' ---,.~.
.
t.
.+--.1.-.-1-
t..... _.l_.
- \1-_.
.~-:.-.-r-t.':- .. ,.-+ I
T=t=~.
~t;t.~tn
L"
U
,
_,',
_ ....
_.
J 5
~phe~1cAlly Focused
0:tu!1I- 'lDclu.~1.DJl_
:L
.,
_.. i--
! tmlTh
.'
\.
-~
t .
.
.
_..
.
r--~-I,.!
.tt
r-f-..
_ .... ~_.....__ _
'~ti}~
-,.E~ji;'~t,
.L: ...
.... "
~:.
:'t
-----
to.
I
I
!
1.-.-,.... .-(~"
'-~- ~l
-~..
I
~ '-~-~
\
..
~
~
~
~
~
~
a-
s
;::t
_ _ ~ GA'
.- ....
~~
~~:.,
~~
. _.
--,
+-.
,r--....~,.,...I
' ..
~
~
~"~ I.AS
~.
..... f"-= .
"
~,.:
._
-=.":'"~~Lt.C.t t
~ 1 ....
..)_ .. \~1o.ep!.c.::!!JL.~
~ b-~.I ....
..
,~
. ...~ 1->..
.
I'~'-"'-'
~
-- -.~ ...-...... -.
I H.. - .- .. :. "-
. ''5""
.__ . -t.--~"
i~O
~..
R1
..
- - _. ~I!._ ~onlC
~C'
''':',
:.
-.- I-
--
.
'-'
~
.
~~
~H -.
-.
.
..
1--
.
I
t;AS-
c: ..".
::
.,
.-
f:::
__ L-__ .
Fig. I. A compensated neutron and sonic log on the Louisiana Gulf Coast showing gas sands (Courtesy Schlumberger).
-J .
18
and the acoustic is in travel time. In some of the water zones there is an
apparent gas separation.
Advanced Gas Diction
... ( 1)
where B is 0.7 for gas zones and 0.9 for oil zones. Equation (1) is only
approximate. The correction is of course dependent upon little or no
invasion, which is usually the case for uncompacted formations. If
invasion is deep, greater than about one foot from the side of wellbore,
there is a good chance the gas effect will not show up on the acoustic
log. When the formation is very uncompacted, with shale travel times of
over 125 1-1 sec/ft, using equation (1) is not sufficient. Travel times in gas
zones off of Nigeria was as high as 220 1-1 sec/ft. These cannot be
corrected back to a reasonable porosity. In cases where the acoustic log
cannot be corrected it is common practice to obtain the porosity in a
nearby water bearing zone and assume the gas bearing zone has the same
porosity. The acoustic log corrections for gas are not truely quantitative.
19
Gas in the field of vision of the density log reduces the bulk density
and thus shows up as an apparent increase in porosity. The density log
is easier to handle than the acoustic log as the density log is controlled
by known theory. The bulk density is related to the rock and fluid by the
following equations:
Ph = <l>Pf+ (1- <1 Pma
Pf = SwPw + She Phe
and
...(2)
... (3)
where
Ph = bulk on total density
Pf = factional density
Pma
Sw
water saturation
Pw
water density
She
hydrocarbon saturation
Phc
S
hydrocarbon density
decimal fraction of pore space (saturation)
decimal fraction porosity
<I>
SxoPf
Pma -Pb
Pma - Pr
...(4)
... (5)
Sxo Pmj+(1-Sx)Phe
...(6)
The trial and error starts with equation (4). We must guess a fluid
density between mud filtrate and the gas. The mud filtrate density is
obtained from Rmf and Chart 1 (annexure-one). From chart 1 we obtain
the mud filtrate salinity in PPM ofNaCl. The mud filtrate density is (after
Schlumberger) given as:
=
20
1 + 0.73 P
...(7)
Where P is the salinity in PPM divided by 1,00,000. The gas density can
be obtained from earlier Fig. 2. If you do not know the specific gravity
assume it to be 0.7. The gas density is different than the bulk density.
This is called Z fA effect. The correction for Z fA is given as:
Gas Density (gmlcc)
Pa
...(8)
21
..
u
22
by the same amount of gas. See Fig. 4 when the logs detect gas the
density log apparent porosity increases and the apparent neutron log
porosity decreases. The slight separation in this figure in the water zone
is probably due to the slight shaliness of the formation. In this case the
density and neutron logs tend to mirror each other with the true porosity
between the two curves. The higher the gas saturation the larger the
separation. As the gas saturation decreases the two curves move
together until in a water sand they read the same value. The porosity for
the formation can be obtained in several ways : by empirical equation,
by density neutron crossplots, and from the density log if an Rxo log
has been obtained.
GAMMA
RAV/SP ~~~
INDUCTION
-!'0t--.... IVOt.,"..
ohrns-m'Z./m
.. .....'-,
.J
J"
-~ :..-
",,J
>
!:'
\..l
C)
('
\)
,
,.,
=>-
-.s __ --...-
--I
J
'
!)
......
~'i"ic;I
___
'
'...
,'" /~
' . .,~;,
/~;-:x" 'lyp~
G"" eON"
,
I
~f<,~
"
(?
t;!t"'j~;---r- .:../'2L
II
POROSITV
,-- ...
4T--'I'~~
,'
20
tf=\
I
SANDSTONE
,-~:~
~I,
'\.:\
\\.
I
.
POROSITY OVERLAY
--..,
...-.:- ----,.
----~
4~
Am
Amf
= 1.2.
=O~ } (;i)Tf
~ Arne=1 C
'"
~
1{'
"
I '-
Fig. 4. Gas shows on the Density-Neutron combination (after Hung and Salisch,
13th SPWLA Trans., 1972).
Case-II results from the invasion of the mud filtrate being deep
enough into the formation to cover up the density log measurement but
not deep enough to completely cover up the neutron. This results from
the density logs 3-4 inch depth of investigation compared to the neutrons
(compensated) 6-14 inch depth of investigation. The two measurements
are being influenced by different gas saturations, the density being
usually lower than the neutron. A case-ll situation occurs in most
reservoirs with porosities under 20 percent or formation with a tendency
to invade. Case-ll density-neutron situation is recognised by the fact that
the density and neutron do not mirror each other. In a case II situation
the density log is used for porosity. Case-I and case-II gas effects on
23
Call1lla Ray
API Units
200
30
6-~~!~e!E-~!!!~~~L_16
ro
-W
CD
0;
24
r---....:--~--t=:::=-
Liquid
filled
f, ... Density
:r'
~:
I
I
...... .
Gas Effect
"
tiny
Liquid
B
/
C
C
Cas Effect
.,
Call1ll4 ~y .....
Fig. 6. Schematic logs for a case III gas situation (After Hilchie, 1982).
25
potential gas bearing zones. The interpretation falls into one of the two
categories, shally zones or heavy minerals. If the minerals are heavy, just
do a conventional clean sand analysis using the density-neutron
crossplotted porosity.
Carbon-Oxygen (C/O) Logging
The carbon-oxygen log prime area of use is the determination of
water saturation in formation with fresh water, an area where conventional
logs do not work. Carbon-oxygen (C/O) logging is most applicable in
the search for oil. These are better ways to determine the existence of
gas. The idea for carbon-oxygen logging started in the 1950s with the
development of the accelerator neutron source that had high energy
neutron output and could be pulsed. In the 1970's a C/O log was
marketed. This log was obtained with stationary measurements of from 5
to 15 minutes. In the late 1970s the continuous C/O log was introduced,
by Dresser Atlas. The interpretation of the stationary and continuous
logs follow the same principles but the constants used change, probably
due to tool design changes.
Inelastic scattering is the process by which, upon being "hit" the
nucleas becomes excited. The added energy which causes the excitation
is disposed of by the giving off of one or more gamma rays. The energy
of these gamma rays is a characteristic of the nucleus from which the
emissions occur, e.g., carbon gives off a gamma ray at 4.43 MeV, oxygen
similarly gives of a gamma ray at 6.13 Me V. Other gamma rays are given
off by carbon and oxygen but these are the predominent gamma rays.
Fig. 7 shows the spectra of gamma rays from a C/O tool in a laboratory
environment where the formation is simulated by sand filled tank with
water and oil present. The peaks on the spectra occurring at 0.51 MeV
and 1.02 MeV below the primary peak are called escape peaks and are
caused by nuclear reaction in the detector. This figure is for the difference
between 100 percent oil saturation and 100 percent water saturation and
for a 10 minute stationary measurement with no borehole equivalent.
Fig. 8 is a more typical spectra for a C/O logging tool in a borehole
environment. The gamma rays counted in these energy windows are
ratioed and this is the carbon-oxygen ratio recorded. In an oil zone there
is more carbon due to the oil and less oxygen due to the absence of
water. In a water zone there is less carbon and more oxygen. Thus is a
water zone the carbon-oxygen ratio is lower than in an oil zone. For the
stationary tool, C/O ratios of around 1.6 in water zones and 1.7 or higher
for oil zones (Lock and Hoyer, 1974). See Fig. 9. This figure is for
26
--r-----,------,------r------r------r-----,---,
1000
.i
w
. - _. Oil TANK
" ZU
to
CAPTIJIt[)
,,,
\ A
41)00
...
! '", \44~1'
:I
_*oow
C(UI
OIT'GN
C..... OM WINDOW
1000
WAT,,. TA".
WINUTE ACCU"VI.. UIO_S
010['
\
~,
I
1000
1!11II1II!IIIIIIIjIIIIIl.j.lllln,",
2D
10
10
100
120
I~
110
180
200
220
2~
Channel No.
27
1 1
12
13
14
15
16
17
1 8-
1 ',I
'i
2 1
~,CaRATIO
Fig. 9. Stationary C/O log interpretation chart (After Lock and Hoyer, 1974).
28
1.6
.......o
~
t:
CI
~ 1.
~I
t:
...1/1
'..0
1.30~---L--~1~O~--~--~20~--~--~3~O----W
Porosity %
Fig. 10. Carbon-oxygen ratio versus porosity for various water saturation (Sw)
for continuous C/O log (After Oliver et. aI., 1981).
in cia of 0.1. In a clean sand (with a low SilCa ratio) an increase of 0.05
in cia ratio should be oil. The Cia log is more practical as an evaluation
tool for known or suspected oil bearing zones.
Density Acoustic Gas Detection
The density and acoustic log combination is only good under some
very specific conditions. Since the acoustic log only responds to gas
when the formation is not compact or consolidated so this combination
is very limited. For the acoustic and density to be a good gas detection
system the formation must be uncompacted. When this occurs the
acoustic will indicate higher porosity and the density by itself must be
used to calculate porosity. Fig. 11 shows an example of gas detection
using the acoustic and density log. In compacted formations the density
mayor may not see the gas and the acoustic will not see the gas. If
there is much invasion, the amount of gas seen by the density will be
small and no definitive indication will be available.
29
30
Constant Logs are primarily water detecting logs. Oil and rock materials
have low dielectric constants. In fact oil and gas have lower dielectric
constants than the rock material. Dielectric constant logs measure
the dielectric constant by reduction in wave amplitude and phase
shifts in the waves. The response of the system is controlled both by
resistivity and dielectric constant. The resistivities will not agree
with the Rxo log values due to differences in invasion, depth of
investigation, etc.
The GO. Dielectric Constant Log (DCL) is a mandrel type tool with
induction type coils. It operates at 30 MHz. There are two receivers to
transmitter spacings. The log recorded shows the amplitudes at the near
and far receivers, the phase difference and the amplitude ratio. The charts
change with changes in mud properties, diameter of invasion, borehole
diameter changes and formation resistivity. Once the conditions are set
the dielectric constant can be calculated. When the formation resistivity
....... [
>
;!
. ! " ;.'
l;'
: !
,
-.--
....... - ..................
. . ..
;0
, I
'
~s
is less than 10 ohm metres the DCL has troubles and when the resistivity
drops below 5 ohm metres the dielectric constant will not be calculated.
These dielectric logging systems are probably only qualitative below a
porosity of 15 percent. Qualitatively the DCL appears to be a good
overlay for the neutron log. The neutron log is looking at total water
plus oil while the DCL is looking at water. In an oil saturated zone the
neutron will round high and the DCL will record low. In water zones they
should agree. Fig. 12 shows a computer overlay of a neutron and DCL.
31
Sw
...(1)
Swv
Swm
Swv is the water saturation related to what will be produced, water or oil,
and Swm is the immobile water tied up by capillary pressure. The extreme
in this case would be a fractured rock. If the matrix is 4.5 percent porosity
and the fractures are 1 percent porosity the water saturation could be
not lower than 80 percent for this conditions. This would make the
identification of a reservoir from logs very difficult. This problem can be
solved by multiple porosity systems. The major problem with this
technique is the obtaining of data to put into equation (1). Pyrite in the
rocks results in a unique problem in well log interpretation. pnder nonnal
conditions the conduction of electricity through the rocKs is via ionic
conduction, i.e., ions actually result in the passage of curren~ With pyrite,
which is a metal, the conduction is via electrons.
!
32
33
core from which they were taken. Matching core and log porosities takes
a little fmesse. We must match the depths, compensate for missing core
and than match the porosities. A core gamma often helps. Correlating of
log and core porosities may be performed by using digitized data or trend
data that has been high graded. For the digitized correlation the log and
the core data must be digitized at the same depth interval. Usually the
log is digitized on a foot by foot basis. The core is also digitized in the
same manner. If the core is not on a foot by foot basis, it must be
converted. Once we get the core and log data digitized we can either
overlay the core data on the log, after we have depth corrected the core
data. Since the density and neutron log have a vertical resolutions of
between two and three feet a three foot filter is usually applied to the
core data to smooth it. The key to how good the filter is how good the
core data tracks the log data. A fmer digitizing interval than 1 foot would
increase the flexibility of choosing length of the filter and weights.
Different filters apply for different logs as the vertical resolution of the
density and neutron logs is not only a function of the source to detector
spacing but also the logging speed and time constant used. Filtering
data for correlations using core data and the acoustic log is much simplier.
The acoustic log vertical resolution is defined by the receiver to receiver
spacing (usually 2 feet) and the log averages linearly. Thus we usually,
for a two foot receiver to receiver spacing, apply a two foot filter that is
linear, e.g., 1 : 1. Most of the correlations between core and log porosity
can be done easier and quicker by high grading the data optically taking
into account the resolution of the tools and the statistical scatter. It is
also less expensive. The key to good core log calibrations is the original
depth correlations between the core and logs. If these are not good the
whole exercise is irrelevant.
Electromagnetic Propagation Tool (EPT) Log
The electromagnetic propagation tool which Schlumberger runs
measures the travel time of the electromagnetic wave as it passed by the
two receivers (or antennas). It operates at 1.1 GHz. The pad containing
the two receivers and transmitters is forced against the side the borehole
as shown in Fig. 13. The path through the mudcake does not influence
the measurement as long as the mudcake is less than 3/8 inch thick.
Propagation time is related to dielectric constant. Print Table 1 here shows
dielectric and equivalent propagation travel times. The two are closely
related. The non-computer output for the ETP is porosity which should
be water filled. The equation is given as :
34
I'r
Mineral
Sandstone
Dolomite
Limestone
Anhydrite
Dry Colloids*
Halite*
Gypsum*
Petroleum
Shale
Fresh Water at 25C
I'II0
lpt
4.65
6.8
7.5-9.2
635
5.76
5.6-635
4.16
2.0-2.4
5-25
783
nanosecim
7.2
8.7
9.1-10.2
8.4
8.0
7.9-8.4
6.8
4.7-5.2
7.45-16.6
29.5
NONINVADE1l
ZONE
ENERGY 'ATH IN
fORMATION
UPPER IJlRA Y
EIIERGY II(
MUoc.w
BACKUP t - - - - - {
ARM
MUOCAXE
Fig. 13. Schematic of the EPT tool (Courtesy Wharton et. al.).
..
;t
z
"'S
~
.
Q
e
0
IX
35
36
where,
propagation travel time obtained from the log
propagation travel time obtained from solid matrix
tpwo
propagation travel time obtained from the water in the pores.
Fig. 14 shows an example of the EPT combined with other logs. Zone
A is gas bearing, zone B contains light oil, while zones C, D and E are
essentially water saturated.
Empty Hole Log Interpretation
Empty holes are filled with gas at the time of logging. They have
been either air or gas drilled or have been drilled with cable tool rigs. In
empty hole log interpretation we are dealing with non-permeable
formations and formation that produce gas. The logging program is limited
to the density, neutron, gamma ray, caliper and induction resistivity logs.
The other logs do not work in this environment because the gas in the
borehole will not conduct electricity or acoustic waves effectively. Even
the neutron logs are somewhat limited in that the CNL's are either not
calibrated for gas filled holes or the tools require a neutron moderator
for them to work properly. So in empty holes the neutron logs are either
sidewall neutron logs or old conventional "uncalibrated type" neutron
logs that output in cps, inches of deflection, API units or other units. In
empty boreholes the density log must also be watched as often the
sandstone formationscave badly when being drilled with air or gas.
The three major logs are the density, neutron and resistivity. The
density log is the source of porosity. Since the formations of interest
contain both water and gas and the density log is investigating the
uncontaminated virgin zone (because of no invasion), the interpretation
requires some fmesse. The gas is a very low pressure because there is
only gas in the borehole. The gas is assumed to have a zero density.
Since gas at low pressure has a Z fA ratio significant different than the
normal water filling the pores a correction must be made. This correction
is approximately:
P b = 0.9353 Plog +0.1747
...(1)
This correction is close enough to use for sandstones, limestones
and dolomites and must be used to correct the log values of density to
the "true" formation density. The neutron log responds to only the water
in the formation unless the porosity is relatively high. The existence of
significant quantities of gas in a formation will cause the neutron log to
read too low because of the change in density of the formation. This
has been called excavation effect by Schlumberger. Fig. 15 shows a plot
Tpo
tpm
37
C)
o...J
Z
!:;
'"z
e
g
~
40
80
6~
Nex
= K(2 ~2 Sw
+ .04 ~)(1-Sw)
=
fiq
~N
~
... (2)
...(3)
38
Use Onl'l
If no
Shale
IS
----
01;
~5
14
12
u;~
~~ 16
&' ~
18
16
20
.... u
:>- 22
!oJ
24 ...;.:.. . .c.
,.-.
26
-;;
...
E 265
->-
iii 275
z
w
280
0
z 285
<i
a:
'"
:..r" 2f",('vi""":
:
290
, .., .
if
II' J
28 30
26
\'
-_z 4'
~J;
kI rv 1
\ V b( 'f d ;:;
r\ :\ F:: I::::.:
.23
.2
:):
10000
4000
2000
1000
400
300
200
150
100
10
60
40
I'
"
14
.
.:'
'. :2 I':
,C'
:2~:
'2
II
;:
:I~.
r\I
So ndstone
~~ XLlm..,one
k . ,:
~'.~~~~\~\
r-'--~ ~
"'\;X:'\ :,'\ I:~\ ~
2.8
2.7
3C
20
Rt
"'Rw
X:
.~.
270
I-
24
'"
.:,
20 22
-- ,*-
28
30
18
"'!
1\1 \.
~~
14
12
'"
~_ 10
12
10
IS
Prestnt
~.2
I'"
~S
011
POROSITY 1%)
Presenl
+o
Use Only
.f no
2.6
2 ~:. 24-
2.3 .. U II
20':
Dolom".
F9
~N
and
and
Sg
~
1-Sw
...(4)
...(5)
Using Fig. 20 we enter the chart at the bulk density and proper matrix
density, proceed vertically on the chart to the neutron porosity and read
the porosity and gas saturation directly.
With the density resistivity combination we determine porosity from
the density log and water saturation from the induction resistivity
measurement. No oil may be present in this method. Fig. 16 may again
be used only instead of the neutron porosity we input the ratio of R)R,.
39
Pma
Pb
+..JR:JR:
Pma
...(6)
Where the bulk density has been corrected for ZIA. Water saturation is
detennined by the following equation:
Sl1' --
-RR.v
-t
... (7)
40
due to lack of sufficient data to determine. The solve the problem more
data is needed. In most cases this represents the addition of the acoustic
log. In low porosity carbonates a case-I! situation is most common. Case
I! results from the invasion of the mud filtrate being deep enough into
the formation to cover up the density log measurement but not deep
enough to completely cover up the neutron. In limestones the situation
is not too bad as the lithology control is good. We can take the density
log and calculate porosity assuming a limestone matrix. In limy dolomites
and dolomites the uncertainty increases. For example, the difference
between a limestone matrix at say 2.6 gmlcc bulk density is from 6.5
percent porosity for a limestone to 14.5 percent for a dolomite. Lithology
control is absolutely essential to obtain a good interpretation. Good
lithology control can be either regional data on the formation that allows
us to have a good feel for the matrix values we must use to calculate
porosity or absolute assurance that the acoustic log is a reliable porosity
device. In many areas the acoustic log gives erroneous porosities in
carbonates. In the latter case we may have to use an R,o device as a
backup to indicate the minimum porosity for the interval. Gas detection
in complex lithology is diffi..:ult unless we know or can deduce the
lithology. All three porosity devices are needed and sometimes it is
impossible to any more than establish the range in which the porosity
will lay.
Litho-Density Log (LDT)
...(1)
where
N
No
Equation (I) shows that the g:mlll1a rays reaching the detector
experience an exponential reduction based on absorption of tlle gamma
rays by the formation. This relationship only takes into account Cornpton
41
r----,-,rrffl~-rTlnT----_r--_r_r_rTi_rn
...
...
I:
QI
0.1
tJ
~
~
QI
0
U
c:
.r4
~
0.
~
III
.Q
<:
III
.01
til
r:s
::;:
01
,.
____~__L--L-L~~~____~~-U~L-~-L~
42
L_ U ---~of\
MH. U
H~U
Ip i P. Inform.lionl
___~~~~~,-~
CPS/,c.V
R-vion of Complon
,...,,--_laftwi,.
Ip information onlyl
energy window (H) for density measurements and the lower energy
window (S) used for photoelectric measurements. High U's reduce the
counting rate in the S window and have little influence in the H window.
Pe is a function of the atomic number or size of the molecule. Te can be
measure as a function of the count rate (gamma rays detected) in a low
energy window (e.g., S). Fig. 19 shows an LDT plus CNS combination
for various rock types. Recorded are porosity from CNL, bulk density
and Pe. The Pe aids in the determination of the rock types.
Natural Gamma Ray Spectral Logs
These logs separate the normal gamma ray log into three
components. The three sources of natural radiation are : Potassium,
Thorium series and the Uranium-Radium series. Fig. 20 shows the relative
-~':!,"!."---
,'rI.,
I r, f
43
2.0
P!o
&$
30
3
~
15
~~~-:~:!r~~~~~~~=:=~'=
r I r"'f,
..LLl.
I
HII
GR,m
I I CAL
1 !~.I
:p.,
,
,,
,.\
1, .. t
;
I
I
I~
l'l
i("l
lot
,I'
cAL
I ~ GR
TT 'I JA
11111 ;')f
111'1..' IJI
TT I"
.,N
I
I
f
I
1I
.~
II
--'1';' F;;f
I
I
I
11
I,
I'
,... ~ ~.!):
I I
!)PIo II
>i
I : ,'-!-. I:
11 "1 1.11.1
I I.lI ~.;, I
ITT!rf
II
SANDSTONi
TIT!
, J
I
I , I I I) I.' I.i" I i
'II 1f1~11
'II
'I
I j
10
I :'1 i I
I
f- ......-15
_.,.
I
I I
11
I
I I
I SHALE
I III, II I
TTTT I I I I
IIII III
I,
I: I'
I! II
Ie TT III
1I'!l1
, :J I I I /I II
: I 111111
,;C:::;: I Tn
ITJI I Itt
ITl,
,1\.1
GR
I CAL
II, ,II II',
I' t ~,rl '
! ....
I til
,
r
IT
,
II I
' I i
TT I i
I
I
, I
T
CRI
jlll'i"~III'It.ltJ.1I1
I
I I : I " 'I ' II I I'i I Il.l I t
: ! ' ' , '" I ! I I 11;1 ,,,,(OOLOM'
j,] I
I I:' ,-->: I
I 1'1
I I
I I '1'_1' i 1111Ti~
I I I I : , illlll~ I I i
I I ' I 11: ITill19 Ii
I I , I I ~ 1111 NIJ
i I
I tTTTL ...TI 11 -:7;...,;; -! I
,IIIIII'HLII 'll-N~
I
II: 11'1 j! !,"I T
I II lIT "~I
I
1131 fN
ANI<VOR'TI
III! "
I I Oct.,' I
1'1
: I tt I I I f< Ii II
I~I
,,
11 ,
TT':II
CAL 'J
I,ll
TI
I,:'
II
I,
TT
" 'i
i I
44
PO"fA 55 JUM
:II
iHOltJUM SERle; s
!"I"IIIII.
u.
o
:!
..
ID
C
.!>
,.5
2.5
emissions versus energy for these three sources of natural gamma rays.
Potassium is the cause of much of the radioactivity we see on gamma
rays logs. A small percentage of all natural potassium is radioactive and
thus the existence of potassium in a material indicates that the material
will have some natural radioactivity. The materials that have potassium
that we encounter in sedimentary rocks are : illite, potassium feldspars,
mica and some of the smectites have potassium between the layers. The
absence of potassium in montmorillonite and other smectite clays causes
radioactivity due to cation iron exchange (CEC). Good correlations of
CEC versus gamma ray emissions have been shown. This implies that
the radioactivity comes from radioactive ions absorbed on the clay
surface due to the CEC. The clays with significant CEC must strip the
ions of the water as it migrates through the shales. The effective shales
concentrate the radioactivity due to their CEC. Marine shales are more
radioactive than non-marine shales because marine shales contain
organic type materials. These organic type materials, due to their colloidal
nature, absorb ions. Why do we have radioactive sandstones, limestones
and dolomites. Uranimn ions in the water, when exposed to a reducing
environment, precipitate out of solution. Oil and gas are reducing
45
dN
::IE
r'.
T+U+K
I \
I \
--',
I
10
SCALE
"t
\:
'-.!
\T,i
l'4
\I
,
I
, ,,
I
,
'.,
"-
U ---
---:'\'\
,
ENERGY (MeV)
Fig. 21. Natural gamma ray spectra (After Serra et. aI., 1980).
due to the loss of energy of the gamma rays as they pass through the
formation. The same process that the density log relies upon to measure
density. The gamma rays reaching the detector with energies around the
three energies noted for potassium, uranium and thorium are counted
and displaced as either count rates or as curves calibrated into ppm. The
overall smearing is eliminated by stripping the spectra of the background
at each energy level. This leaves only the bumps on the spectra. See
Fig. 22. A comparison of the primary run and the repeat shows significant
46
.....
u,. ...,,,,,,,
." ,...
'hot."",
---(~-~
-0
....
_.
... ,. fI
'"
-:~----.--. . .... .- -.
. .. --._.
- - -.
~.;~ ~ ~ ~ ~
.- __
. . .....
.~~-...
::...::-:..-:::-_...
:-:- ---;:.
!.
._
:t:~
.
~
F-~-
1=
1:::-
',.+:
~.:...
...-
~.:::
S:f
+--
~.
-- - ---' F'Io-
..
~~
=:
~".""
~~Ium
-Thorium
.-:-:::...:.:....- - ---
"---":.~'
Fig. 22. Spectral gamma ray log over Permian Carbonates in Kansas (Courtesy
Dresser Atlas).
statistical fluctuation of the curves. This is due to the low count rates or
small number of gamma rays being measured. The curves are often filtered
to make them appear smoother.
Nuclear Magnetism Logging (NML)
47
the Byron Jackson company and was put into commercial application
by PGAC (then the Pan Geo Atlas Corp.). Now Schlumberger has
developed the NML. The logging tool consists of a coil through which
a large direct current (DC) is passed. The magnetic field caused by this
action orients the protons (the hydrogen nucleus which is the
only common reservoir rock or fluid material to respond). When the
magnetic field is released the protons are accordingly released. The
protons, which are always spinning like a top, start to fall out the pattern
caused by the magnetic field and return to the original orientation which
is controlled by the earth's magnetic field. The process results in the
proton precessing. This precession releases some of the energy that was
put into orienting the protons. This released energy is measured by the
coil as a variation in the magnetic field. The energy detected by this
system is related to the number of protons that are free to be oriented
and relaxed (allowed to return to the original alignment in the earths
magnetic field). This energy is very small. The proton that are free and
thus measured are those associated wit the bulk water and oil in the
formation. Protons that are absorbed or chemically bound in materials
are not free. These include solid hydrocarbons, tar, fluids in shales, water
in gypsum, etc. See Fig. 23. The free fluid index (FFI) or the equivalent
free fluid filled porosity (4).1) is obtained by extrapolating back from
the received signal to the beginning of the time of precession.
48
.2
LL8
Ii
12mV
---~",
49
spaces. T, is the relaxation time of the complete system, i.e., bulk liquid,
adsorbed liquids and anything else. This can be measured as the total
energy needed to polarize the material or the total energy given off during
relation. Bulk relaxation times are thus longer than T, because of the short
relaxation times of protons in solids or bound to surfaces. T, is also
influenced by the coexistence of oil and mud filtrate when the mud filtrate
has a different T,. See Fig. 25. The hydrocarbon looks like it influences
(a)
...... : .. ,- :----'~~~~~3;tt!:tt==l
."t+:----=
,
.. ~ ..... -Fqrmalion: .
',-,-.'ffi"".~'-~
.. +- .. ~- .... ~ of Tl"2.000 MS-......+'ffif-':---J
- -
J,..1.
'
, j 1LV~
-::
=-:=~
: : 1.. -
"
',I
Time (millisecs) ms
(b)
Time
ms
Fig. 25. Tl measurements: (a) for an oil zone, and (b) for a water zone
(After Collidge, 1962)
the T, by increasing the surface area. Fig. 26 shows the influence of water
saturation versus hydrocarbon (decane) saturation on T, versus mercury
injection pressure (which relates to pore size). The higher the mercury
injection (capillary) pressure the smaller the pore size. The porous media
is porcelain samples. Residual oil saturation has also be determined using
the NML. Residual oil saturation is needed for enhanced oil recovery
50
,.i.
methods. The mud is treated so that it has a very short relaxation time.
Thus the only signal comes from the oil and the FFI reflects only the
residual oil and not the mud filtrate. For this to work invasion must be
efficient and greater than about 6 inches.
Porosity and Lithology Determination
51
20r---+---~---4----~--+--'---"-~'----=-~~'--~----~'~~~----:~~nt-
~~:.~ ~~ ~=~~40
.. --. y-:-:~ 7~'
2.1~-:-:-"N"'~.14>.
:!~;:--t-~--:-~r==t=7-t=~~:=i'
. ~
I
: ,,~~~...,
::=-="IHZ
T
~3~
'tC~",-
2.2
... _ .: - -P'- - -
. '.
.
E
co 24
~
: :-::~~ ~-i:: ./. v'_::
~
0':'
~'\
.:)~~~~~~-t7-~: ~~
2.3
....u
+:... _ .
~::. :~:J_:_:~:)
+w: --'
.
....~ -. Y.::.. ... . - ..
1---~ 2.51----+---:j,..U'it-+~~~-+-_l.2:.)~__l_-_l--__t
- ... ~; : / .
.w
a:
. ,~V,f<;
:v-.~-:~~
._ .+ ___
~
10
~ 2.6 R /:
::.v. : .: '"" . :',c.y'
:.: : V'~:.:.I- ---.- -.- --:.:-=-~~
........ " .
"'... ..
L-..~.
>ce 27 . . if . - - '. .... - 'Y~
PI -1.0
lf------~~
I--.
2.8
-----
'::-~.:: ~~~r
-~
-. --.--/------/------ -~-IO
2.9 ',:-;-'
30
'i"r<:
#'... '
~ ..,..I)"~
o
CNL NEUTRON
':~.:-:-
:::-:: __ ..
"---~.'---
There are three different schemes for using the three porosity logs
in combination but from a hand calculation approach only one gives us
porosity. The other two give us a lithology indication that we can use to
help solve the problem. Looking at the problem of three porosity logs
and the need to solve for porosity initially leads one to think of solving
53
Fig. 29. Determination of Pma a from density and CNL logs for fresh mud
(Courtesy Schlumberger).
identification or MID plots). Entering this chart with density (or apparent
limestone density porosity) and the apparent CNL limestone porosity
we obtain the apparent matrix density (P ma a). From this we inter Fig. 30
a~d for the combination of minerals we think are present we obtain an
apparent matrix travel time (tma a). With this apparent matrix travel time
we, go to a conventional travel time versus porosity chart like Fig. 31
and. calculate porosity. The following is a check to determine if our matrix
estimation was correct.
54
2. <PA < <PDN' we may have secondary porosity and the acoustic log
is ignoring some of the secondary porosity. Please check the
calibration of the acoustic log.
3. <P A > <P DN' the lithology we chose was wrong. Try other
combination of minerals. This will give us a different apparent
55
F"OR.'!ATIONS
...o
..
POROSITY (%)
w
V>
-t-
'
~<.-===--.
.1e-":! r.,
~
~ g ...:!.s
-!..:.t
~<
~~
~~''''':
, . "'t
o
:0
~
~
.:::::
'i'
___
~ r~=
:r
.. n
"
It
-::;:: .
...~~..,'"i5
.
..
-'I":::::
'<
.o)
..
'"...
...... ==
--'~
t-
~J'.s...,_<~"
~.>
04'
:YJ SJ :
's::::.
""
"n
ii
!
...
.
0
..
....
~
I-f>- ...
t
I-!'
.....
; 8'=FIg,
...
"
Co
...
_~
II
....
=;... ""
gg
0
=
~
;:::ee~ ~
=
...
,.
,. :::
'is
.t.
.~
en
>
.. ..=...
...
Ii...
.. .....
0
t"
./'':.1
4-' or
...
./
j<~'_./
~ 1,,'tIo.n VI .:...
'"
f;;
..
0:>
...o
SHALE CORRECTED
POROSITY (%)
Fig. 31. To find porosity from the acoustic log (After Hi\Chie, 1982).
56
DUERMtWA liON OF
(.t ".,)",
57
Fig, 33, To determine (Pm) a from FDC and SNP logs for fresh mud
(Courtesy Schlumberger).
58
Fig. 34. To detennine (1m) a from sonic and SNP logs (Courtesy Schlumberger).
59
Fig. 35. MID solutions for various rock combinations (After Hilchie, 1982).
60
% dol- - -
100%
Fig. 36. Matrix density for tri-matrix : sandstone, limestone, and dolomite.
%anh-
dol
+ v
anh
+ v
sd
= 100%
Fig. 37. Matrix density for tri-matrix : sandstone, dolomite, and anhydrite.
61
Pm.
Fig. 38. Matrix density for tri-matrix : limestone, dolomitl, and anhydrite.
using clean matrix points indicate the possible solutions. Using three
porosity logs we are only allowed to try and solve for three rock types.
That is a point represented by : Pma a = 2.72 gmlcc and tma a = 50
microsec!ft falls in two triangles. It could be a combination of dolomite,
limestone and quartz or it could be limestone, anhydrite and quartz. Both
of these triangles, or mathematical solutions can be solved with no
problems. Of course only one is probably correct for the given formation.
Or if the rock actually contains four matrix components none of the
solution may be correct. Fig. 35 shows a break down of the triangles for
limestone, dolomite and anhydrite. We can go into one triangle with the
apparent matrix density and travel time and obtain the proportions of
limestone and dolomite. Anhydrite is obtained by subtracting the percent
of limestone and dolomite from 100 percent. These mineral fractions
should only be considered, at best, approximate. Using these mineral
fraction we can then enter Fig. 36 and obtain an apparent matrix density
for the combination of the three minerals. The apparent matrix density
can then be used with the conventional density porosity chart to obtain
a porosity. Figs. 37 and 38 are matrix density charts for mineral
combinations of sandstone, limestone and dolomite and dolomite,
62
In complex lithologies even with the best data we can only approximate
porosity. Secondly, using two porosity logs in complex lithologies can
result in porosities that are significantly different than the true porosities.
:..,. III
+: j:.
~
itt
~
'.: f
~~;.t
~."i
.,
:..L:'
-,
<I)
::
'00
...00
0.
"roc::
~!
't
..
.G
U
...t
ffl .
..
.E""
:::;:;::;:::;: 1
<I)"
:.a~
i...
'"
il
00
0\
II
LL
'.
c::
<I)
"c::
<I)
<I)
.D
c::
E'
J ..,I It',
tl
'00
'~"
I .~
,.
'1
.....
~ ~~
L,
f;': : I~
.. !!i
1\1
..;"
.",
.+
. trit
~-r ~. w
1!1
..
;a
, II
...
!...:,:
..,
1'"1,.::
::; <;
.~t.
<>
'"
.~
Q)
~
0\
oil
63
Pulsed Neutron Capture (PNC) logs such as the TDT and Neutron
Lifetime have been commercially available since about 1962. The key to
the measurement is a neutron source that can be turned off and on. These
electronically controlled sources produce fast (14 MeV) neutrons. The
measurement is a pulsed system. The neutron source is turned on for
some discrete time (typically from 20 to 200 micro-seconds) and then shut
off. The neutrons produced scatter off things like hydrogen atoms and
slow down by elastic type scattering. Once they reach a stable energy
(or velocity) they are called thermal neutrons. At this stage they are like
gas molecules in that they have a velocity that is controlled by the
temperature. At this stage in their life they are very susceptible to being
captured by some atoms and not others. This property of materials that
is a measure of the ability of atoms to capture thermal neutrons is the
thermal neutron capture cross section. Normalizing the cross sections to
where NaCl is one, Print Table 2, shows the relative capture cross section
for various common materials 3 found in sedimentary rocks. Print Table
3, shows a comparison of various capture cross sections for sedimentary
rocks and associated fluids. Thermal neutrons are more readily absorbed
by chlorine than the other common materials. Hydrogen does influence
the cross section. Essentially capture cross section is dependent upon
primarily water salinity and hydrogen content. The capture cross section
of a reservoir rock filled with salty water, oil and other materials is given
by the equation as :
Table 2
Thermal neutron capture equivalents to NaCI
Material
Boron
Calcium
.14
Carbonate
.00002
.094
Potassium
Lithium
20
NaCl
Sulfur
.028
Sulfate
.01
, 64
Material
Water
59
100
22
8-10
8-13
8-12
where
L.t
4>
S"o
L. w
L. ma
L."c
Equation (1) indicates that at zero porosity reservoir rocks will have
a cross section of around 10 cu. For 100,000 ppm NaCl water filling the
pores as the porosity reaches 10 percent the cross section will be 15 cu
while for 20 percent porosity the cross section will be 20 cu and for a 30
percent porosity it will be 25 cu. Hydrocarbons present will reduce these
capture cross sections.
The measurement of capture cross section requires that the rate of
thermal neutron absorption be measured. This is called Lifetime or
65
3150
L
4550
T
...(2)
Where,
L
neutrons in microseconds
~ =
The larger the cross section the shorter the life-time or decay time
of the neutron population. The pulsing of the neutron sources at about
1000 times per second produces a cloud of neutrons that slow down
and then are captured with little to no hang over between pulses. The
logging tool has a gamma ray detector located on the tool mandrel about
15 inches above the 40 source. Fig. 40 shows the counting rate at a
detector versus time for a laboratory logging tool in a simulated borehole
environment. The neutrons in the borehole environment die away
quicker and their presence is not noticable after about 400 microseconds.
The neutrons in the formation have a longer life and their
presence is noted as an exponential decay after the borehole signal has
gone. The capture cross section is related to the slope of the fonnation
signal.
Dresser Atlas uses two time gated windows which measure the
neutrons arriving 400-600 and 700-900 microseconds after the source is
shut off and determine the equivalent of the slope of the line in earlier
Fig. 40. Schlumberger either uses three controlled floating windows that
vary in width and time location or a series of fixed windows. These are
the TDT-K and TDT-M respectively. Most PNC logs are obtained in
cased holes where sufficient tiille has elapsed for the invaded zone to
disappear. This time can take from days to months depending upon the
reservoir conditions. With a good cement job and a water zone below
a gas zone the capillary forces will pull the invading fluids into the
water zone within days. If no water zone is present it will probably take
weeks to disperse the invasion fluids into the reservoir. The vertical
resolution of the PNC measurement is in the order of 2 to 3 feet.
The measurement is subject to statistical fluctuations which require
66
100,000
"
'.
1.000
en
",
toZ
256
micr06~conds
:l
100
..
500
1000
.'
1500
TIME t}Juc)
low logging speeds. The true test of statistics on a log is how well
the multiple passes of the log repeat. Fig. 41 shows the limitations of the
system with regards to porosity and water salinity. The quantitative range
of use for gas reservoirs is wider than that for oil reservoirs. This is due
to the very low cross section for gas (about 4 eu on the average)
relative to the higher value for oil (around 22 eu). The wider the
separation between the water saturation lines the more quantitative the
67
=-~I I
...._ .....
>. :I :. . :r
J . .......
--
30 t-----.:;:;~"_'r_II----(fuan t -i t~ t ive .
o~~~~~~~~~~~--~
.:. 20
40
60
80
I
100
120
2~0--~~--~--~----~--~
100
120
LW
Fig. 41. Pulsed neutron log applicability (After HiIchie, 1982).
68
determined from the usual water catalogs, Rwa and SP analyses. The cross
section of methane (or gas) is a function of both temperature and pressure
as these control the hydrogen content of the gas. The pressure of the
reservoiHs-OOtained by dividing depth by 2 in psi. Usually oil is assumed
to have a cross section of 22 cu. The PNC logs are not too sensitive to
the type of the rock. An analysis of Fig. 45 shows that the interval 65926620 (all NLL depths) is hydrocarbons and actually produce oil. There is
an oil-water contact at 6596 (NLL). The sand at 6553-6568 (IES) was the
original completion and shows water saturations on the NLL of 55 to 80
percent. The thin sands centre around (NLL) 6542, 6550 and 6578 still
appear to be productive. Water saturations from PNC logs are not subject
to pore geometry problems as are resistivity logs.
150
il30.eoo
',40
260,000
120
22:J, 000
- no
200.000
100
.~
6-
So
....
CL..
. 90
'!'If:.OOO " 80
'"
c
Ji
l~lO'
:)40,000
180.000 .
13
:D
z
69
~,
70
1'20,000
1 OC),CJOO'
.80,000 .
--
'1
I-J
60
50
1'10,000
40
40,000
2C,OOO
':'
t:
:::;
\40.000
30
22
70
10,...-------------.-.,.................
9
i6
~--
- - - - --
-.
----*l-+:H
6 ~a
10
12
1~
, 20000
!!
~I
o
~ 2000
r-+-~---~~-r_+_+~~~k-~+-+-~~~-t-J
~ 1000
100
100
600
SOO
--- . ----------+--------~
.00
lOO
___
_ _ _ _ _ _
~-
zoo
IOO~;;----
.:....--;_.-:._0__
-
,~_~
__
....
--
+ -
_ _ o
- -
J --.--l"-.-I-~
--.----i'-.loo,:-+-~-l
_t.
+ _!_.
20
2Z
2.
c...,
2.
21
71
NEUTRON LlrETiMfi LOG
'~'~-'-'-'--j
~s:
_
(:: ..
_ J
. '
Fig. 45, PNC (Dresser Atlas Neutron lifetime) log and induction electrical log on
Offshore Taxas Well (After Hilchie, 1982).
~t = (1-~)~ma+~Sw~w+~(1-Sw)~hc
,..(1)
72
Fig. 46 shows a case in which the oil water contact is rising. The apparent
water oil contact in run #2 was too high due to water coning. Run #3
shows the actual water contact after a few months of shut in. The
separation of the curves is a direct indication of the change in water
TOT
100
200
MICROSECONDS
400
~~~P~AR~E~X=T------I~--~~~--~
..;.- ..........
\~ATER
TABLE - - ,---:
,
ACTl:AL
WATER
~ ....
.,"
TABL[--~;r
300 ~----~~----~----------~
Fig. 46. A PNC showing a rising oil water contact (Courtesy Schlumberger).
73
L\ Sw =
~(LW
- Lh)
...(2)
Equation (2) only needs porosity and the water and hydrocarbon
cross sections to make the determination of the change in water saturation
quantitative. If there is no change in water saturation the cross section
will not change unless there is a significant increase in gas saturation
which could result in the decrease of the cross section measured with
the log. The determination of residual oil after the zone has been watered
out is a popular application of PNC logs. In this application the zone is
logged and the water with significantly different salinity and cross section
is injected into the formation to displace tlle original water and the interval
relogged. The water saturation is then:
~(Lwl - L w2 )
...(3)
Usually the water in the formation is salty and fresh water is injected.
This often plugs the formation and causes incomplete flushing of the
formation water due to preferential flow channels being set up in cleaner
stringers or fracturing of the formation.
Special caution should be used when working with PNC's in
carbonates. Acid treatments with HCl result in anomalous behaviour due
to the chlorine left in the formation after the treatment. The interaction
ofHCl acid plus limestone or dolomite results in calcium carbonate. This
calcium carbonate stays in the formation and results in a larger cross
section on the PNC's. Fig. 47 shows an example ofPNC logs before and
after an acidization job (AI-Saif et.ai., 1979). This particular well was
reported to have produced 1,000,000 bbls of oil between the acid job
and the after PNC. The only way to remove this chlorine effect was to
back flush the core with water.
Pulsed Neutron Capture (Tool and Log Differences)
Now the Dresser Atlas Neutron Lifetime Logs (NLL) is 1-11116 inch
in diameter tools. The measurements could be made without pulling the
74
well tubing. The smaller diameter tools are of course bothered more by
statistics due to lower neutron source output and small diameter detectors.
Schlumberger originally came out with a 3-5/8 inch diameter tool and then
added a 1-11116 inch tool later. The Dresser Atlas NLL log originally only
displayed the counting rates of the two time displaced windows. Latter
the two windows were used to calculate cross section and the log looked
like Fig. 48. Gate 1 was taken from 400 to 600 microseconds after the
neutron burst and Gate 2 from 700 to 900 microseconds after the burst.
The cross section was calculated from this data. The dotted curve in track
1 on the left hand side is the monitor curve which indicates the level of
neutron output from the source. The casing collar locator (CCL) is the
curve immediately to the left of the depth column. A gamma ray log was
( ; Oft." 1M 1II011(
~ .Al!O "IU ACID
I
I0Il1( 'OIlOSIT,
_ _ _ _ _ .. _ _
~ -I--f---+--I,~--
Fig. 47. PNC logs before and after acidization (After AI-Said et. aI., 1979).
75
Gamma Ray
1;0
API U!\,ITS
;>
~t}--
1000
,
5,
~'
_0
. 1
;
1 .
1<:
to
---",,':.. ..
Fig. 48. A Dresser Atlas Neutron lifetime log from offshore Louisiana (Courtesy
Dresser Atlas).
'"AWA_
tiel
00
DEC A..
T, .. IT)
.,caosue"DS
c".''''_' """'''s I, ~I
76
run on this log although often the counting rate from gate 1 was inverted
and put in track 1 so that it looked like a gamma ray log. The heading
will usually tell us what curve we have. The small diameter tool analog
looked the same as the larger tool only the gates were often moved a
little in time or broadened to reduce the statistics on the measurement.
The first Schlumberger Thermal Decay Time (TDT) Log used floating
gates which were not recorded on the log. The logs looked like Fig. 49.
The initial logs only recorded thermal decay time (T) and a CCL (on
extreme right). Latter the cross section curve L was added. T and L are
the inverse. Later a gate 3 which was the background indicator and Gate
4 which was a constant width window were added sometimes. Gate 3
was the background which was subtracted from the output of the two
variable width windows before cross section was calculated. Dresser
Atlas did not subtract the background out but eliminated the background
by not counting low energy gamma rays at the detector. Gate 4 was meant
to show the detail that Dresser Atlas's fixed gates showed. This did not
happen as Schlumberger used a variable length burst on the neutron
source and this reduced the contrast that Gate 4 saw. The variable width
windows on the TDT reduced statistics but sometimes made significant
deviations due to significant changes in borehole environment like
entering multiple casing strings.
The TDT-K was the first small diameter dual detector PNC. This log
added a far spaced detector. See Fig. 50. The T and cross section values
were recorded in the same way as the earlier logs. The ratio curve, which
is meant to be a function of porosity, is the ratio of the counts from the
short and long detectors. N] and F] are counting rates from the near (N)
and far (F) detectors. F3 is the old Gate 3 background gate. The ratio
curve and the cross section curve were designed to give an apparent
porosity and an apparent water salinity from charts like those in Fig. 51.
The liquid filled reservoirs the apparent porosity was many times the
actual porosity. The gas filled reservoirs the apparent porosity is too
low just as' in a conventional neutron porosity log. Water saturation is
the apparent water salinity (WSa) divided by the true water salinity. In
gas zones the water saturation is the apparent porosity divided by the
true porosity. The curves N] and F] were found to be good indicators of
the presence of gas. When N] and F] were normalized in a water or oil
zone, F] would separate from N] and read a higher count rate in a gas
zone or a zone where there was even gas in the annulus between the
casing and formation. See earlier figure 50. Dresser Atlas followed with a
77
[
)0
BACKGROUND
F!
---- -I-
dual detector NLL although the porosity calibration was not as good as
Schlurnbergers. The TDT-M was introduced in 1981. It is still a dual
detector system only the floating gates to determine cross section are
gone. They now use a series of counting windows to determine the cross
section. They also record cross section from the long spacing rather than
the older short spacing cross section. This new longer spacing is more
like the spacing Dresser Atlas uses.
Resistivity
78
(c.uJ
40
$0
40
(c.u.)
79
FR Rw
Ro
...(1)
Where
Rw
FR
FR
= a
cjl-m
A2)
Where
a
cjl
...(3)
FR
1.cjl-2
...(4)
80
81
the old Electrical Logs and most of the Induction Electrical Logs. In fresh
muds its depth of investigation is greater than the modem replacements.
The vertical resolution of the tool in resistive beds is about 5 feet. In
conductive beds the vertical resolution is about 3' feet. Spherically
Focused Log (SFL) is Schlumbergers R j log. It has a vertical resolution
of about 2 feet and a depth of investigation of around one foot. Its
borehole influences are about the same as the short normal. The laterolog
8 is a little different than the other laterologs in that it has a high vertical
component to its measurement. This is due to the current return being
just above the tool. The vertical resolution of the laterolog 8 is about 2
feet. The laterolog 8 is replaced by the spherically focused log. Laterologs
have vertical resolutions of about one foot and depths of investigation
of about one foot. The guards are typically one foot long. The laterolog
shallow is a nine electrode device with a 2 foot vertical resolution and
about one foot depths of investigation.
Rt is the resistivity of the uncontaminated reservoir or non-reservoir
rock. The induction log is the most commonly used Rt device in the oil
production. It is primarily a fresh mud tool. In salt muds the invasion
becomes a problem and there are no charts that adequately correct for
invasion of salt mud. The vertical resolution in resistive beds is about 5
feet while the vertical resolution in conductive beds is about 2 feet. The
induction log has the deepest depth of investigation of the modem logs.
The induction reads primarily horizontal resistivity and ignores thin
resistive beds. The laterolog deep is the Rt log used most often in salt
base muds. It has a vertical resolution of about 3 feet. The depth of
investigation is not that of the induction log and thus this tool must be
corrected for invasion most of the time. The invasion corrections are
typically in the 30 to 40 percent range.
82
83
8 w2
FRRw
R
(1)
a~-m
..(2)
...(3)
-n/
...(4)
S-4
...(5)
ROS-2
w
...(6)
38
38
.
= - - = 15.2 at 20 percent poroSIty
0.5
0.25
--2
At any other porosity the same technique is used. All these values
for Sw = 50 percent will end up being parallel to the Ro line only with
resistivities 4 times higher.
Shaly zones quite often change m with changes in shaliness. The
Ro line for a zone with changing shaliness and Sw = 100 percent will not
extrapolate back to Rw. Small errors or shifts make large differences on
log-log graphs. Errors in porosity can result in curved rather than straight
Ro lines. Pickett showed that an error in matrix travel time or density can
cause this curvature. The slope of the Ro line may change from well to
well if the logs are not well calibrated. Consistent errors will cause
consistent changes in m. The higher the quality the data the better the
log-log plot is for solving problems.
The Resistivity-Porosity Crossplot (RPC) requires special graph
paper that is designed for particular formation resistivity factor-porosity
relationships. The RPC paper is designed so that a plot of resistivity
and some linear function of porosity, like density, will be linear in water
zones and zones of constant water saturation. In reality it is a plot of
porosity along the horizontal scale versus water filled porosity on the
vertical or resistivity scale. When the water saturation is 100 percent both
the porosity and water filled porosity are the same. In intervals with water
,"
...c
0
p,
"
; j
:1
"
I
f 1,,'1,
11 t"7J
';~, ~ l ,i
t -f.
.:"
'I'~ -.,
,
: ,_ 11
" . :"<,UHLtli'!.
:',
'j
, : c : ~,U
-j
,1 j
: !: .. 1
t ;;: ..
.. '''" .. ,
i!' I' ~
-: ... ..! !.~ .
l
,1
.2
.3.4
,6
.8
"
.;
ReFli.Gtiv1 t}'
Fig. 52. A log-log resistivity and porosity crossplot (After Hilchie, 1982).
,~,:,
I,
86
saturations less than lOO percent water filled porosity is less than the
porosity. This is related to the water saturation which is given below:
Sw =
~;
...(7)
where ~w is the fraction of total rock that is filled with water and ~ is
porosity. Fig. 53 is a schematic of an RPC plot. Since ~w is not convenient
to plot it is converted to resistivity by the following equation:
...(8)
Equation (8) shows that at infinite resistivity the water filled porosity
is zero. RPC paper for various m's commonly used in log interpretation
0w =
11
0w 1
W<0
0
0
1. Read the resistivity and porosity log values from the logs for
the interval to the analyzed. Be sure to cover a complete range
of porosities so that a good Ro line can be drawn. The
porosities do not need to be productive. Porosities of 1 percent
very effectively tie down the low porosity range on the Ro line.
2. Set up scales on the appropriate RPC paper, i.e., choose the
proper m. Make sure the horizontal porosity scale goes from
zero porosity to the highest porosity we read off the log. If we
have a density and neutron (or acoustic and neutron) plot the
porosity obtained from the density-neutron crossplot. Scale the
resistivity scale on the RPC so that the lowest resistivity is near
the top of the graph. Change the RPC resistivity scale by
multiplying or dividing by a constant to obtain a scale where
the lowest resistivity is close to the top of the RPC paper.
3. Read the log data and plot it on the RPC paper. Use a number
for each zone so that you can fmd the zone later. Plot porosity
increasing to the right.
87
4. Water zone (if any) data will plot in the upper and left edge of
the envelop formed by the data. Draw a straight line through
an average of the left edge data. The line should go from the
base line (infInite resistivity) to the lowest resistivity plotted.
5. Layout a porosity scale. Use the matrix if we plotted density or
travel time, to construct porosity scale.
6. The slope of the Ro line is controlled by Rw. To check that the
Rw is reasonable, i.e., in a water zone, you must use some
porosity value and the equivalent Ro value from the line.
7. All intervals with water saturations less than 100 percent will
fall below the Ro line. All the water saturation lines go through
the matrix point.
The log-log plot gives us m and if we are lucky an indication of Rw.
The RPC gives us matrix, or if we wish porosity control, and if we are
lucky Rw. The log-log plot is sensitive to small porosity changes in the
low porosity range. The RPC is sensitive to small resistivity changes at
high porosity. Both are relatively sensitive to Rw variations. In both cases
we need to know Rw to do a good job although often the crossplots will
tell us Rw. Both crossplots require high grade data to work effectively.
Thin resistive beds will throw both plots into erroneous answers if the
thin beds are not detected during the analysis. With both crossplots
changes in reservoir texture show up as group lings at different locations
on the plot. As both plots accentuate, different parameters the two may
be used in combination. The combined use of log-log and RPC plots is
often very advantageous. This combined use age requires a good
knowledge of the Rw otherwise we can sometimes fall into a trap. The
combined useage is best done with a computer. The computer allows
the construction of RPC paper with any m. The m must be constant for
all RPC and log-log plots. The easiest way is to start with the RPC and
then having established porosity control go to the log-log plot to
establish m and then go back to the RPC to refIne porosity control, etc.
88
adequate invasion this system does not work. Sw is given by the following
equation:
Sw
RxO RW)5/8
( Rt Rmf
...(1)
=
w
R.~
-'.-
Rt
Rt
...(2)
89
I:"" AS 10:-:
RM: /11...:
SP
.100
. ,0
30
20
'1$
_ 10
s
4
.7
L- .10-;.....10-- ,
0
0
on
'"
0
0
....
10
lIS
10
SP -60 mv.
10:
Ri/~t
40 50
I.S
~w
- 3Jt
c.o
o
:::
HffltSiI
SP
",;
'.: :-:
I:: : ::: : :: ,: ~. i i
, ..
60
..-.. 1.11"
<t . ,
d'
1I
: -=----'1!:
_. ..u
- -~. ,---<.
;.
......
'-
POROSITY t
JO
.g
~
R0-.
1\
i:~
SA~~STON~
Rf.S1 STlVlTY
1III-I'll"']
I-J. : : ;
lii"'
t 't. .....
f- . ,
I!
: . l
! _
~
I
!::
o.
..
t<:('
'..
. . -:l
...
IS
~.
~~.
,1 I I T f-: ;. '~~I
Fig. 55. An example of resistivity ratio change in a water sand with Shaliness (After Hilchie, 1982).
tz::l
~.
;::!.
91
the time water saturation in the pores. This is caused by the shale (or
clay), which has a lower resistivity than the sand grains. Porosity logs
are often influenced by shale so that the calculated porosities are wrong.
In shally sandstone it is difficult to determine Rw and most important is
that the shale often influences the permeability. Usually with no shale
corrections, the water saturation is too high, making the zone look like it
could be non-productive, and the porosity is also too high or too low
depending upon the logs used. The high CEC (cation exchange capacity)
shales, montmorillonite, bentonite and illite an effective shales, while
kaolinite and chlorite are noneffective shales. Montmorillonite has a
resistivity of about 0.7 to l.5 ohm m at 77P' The porosity logs all show
montmorillonite to look like higher porosity than there actually is. Thus
in a sand of lO percent porosity the shale will make the porosity appear
higher than the actual porosity. In high porosities, like 30 percent the
density log will read lower than true porosity while the neutron will appear
to have higher porosity than the true porosity. The acoustic log response
is more complex as the acoustic log influences are determine by where
the shale is rather than the apparent travel time of the shale. In general,
if the shale is purely in the pore space, the acoustic log will not see the
shale. If the shale is in layers that are perpendicular to the path of the
acoustic wave propogation the acoustic log will see the shale. In this
case it will see the compacted shale. The travel time of the acoustic wave
in the shale will of course be influenced significantly by the degree of
compaction of shale.
Illite on the gamma ray looks about as radioactive as montmorillonite
as it is contains radioactive potassium as well as CEC. It looks like a
shale on the SP as it is an effective shale. The resistivity of illite it higher
than montmorillonite due to its lower CEC.A resistivity of illite is of 1 to
3 ohm m. The m for illite is about 2.1 which means it acts much like a
sand. The density log sees illite as a sandstone porosity of less than
zero. A large amount of illite in a sandstone will result in the density log
porosity being lower than the real porosity. At 30 percent illite the porosity
calculated will be about 2 porosity percent too low which could be serious
at the 8 to 9 percent porosity range where we are trying to decide if the
rock is tight or not. The acoustic and neutron logs see illite much like
montmorillonie. Illite thus results in larger separations on the density
neutron log combination than montmorillonite. It looks shalier. Kaolinite
is one of the noneffective shales. On the gamma ray, SP and resistivity
logs it looks like sand grains. Using these three logs we would expect
92
93
sand where the free water is displaced, the effective shale acts like a low
resistivity solid added to the pore space which reduce the formation
resistivity. The effective resistivity of the clay is probably higher than
the water resistivity. This disturbs the water saturation calculation. In
relatively fresh water (10,000 to 30,000 ppm range) we can end up with a
situation like that shown in Fig. 57. Most of the ions are adsorbed on
the clay sites and the free water appears less salty than the adsorbed or
bound water. When the oil or gas displaces the free water, the overall
resistivity of the pore is not increased nearly as much as in the salty
~Effective
Shale
~ions
(only positive
shown but there would
negative 'ions also)
Fig. 56. A shaly sand pore space filled with salty water.
~ effec~ive
shale
+- ions. (only pOSitiVe
shown)
.
Fig. 57. A shaly sand pore space with low salinity water.
water case. In fact when interpreting this type of shaly sand the analyst
is often forced to assume that the water has changed from relatively fresh
in the water zone to salty in the hydrocarbon bearing zone. If there are
not enough ions to satisfy all the effective shale sites water obtained
from drill stem tests or production test may be very fresh as the clays
filter the ions out of the water as it moves through the formation. In this
case the water catalog values show the water resistivity to be two high,
e.g., Cretaceous sands. The relatively fresh water shaly sands are'more
difficult to interpret than the salty water shaly sands. A good value of
Rw for the shaly sand is a must for the reasonable shaly sand
interpretation as it is for any interpretation.
In shaly sandstone we must first decide if the shale is effective or
non-effective. Correction for effective shales is the conventional
approach to shaly sand interpretation. This requires a correction that
requires volume of shale and the resistivity of the shale, or CEC (cation
94
95
96
Sf.lN:
r.......,....,. t.,..
GnZ...
Fig. 58. Gas expansion effect on the temperature log (Courtesy Walex).
often run in empty holes to detect gas producing zones. Fig. 59 shows
both a temperature and a differential temperature log. The differential
temperature log is a recording of the differential or slope of the temperature
log. Although the differential temperaru,e log makes it easier to fmd the
anomallies the temperature log better defmes the producing zone. With
just a differential temperature log it is not possible to determine the relative
production rates or the boundaries of the production zones. In this figure
the gas producing zone is thin as marked on the log. On the temperature
log each entry of gas from a different zone causes a reduction in the
temperature. Thus in a case where there are multiple zones producing
gas we will see a temperature reduction at each of these zones. See
Fig. 60.
Tying WelJ Data
97
.--
. .,.
. ......
"OIL
.....
--
..
c..lot .. ,,,.,,,
I If
\'
.. '
'0.
'.iJII.~'f
I''''''II
Co c.,,, .... , .. ,
l1li
WHl"""
c. ... "0.-
W[ll.
a
tldd
se.ctlon
With
density
Input
wavele.
Density
log
Sonic
log
a
Without
Field section
denSltV
eRE fACEOUS
"""lois
Sand. and
wlrh coal 541ams
C
arrowed
ry
""t.,
O(,I..
.nd
l-drl,o,.
Fig. 61. Example of borehole tie from Western Canada. Synthetic seismograms are (b) and (f). Displays (b) to (f) are supplied into the
field section (a). (Courtesy Digitech Ltd.).
99
100
Serra et. ai., 1980; Natural gamma ray spectra; SPWLA 21st Ann.
Syn. Trans., Paper Q.
12. Tittman J., 1956; Radiation logging; Univ. of Kansas Pet. Engr.
Con f., April.
13. Wharton et. ai., 1980; Electromagnetic propagation logging:
Advances in technique and interpretation; presented SPE 55th
Ann. Mtg., DalIas, Sept., paper 9267.
FUNDAMENTALS OF PALYNOLOGY
Introduction
Palynology, a word coined by Hyde and Williams (1944), was defined
by them as "the study of pollen and other spores and their dispersal,
and applications thereof'. The term includes both modem and fossil
pollen and spores. Fossils are elements of a continuum of once-living
organisms whose succession was shaped by organic evolution.
Palynology depends mainly on four characteristics of pollen and spores:
(1) their greater resistance to degradation than most other plant parts,
thus facilitating their survival as fossils, (2) their small size, mostly less
than 200 microns, so that they are transported and deposited as
sedimentary particles, (3) their morphological complexity, so that can be
distinguished and characterized, and (4) their production in enormous
numbers, which facilitates recovery of statistically significant
assemblages.
Fossil plants have been found in rocks ranging in age from the
Precambrian to the Recent. Spores are among the earliest structurally
preserved remains of plant life and accompany material that is probably
derived from bacteria, algae, and perhaps fungi. The fIrst unequivocal
plant spores bearing trilete sutures are found in rocks of Silurian age.
The advent of vascular tissues, a most signifIcant step in land-plant
evolution, occurred at about the same time. Vascular and reproductive
structures may have evolved more or less concurrently, but the two
developments probably were essentially, independent of one another.
Heterospory (the development of megaspores and microspores) is fIrst
noted in the fossil record of the Devonian Period. Heterospory is the
prologue to development of the seed. Two important structure types,
monosulcate and bisaccate pollen, fIrst appear in the Pennsylvanian
102
Table-l
Geological Time Scale
;:s
Beginning of
/ntervaiI
Era
System (s)
or
Period
Quaternary
Cenozoic
Tertiary
Series
(Epoch)
Stage
or
Age
Kulp
(1961)
Pliocene
Miocene
Oligocene
upper2
middle2
lower
Paleocene
Mesozoic
Upper (Late)
Cretaceous
Lower (Early)
Holms
(/965)
Duration
(million years)
Helmes (1965)
;:s
....
~
......
en
.s;,
~
Recent
Pleistocene
Eocene
(million years)
Maestrichtian
Campanian
Santonian
Coniacian
Turonian
Cenomanian
Albian
Aptian
Neocomian
13
25
36
45
52
58
63
2 or 3
2 or 3
12
25
40
9 or 10
13
15
60
70
20
~
;:s
0
......
~
~
10
72
84
90
65
110
120
135
135
Upper (Late)
to-'
Bathonian
166
C/.j
(Cont.)
......
Beginning of
Interval!
Era
System (s)
or
Period
Jurassic
Mesroic
Triassic
Series
(Epoch)
Middle (Middle)
Lower (Early)
Upper (Late)
Middle (Middle)
Lower {Early}
Upper (Late)
Stage
or
Age
pwI,
Carbon]
iferous
Devonian
Silurian
Ordovician
Cambrian
Upper (Late)
Trenton
Middle (Middle)
Lower (Early)
Upper (Late)
Middle (Middle)
Lower (Early)
Holms
(1965)
Duration
(million years)
Helmes (1965)
(")
181
200
{230)
Visean
Toumasian
l:tj
Bajocian
Pennian
Lower (Early)
Pennsylvanian
Mississippian
Upper (Late)
Middle (Middle)
Lower (Early)
(million years)
Kulp
(1961)
0
01:>-
260
280
320
345
(365)
390
405
(425)
.g
180
R.
225
45
270
~
.....
Cl
1il
350
\::
C"'-l
400
440
(")
~.
40
;::s
2
~
445
60
500
530
500
...
...~
~
100
600
l:tj
""'I
Fundamentals of Palynology
105
106
107
Fundamentals of Palynology
_tome
II"
i' "" ,
.'\4 I
I
4
Coltnttt
--
\\"',-1 "
. .\.
: ' .. ' J
'lop. ,
II
If
'" ""
'I
~\\ I, J
........
..
~
~~
Appendage
Ba..
(a)
!h'
IAbOtal pol"
108
Genus
Class
Section
Order
Series
Family
Species
Tribe
Variety Form
109
Fundamentals of Palynology
Table-2
Two Systems of Plant Classification
Andrews (1961)
Subkingdom Thallophyta
Phylum Cyanophyta-blue-green algae
Phylum Euglenopyta - euglenoids
Phylum Chlorophyta - green algae
Phylum Chrysophyta - yellow-green
ALGAE
algae, golden-brown algae, and diatoms
Phylum Pyrrophyta - cryptomonads
and dinoflagellates
Phylum Phaeophyta - brown algae
Phylum Rhodophyta - red algae
Phylum Schizomycophyta - bacteria
Phylum Myxomycophyta - slime molds
Phylum Eumycophyta - true fungi
Subkingdm Embryophyta
Phylum Bryophyta (or Atracheata)
Class Musci - mosses
Division Briophyta
J~
110
1.
2.
3.
4.
Division Arthrophyta
Division Pterophyta
Division
Pteridosperrnophyta
Division Cycadophyta
Division Coniferophyta
Division Ginkgophyta
Division Coniferophyta
Division Gnetophyta
Division Anthophyta
Fundamentals of Palynology
111
112
.~ ~
:/. r
.'
I,
Fig. 3, Examples of spores and other structures from nonvascular plants (After
Tschudy and Scott, 1969).
Fundamentals of Palynology
113
114
~A
~".'"
W"
some may have persisted into the Cretaceous. The Bennettitales became
extremely abundant in the Jurassic and probably became extinct in the
Cretaceous.
The modem representative of the Cycadales are mostly limited to
the tropics and subtropics. The pollen is consistently of the mono sulcate
type. The Cordaitales, an extinct order, is perhaps the oldest of several
orders of the subclass Coniferophytae. The order Ginkagoales, once
widespread and made up of many genera, is now represented by only
Fundamentals of Palynology
115
116
Plant Group
Bryophyta
Psilophytales
Psilotales
Lycopodiales
SelagineIIaIes
Lepidodendrales
Pleuromeiales
Isoetales
Hyeniales
SphenophyIIales
Equisetales
Spore or
Pollen TYpe
Homosporous or
Heterosporous
Trilete,
inaperturate
Trilete,
inaperturate
Monolete, trilete
Trilete
Trilete
Trilete
Trilete
Monolete, trilete
Trilete?
Trilete?
Homosporous
CoenopteridaIes
Trilete,
inaperturate
Trilete
Ophioglossales
Marattiales
FiIicaIes
Trilete
Monolete, trilete
Monolete, trilete
Cycadofilicales
Trilete, monolete,
monosuIcate
Monosulcate
Bennettitales
(Cycadeoidales)
Cycadales
Cordaitales
Ginkgoales
Coniferales
Gnetales
Angiospermae
MonosuIcate
MonosuIcate
Monosulcate
Monosulcate,
inaperturate
MonosuIcatc.
inaperturate
Various
Homosporous
Homosporous
Homosporous
Heterosporous
Heterosporous
Heterosporous
Heterosporous
Homosporous
Homosporous,
heterosporous
Homosporous,
heterosporous
Homosporous,
heterosporous
Homosporous
Homosporous
Homosporous,
heterosporous
Heterosporous
Heterosporous
Heterosporous
Heterosporous
Heterosporous
Heterosporous
Heterosporous
Heterosporous
Fundamentals of Palynology
117
118
Devonian Spores
Spores occur in both marine and continental strata. Acritarchs are
known from the Precambrian and occur abundantly in Lower Paleozoic
marine strata. Continental strata are practically absent from the geological
column before Late Silurian - Early Devonian time, and trilete spores are
most abundant in continental and marginal marine strata. The spores
found are mainly azonate, smooth and retusoid. Sculptured forms
are much more rare. but they occur in an increasing variety from the
Wenlock to the Ludlovian. Compared with records of bonafide trilete
spores from Silurian rocks, the lower Gedinnian assemblages represent a
considerable increase in the number of spore types. Considering
Gedinnian assemblages as a whole, we fmd several distinct features that
separate them from succeeding Devonian assemblages. Firstly, the spores
are very small. Secondly, well-developed contact areas and curvaturae
perfectae are a constant feature. Sculpture is varied compared with
Silurian forms, i.e., granulate, apiculate, spinose, individually biform,
verrucate, murinate and reticulate patterns are all developed, but many
of these sculptured spores have smooth proximal faces. Another proximal
development of importance is the presence of proximal radial ribs. See
Fig. 6. Descriptions of welldated Siegenian and Emsian assemblages are
rare, but the few that are available indicate a similar pattern of
development. A striking feature is the early appearance of important
Fundamentals of Palynology
119
120
Fundamentals of Palynology
121
DEVONIAN
'"3::
'";;z
'":;;
'"....;;
z
CARB
'":<
...'"
;;
Z
,."...
SYSTEM
'"i!
'"'"
til
Z
"''''
"'",,,
...
zO
,.
:u'"
_ 0 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . ____ ...
... __ . . . . . . . __ .. _ __ ..
__ .. _ ..
Fig. 7. Range chart to show the knoWn distribution of Devonian spore genera
(After Tschudy and Scott, 1969).
122
Fundamentals of Palynology
123
124
Fundamentals of Palynology
125
126
Fundamentals of Palynology
127
128
129
Fundamentals of Palynology
./
Cingl.tlum
Trlrtwer5lt
Flagellum
L...........
- - ......tum
1.1
IiI
(,l
flJ
In)
Fig. 10. Examples of Recent dinoflagellates (After Tschudy and Scott, 1969).
eprodu ctive appears to be exclusively of the vegetative type involving
either a single or multiple division that results in two or more daughter
cells, each capable of developing to maturity. Dinoflagellates of many
types are naked cells in the motile stage, but in two large groups the
motile cell is enclosed in a theca consisting chiefly of cellulose. In one
of these groups (Dinophysidales) the theca has a sagittal suture and
comes apart into two roughly symmetrical halves. In the other group
130
--
2'
__ Apical plates
----------
Apex
Antapex
laJ
1<1
{I}}
f,1I
Fundamentals of Palynology
131
possess conspicuous horns, including one antapical hom and one that
rises from the postcingular region. Many living dinoflagellates exhibit it
large intraspecific variability in thecal shape, e.g., Ceratium fusus and
Citripos. Dinoflagellates are small but fundamentally important organisms
in the sea today where, together with the diatoms, they are the basic link
of the food chain. Dinoflagellates are most varied and abundant in modem
tropical seas.
Many dinoflagellates pass through an encysted stage in addition
to the mobile stage. Dinoflagellate fossils appear to be remains of cysts,
rather than of once-mobile thecae. Depending on the species and the
circumstances, cyst formation in modem dinoflagellates apparently may
be associated with four conditions : (1) the onset of unfavourable
environmental conditions, (2) a resting period in the life cycle, (3) a part
of the reproductive phase, and (4) a period of "digestion" of solid food.
The resting cysts may be simply spherical, with or without spines. Among
the small number of modem resting cysts two are important: (1) the cyst
of Gonyaulax digitalis, and (2) the cyst ofPeridinium leonis. The walls of
these cysts are chemically more resistant than thecae, and they possess
excystment apertures comparable to the openings known in many fossil
dinoflagellates. See Fig. 12. The shape and size of cysts in Ceratium vary
much less than do the thecae of the mobile stage. The horns characteristic
of the Ceratium theca are noticeably abbreviated if present in the cyst,
and the cingulum, prominent in the theca, is not discernible in the cyst.
Dinoflagellates (Fossil)
Dinoflagellates are represented by fossils that vary between wide
132
(J 0
" "
~
:.
.....
4'
',,~
-',
. ~'~
':
"
Fundamentals of Palynology
133
fidelity with which a fossil dinoflagellate cyst reveals the features of the
theca and therefore the extent to which the fossil is "dinoflagellate-like"
in appearance depends partly on the proximity of the main surface of the
cyst to the theca. Fossil can be recognized as a dinoflagellate by three
criteria: (1) Flagellar furrows, (2) tabulation, and (3) shape. Flagellar
furrows alone are conclusively diagnostic of dinoflagellate affinity if they
can be reliably identified, e.g., Dinogynmium. Tabulation is the pattern
of plate arrangement in a dinoflagellate theca. A very important indication
of tabulation is the archeopyle. A distinct archeopyle of identifiable type
is sufficient by itself to establish the dinoflagellate nature of an unknown
fossil. The overall shape of dinoflagellates ranges through gradational
stages from nearly spherical to conspicuously three-pointed, with many
variations along the way. Horns are major projections of the test. They
seldom number more than five and appear to be abbreviated versions of
major projections that characterize thecae of many modem dinoflagellates.
See Fig. 14. In contrast to horns, processes and speta seen not to
134
Processes .nd
Oth"
Surf.ce
Featurts
1-//
Sutural
..
,A
....
_1 A ....
,C\CtL\/
-<:\
ll.
-\..i...
".~_ 41
t:I --
r-.
./J -
J;\
->q/
-<l
11
.)~--
Ii
c.
1\
;,;-:.n. .
Fig. 15. Surface features of fossil dinoflagellates (After Tschudy and Scott, 1969.
In some species an archeopyle has never been observed; in others it is
consistently present, in still other species the operculum is in place in
some specimens and missing from others. Opercula found separated from
the rest of the test can often be identified with the species they represent
on the basis of details of surface structures, processes, size, or shape.
A tendency toward bilateral symmetry is recognizable in most
species, even when shape or projecting structures suggest a radial or
axial symmetry at first glance. The walls of fossil dinoflagellates are as
135
Fundamentals of Palynology
'''''
An::heopv1e Types
2A" 6P
31
~
-----
~-pp
pe
C.,lloflt-phdlll.nt
() Hvs",chusp"aera
ep
~'
(hJ LJe/lulidrea
~
(dJ Wn:eildlu
(,I PseudocrrQtlllm
136
137
Fundamentals of Palynology
--
--------------~------
- - - - - - - - - -----American
Furopean
r----Bertie
Canastotan
Salona
lockportoan
lockport
Silurian
,,~
:>~
f-----------
iC
Wenlock
:;)
...I
iii
~---
.di
~.
--
Tonawandan
Niagaran
-,=
lewistoni.n
'"
Ashg,lI
Cincinnatian
a~
:;)"l!
0
>-
0.00-
.
n
c
Kukru.
lIandeoio
Cha~I-
li
Maysville
;:)5
&'~
0.0
Wilderness
P:" :~_:_:_~r_Id
___
______-
JE:~~--~~~----
llanvirn
Wh't,rock
-----
00
-'"l!
Richmond
~
Eden
Mohawk,an ?1-__.::B:;;at.;:ne~ve~Id~
_ _-lr--?-
Caradoc
fu.;;;;;- -----
0
c<
0
----'I;M;;-ed:::;;:ina=--L....J-O----;l-=o=we-:r:-1
Stlurian
~.ij
Clinton
Ontarian
llandovery
o~
Upper
Cayugan
ludlow
8.~
Murdenan
Arentg
1
r 8eek~wn
Canadian
Festimog
(Olelus)
:: . --
1---....:.....
;=-=--~
FrancDnian
Maentwrog
--4----~
Trempealeau
--------- ---
------f Dunde,be"uz)
Croixlan
--
(Aphe/asplS)
&~
"E
:;)
-------
Dresbach,an
c
J!~
H.
:;;
Ta,:oman
_ - - L ______ _
Fig. 18. Stratigraphic units used for lower Paleozoic systems in Europe and
North America (After Tschudy and Scott, 1969).
138
16
crj
19
20
22
Fig. 19. Acritarches from upper Precambrian and lower Paleozoic deposits
(After Timofeyeu, 1959).
139
Fundamentals of Palynology
O
i:
-.. "~ 9
140
Fundamentals of Palynology
141
J ACANTHOMJRPH
SPHAEROMORPH
4 HERKOMORPH
5 PTEROMORPH
NETROI>DRPH
9
7 POLYGONOMORPH
'-:
63
\
.
O
;,
6 PRr3MATOMORPH
-~ . ~
~~
.. -......
...
...
':
OOMORPH
-~
10 DISPHAEROMORPH
11 PLATYMORffi
DINETROI>DRPH
142
,::..
'r":;
':,,"
.JJj"
)(
"
~~8~.
Fig. 22. Silurian and Devonian acritarchs (After Tschudy and Scott, 1969).
Fossil Plant (Angiosperm History)
Angiospenns have dominated the land flora of the earth since midCretaceous time. The angiosperm-fossil record, which consists mostly
of leaves, is the most extensive from the standpoint of numbers of
specimens of any vascular-plant group. The oldest known plants that
can reasonably be called angiospenns are Sanmiguelia, the palmlike plant
from the Late Triassic, and Furcula, from the Rhaetic. The remains
consists only of leaf impressions and a few fragmentary stem
143
Fundamentals of Palynology
Ericaceae
Meliaceae
Rosaceae
Aceraceae
Fagaceae
Menispermaceae
Salicaceae
Annonaceae
Guttiferae
Moraceae
Sapindaceae
Araliaceae
Hamamelidaceae
Myricaceae
Starculiaceae
Betulaceae
Icacinaceae
Nyrnphaeaceae
Tiliaceae
Celastraceae
Lauraceae
Oleaceae
Ulmaceae
Plantanaceae
Vitaceae
Cercidiphyllaceae Leguminosae
Comaceae
Magnoliaceae
Proteaceae
144
Fundamentals of Palynology
145
146
Fundamentals of Palynology
147
148
Fundamentals of Palynology
149
150
Table-4
Stratigraphic Divisions of the Jurassic and Early
Cretaceous in Western Europe
Period
T
Early
Cretaceous
Jurassic
Age (Stage)
Definition ofBeginning of
Division (Zone oj)
Notes
Albian
Aptian
Barremian
Hauterivian
Valanginian
Berriasian
Leymeriella tardefurcata
Prodeshayesites fissicostatus
Paracrioceras strombecki
Acanthodiscus radiatus
Kilianella roubaudiana
Berriasella boisseri (approximately)
"Tithonian"
Gravesia spp.,
Taramelliceras lithographicum
Kimmeridgian
Oxfordian
Callovian
Bathonian
Bajocian
Pictonia baylei
Quenstedtoceras mariae
Macrocephalites macrocephalus
Zigzagiceras zigzag
Leioceras opalinum
Toarcian
Pliensbachian
Sinemurian
Hettangian
Dactylioceras tenuicostatum
Uptonia jamesoni
Arietites bucklandi
Psiloceras planorbis
152
:6
"
.,.
2J
Fundamentals of Palynology
153
regular equatorial and distal muri and also short radial equatorial
appendages. Interradial crassitudes are clearly displayed by
Gleicheniidites, which has a smooth exine. Cingutriletes and
Taurocusporites are genera for spores with a circular ambo Forarninisporis
includes granulate to verrucate species with a very narrow, sculptured
cingulum. Contiginsporites shows a single distal set of parallel muri that
coalesces with the cingulum. Spores with a cavate separation of exine
layers are not common. Monolete fern spores are relatively rate in the
Mesozoic, the most common being Marathisporites. Aequitriradites has
a broad membraneous zona. Tsugaepollenites seems to be most
appropriate genus. Bisaccate pollen grains form a most important element
of Mesozoic assemblages. In the Jurassic there are records of the very
large Abietinaepollenites dunrobinensis with a corpus length of about
100 microns. In the Early Cretaceous species of Parvisaccites became
important stratigraphically. Monocolpate pollen is mostly unsculptured.
The most surprising colpate grain is Eucommiidites. Calvatipollenites is
monocolpate, with a finely clavate exine that become tectate. Throughout
the Jurassic and most of the Early Cretaceous the small spherical
monoporate Classopollis occurs in a large proportion of assemblages as
is the dominant form in certain facies, e.g., Perinopollenites, and Elatides
williarnsonii. Ararcariacites is a large thin, walled scabrate grain common
in the Early and Mid-Jurassic. Dispersed megaspores have a mean
diameter of over 200 microns and could in many cases be accommodated
on morphographic ground in miospore taxa, e.g., azonate megaspores,
zonate megaspores, barb ate megaspores, and pyrobolotrilete megaspores.
All the spores of this group belonged to aquatic plants of which the
main organs are unlikely to have been fossilized. They may have belonged
to the fern family 'Marsiliaceae, although it contains no precise Recent
parallels.
Jurassic and Early Cretaceous (Distribution, Sequence, and Evolution
of Floras)
In Europe, there is a full rock succession, and, although much of it
was of marine origin, there were always extensive islands and
embayments with non-marine facies. The Lias a of Poland was deposited
in such an embayment, and the assemblages have been described by
Rogalska (1962). Similar assemblages from southern Sweden and other
parts of Europe show a marked rise of Osmundacidites and the
appearance of Eucommiidites. Classopollis becomes abundant and
154
remains so for the rest of the Jurassic Period. The assemblages are not
very different from those of the Rhaetian (Late Triassic) immediately
below, although Ovalipollis and some other Triassic genera have
disappeared. European assemblages from the stages Sinemurian to
Toarcian are less well known and thus less distinctive, because of
the effect of fairly widespread of marine transgression. Very large
bisaccate grains appeared at this time in Britan, but not in Europe.
Bajocian and Bathonian floras are well known from the classic area
of Yorkshire, England. Numbers of Tsugaepollenites and Araucariacites
increase rapidly, as do several species of Lycopodiumsporites.
Among monosu1cates the large benettitalean types become less common
than the small oval species. Callovian to Tithonian assemblages continue
to be dominated by Classopollis, Tsugaepollenites, and Araucariacites.
There is less variety in bisaccates, although these include some
grains with a short, wide corpus. The assemblages of the fIrst from
Early Cretaceous stages are marked by striking charges in the fern
spores. Cicatricosisporites becomes universal, as do to a lesser degree
Trilobosprites, Pilosisporites, and others. Aqequitriradites become
numerous among the hilates, and Schizosporis retriculatus is a
regular occurrence. Aptian and Albian assemblages are marked by a
sharp increase in the Gleicheniidites and a decrease in Cicatricosisporites,
Plicatalla, etc. Ephedripites becomes more common, and bisaccates
appear with a clear resemblance to some Recent genera. Among
megaspores the sudden diversifIcation of Arcellites and Pyrobolospora
is striking.
In northern temperate areas many assemblages have been described
from Asia, but they are not very different from those in Europe.
Cycadophytes would be more common in lower latitudes and
coniferophytes more abundant further north. In the "tropics"
Chlamydospermae such as Eucommiidites and also Classopollis
predominate over saccate and monoporate conifer grains. In Australia
(Southern Hemisphere) Cicatricosisporites is much less diverse, and
Plicatella does not appear. Exesipollenites is an important element with
Classopollis in the Early Jurassic. Polysaccate conifer grains are suddenly
important in the Early Cretaceous. The Albian in Australia is characterized
by the unusual Hoegisporis.
The Jurassic and Early Cretaceous were periods of very varied
selection for new types of spore and pollen apertures, some of which
Fundamentals of Palynology
155
156
and high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere. Late Cenozoic floras differ
from earlier ones. These characteristics of late Cenozoic floras are given
below:
1. Decreasing diversity of flora.
157
Fundamentals of Palynology
Sen.s
Oligocene
Ch.ttian
(upper)
Rupelaan
(mIddle)
Lattorlian
Eocene
Priabonian
Jackson Stage
lutetl,"
Claiborne Group
Ypres,an
Wilcox Group
Spamaclan
Paleocene
Thanetl.n
Midway Group
Montian - Daman
.j
Maestrtchtian
Navarro Group
Campanian
Taylor Group
Jf - - - - - - - SantOnian
Upper Cretaceous
Austm Chalk
ConiaCian
I-_T_uron_ian______
Cenomanian
~----------~
Woodbine Formallon
Fig. 24. Selected stratigraphic divisions of the Late Cretaceous and early
Tertiary (After Tschudy and Scott, 1969).
158
70
60
~50
40
j30
'0
0.
~ 20
"-
10
,,
Fig. 25. Total fossil pollen and spore groups Lower Cretaceous-Pleistocene
(After Cousminer, 1961).
Fundamentals of Palynology
159
is.
::J 40
..'"
r.t 30
..
(;
"0
c:
c:
.!!
20
"0
Q.
'w
...S
10
Fig. 26. First and last appearances of Mesozoic fossil pollen and spores
(After Cousminer, 1961).
160
Fundamentals of Palynology
161
162
163
Fundamentals of Palynology
Open water
Coal~~~e59raS'i
Coarse/fine
Detrital Gyttl8s
Fig. 27. Inferred moor types of the Miocene niederreinische Braunkohe in their
probable lateral succession (After TeichmiilIer, 1958).
Early Miocene pollen floras have been described from Silesia and
from the Lausitz basin. Late Miocene pollen floras are known from Stare
Gliwice in Silesia and from the Konin deposits. Pollen and seed floras
from Mizerna in southern Polland represent the early Quaternary section
through Mindel and probably include the latest Pliocene. The Polish
Miocene is rich in Tertiary relict genera. See Table 5. In Fig. 28 the relative
importance of various geographic elements in the floras is plotted
according to geologic age. In Poland pollen of Gramineae and
Compositae are rare or lacking in the early Miocene but become more
common in younger beds. Megafossil evidence of arctic species does
not appear in Poland until the Mindel, or third European glaciation.
Hungarian late Miocene and early Pliocene floras have a general similarity
to floras of similar age from north-western Europe. Pollen, spore, and
plankton floras from primarily marine deposits of late Oligocene, Miocene,
and Pliocene age in Romania are summarized. Each of these floras is
distinctly more cool temperate than are floras of corresponding age from
northwestern Europe. The evidence from Miocene and Plio-Pleistocene
pollen floras of the Russia is summarized in a series of maps showing
Table-5
Percentages in the Total Pollen Count of Certain Tertiary Relict Groups in the Late Cenozoic of Poland
Early
M,ocene
Late
Miocene
Pliocene
4 - 80
1 - 20
0-1
1-43
0-1
1 - 18
Taxon
Taxodiaceae, Taxaceae,
M,zerna II
(= Tigllan)
o-
5 (SciadopltysO)
and Cupressaceae
0-3
0-5
0-2
Symplocaceae and
Sapotaceae
Tsuga
1- 6
0-1
2-5
0-1
0-3
0-5
1 - 20
1- 5
0- 15
1- 3
0- 1
0-2
Querclls (and
quercoid pollen)
Liquidambar
Eucommw
0-2
Pterocarya
0-2
0-7
0-4
0-2
Carya
0-1
0-2
0- 1
+0
Mizerna III
(= Cromerian)
Fundamentals of Palynology
165
Pliocene
166
Fundamentals of Palynology
167
Miocene age. Most of the plant group identified area represented in the
modem flora of the region. Ephedra does not grow in Eastern United
States. Miocene pollen floras from Eniwetok, Fiji, Bikini, Palau Islands,
and Guam indicate that the Miocene vegetation contained Micronesian
plant genera that since have been eliminated from the islands. Early and
middle Miocene pollen floras of New Zealand are dominated by
Nothofagus. Bombax and Capaneidites types make their last appearance
in the late Miocene. The Gatun Formation (Miocene) in the Panama Canal
Zone furnishes evidence of Miocene vegetation in the New World
tropics. Pollen and spores types were reported: Bombax, Anemia, Trichilia,
Cupania, Roupala etc. In Panama Canal Zone, there have been few
alterations or generic eliminations from the flora since Miocene time.
Late Tertiary Floras (Summary)
In the Northern Hemisphere at high and middle latitudes pollen
evidence records a Miocene climate that was warmer and with less
seasonal variation than at present. In many areas subtropical plants, such
as members of the Sapotaceae and Meliaceae, grew alongside warm
temperate and cool temperate plants. These groups for the most part are
not found together today, but they grew only a few miles apart in
mountainous terrain of the subtropics. Though the late Oligocene
Climates brought some subtropical elements as far north as latitude 63
degree N in Alaska and the Russia, most of these genera extended only
as far north as about latitude 40 degree N during the early Miocene along
the Pacific Coast of North America and to about latitude 50 to 55 degree
N in Europe and maritime East Asia. Today subtropical elements extend
northward to about latitude 25 degree N in most areas. The early Miocene
vegetation occupying the mid-latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere was
mixed warm temperature and SUbtropical, with the true tropics apparently
restricted to relatively low latitudes, i.e., 35 degree N. Middle Miocene
leaf floras of Japan and the Pacific Coast of the United States indicate
that the climates were warmer than early Miocene ones and that some
subtropical broad-leaved evergreen elements moved northward to about
latitude 45 degree N during that time. Many genera now restricted to the
humid Eastern United States and to temperate parts of China and Japan
ranged into Western United States and Europe. Limited evidence from
low latitudes suggests that Miocene floras these were not significantly
different from the local floras of today.
By late Miocene time subtropical elements retreated to a position
south of latitude 40 degree N, leaving the north latitude a region of strictly
168
Fundamentals of Palynology
169
o
Fig. 29. Mississippian-Pennsylvanian spore genera (After Tschudy and
Scott, 1969).
170
.,"''"
I-
>-
V>
SERIES
VIRGIL
ILLINOIS
Kosanke, SU'fton. Wonless, ond
Willmon (1960)- Playford (19621
GROUP
FORMATION
lJlJJLI HUIJL
WESTERN
EUROPE
APPALACHIAN
WoN ~9631 '" W_.(963)
Read and Mamoy ~ ~_'h(I96.i.bI
11964)
en Playford (1962)
FORMATION
.,
>-
_LA
STAGE
MOSCOW
BASIN
Wanless (1963)
STAGE
STEPHAHIAN
ORENBURG!AN
STEPHANIAN A
GlHEUAN
MATTOON
McLEANSBORO
....z
.,
....
MISSOURI
>
..J
>-
BOND
CONEMAUGH
MODESTO
CARBONOAL.E
O[S
MOINES
KEEWANEE
.,
:::>
IE
...'"
ALLEGHENY
SPOON
Z
Z
.
..'"
0
a:
ATOKA
AB80TT
KANAWHA
McCORMICK
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Fundamentals of Palynology
171
172
Pollen and spores, microscopic but vital elements in the life histories
of the plants they present, do no more than suggest the life form of the
Fundamentals of Palynology
173
parent plant and are not necessarily found at the locality at which the
parent plant grew. There are many limitations. Almost of the Normapolles
group of pollen grains prevalent in the Late Cretaceous are extinct. That
the plants themselves may have changed in their ecological requirements
with time must be seriously considered. When dealing with assemblages
of dispersed spores and pollen of Recent or near Recent age
palynologists have been able to do a remarkable job of reconstructing
past climates and past plant communities. Families and genera known to
be limited to restricted ecological conditions are rare. Nevertheless, when
such fossils are found careful inferences or conclusions based on them
may be sound. Inferences based on fossil associations, especially in
Tertiary and older rocks, are much more reliable than those derived from
single species. The coals derived from the different associations are
distinct petrographically. Inferences can be derived from the characteristics
of the fossils. These inferences are based on the morphology of the fossil
spores or pollen grains and include such features as the presence of
thick or thin walls and the distributive mechanisms inherent in the fossils
themselves. Float mechanisms, such as those on fossil Azolla spores,
point to an aquatic habitat like that occupied by modem Azolla species.
Inferences from adaptive mechanisms such as the wings, or sacs, on
conifers have been made. On the basis of size and sculpture we may
conclude that the fossil pollen species was probably adapted to
distribution either by wind or by insects. Entomophily, pollination by
insects, is more common in tropical humid, or rainy climatic conditions
than is anemophily, pollination by wind Airborne pollen is constantly
washed out of the humid tropical air by rain. Insect pollination under
such conditions is a more effective fertilizing mechanism. Distribution of
pollen by wind on a large scale is chiefly confmed to temperate and cool
climates. Identity of fossil pollen with pollen from extant genera and
species of plants is the most reliable basis for paleoecological
interpretation. Members of the Gramineae signify nearby grassands.
Juncaceae is a family that is composed of aquatic or semiaquatic
members. Members of the Droseraceae are limited to boggy or swampy
regions. Many members of the Chenopodiaceae are common inhabitants
of dry, open localities. Nothofagus is at present a genus confmed to the
south temperate zone.
Palynology (Applications)
174
Fundamentals of Palynology
175
176
of the major coal-forming periods of earth history. On the basis of plantmicrofossil evidence alone the existence of the following major
communities may be inferred for the Central European middle Eocene:
177
Fundamentals of Palynology
70
60
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MegafossIls
Mlcrufosslls
leaf and insect fossils preserved in paper shales. Except the White River
beds and certain sectors of the Bridge Creek flora, American Oligocene
plant beds are not intercalated with fossiliferous marine sediments, and
their associated vertebrate evidence has been fragmentary. The Florissant
flora is interpreted as indicative of a woody, upland flora growing under
subhumid conditions at moderate elevations. 29.7 percent of the
178
Florissant species have living counterparts in Asia, but 57.1 percent are
still native to the region southwestern Coahuila State, Mexico.
Gymnosperms study verify the presence of Ephedra, Pinus, Picea and
Abies. The taxodiaceous pollen encountered is morphologically more
similar to that of modern Taxodium species than to Sequoia. The
Oligocene strata of American Northwest are characterized by the
abundance of conifer pollen; by herbaceous genera represented by pollen
Graminae, etc; and by a variety of fern genera belonging to the
Polypodiaceae. The plant remains, consisting of seeds, fruit, and wood,
as well as microfossils, occur in a brown coal deposited in a small Tertiary
basin on the west side of the Green Mountains of Vermont. The flora is
considered indicative of a forest swamp growing under warm temperate
or subtropical climates.
Faunal and floral evidence both indicates the development, during
the Oligocene, of two major biotic provinces, Northern and
Mediterranean, but European Oligocene palynology is still mainly that
of the Northern province. Here sweeping strand-line changes, beginning
with the great wave of flooding at the start of the Oligocene, followed
by major regressions at the close, had produced successions of marsh,
lagoonal, and coastal swamp environments. See Fig. 33. Oligocene
flooding of the North Sea earlier had encroached into this old arc of
subsidence as far as Cologne, leaving thick sediments, of various facies,
between Bonn and Wesel. Under cooling, but still warm temperate
conditions, with average annual temperatures declining from about 20
rT--'--~
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K.J!.seler .....
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14
Fig. 33. The transgressions of the North Sea into the North German lowland
during mid-Miocene and late Oligocene time and the distribution of the
bogs (After Teichmuller, 1958).
Fundamentals of Palynology
179
180
were the Gramineae, Compositae, etc. Only a few species of tree pollen
were recorded, e.g., Betula, Tamarix, Pinaceae, etc., Much of the
palynological investigation in Japan has concentrated on the Eocene and
Oligocene sediments intercalated in the commercially important coal
seams of Hokkaido and northern Honshu. Important Oligocene spores
and pollen indicate a constant warm temperate climate for northern Japan
during the Paleogene. Arboreal pollen accounts for 70 to 80 percent of
the total number of grains in the Ashibetsu Formation of late Oligocene
age.
De Porta (1961) has described Miocene-Oligocene spore and pollen
flora from Colombia, consisting of fern spores, podocarp pollen, and
angiosperm pollen from some dozen families, all with genera still native
to northern South America. Most of the Australian mid-Tertiary
proteaceous pollen has been described under the genera Banksieaeidites,
Beaupreaidites, Proteacidites, and Triorits. The stratigraphic ranges of
New Zealand plant microfossils show no striking differences between
the flora of the upper Eocene Arnold Series and that of the lower
Oligocene London series. The dominant forest species continued to be
Nothofagus matauraensis of the Brassi group. The interval is marked by
the first appearance of pollen representative of the Bombacaceae and
Restionaceae, as well as pollen of Podocarpus aff. dacrydioides Rich.
The first palynological evidence of climate cooling occurs in the upper
Oligocene in the strong dominance of both the Brassi and Fusca groups
of southern beeches.
Palynological Characterization of the Paleocene
Krutzsch (1957) summarized the palynological record of the earliest
Tertiary floras of Central Europe. He noted that "The transition into the
Tertiary takes place without any significant charge. The Normapolles are
somewhat shifted into the background of new form groups dominating
the Paleogene." A typical Paleocene assemblage of this province might
yield porate dicotyledonous pollen of suspected Juglandaceae,
Myricaceae, Myrtaceae, and Haloragaceae affInities, including such form
genera of Pflug as Extratriporopollenites, Intratriporopollenites,
Subtriporopollenites, and Stephanoporopollenites. In company with these
there may be found also palynomorphs of plants persisting from
Senonian and earlier times, together with palm pollen and, in low
percentages, pollen representing Nyssaceae, Sapotaceae, Aquifoliaceae,
etc., whose frequencies increase through the Eocene and Oligocene. The
181
Fundamentals of Palynology
--....,.~
Regression
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-:-:.-:-:-::-:-:-:-:-:"':...- -4
~----
182
Fig. 35. Paleocene pollen floras (After Tschudy and Scott, 1969).
Fundamentals of Palynology
183
in austral regions until upper Miocene times. In New Zealand pollen floras
of both the Teurian stage of the Mata series and the Dannevirka series
remain dominated by long-ranging podocarpaceous species. The low
frequency of Triorites harris ii, together with the restricted occurrence of
Nothofagus waipawaensis, serve to identify the New Zealand Danian.
The Australian-New Zealand Late Cretaceous-early Tertiary flora is the
rare occurrence of pollen suggestive of Anacolosa of the pantropical
family Olacaceae. Cookson and Pike (1954) pointed out that the presence
of Anacolsa in the Indian-Malayan flora and its absence from the modem
Australian flora provides another example of a migration toward the
equator of plants that had a more extensive southern distribution during
the Tertiary Period. Present knowledge of the classification and the
paleoecological and stratigraphic usefulness of Latin American spores
and pollen rests mainly on published papers. The Colombian Paleocene
spore-pollen floras show marked quantitative changes among certain palm
pollen from the base to the top of all sections studied. No gymnosperm
pollen is recorded, and the abundance ofPsilatriletes fern spores is much
less. Proxapertites operculatus has its greatest representation in the
Paleocene. Angiosperms constitute the entire Paleocene vegetation, and
the flora shows a definite trend toward the existing South American
aspect. The genera of recent palms are relatively wide ranging and more
resistant to temperature declines. Pollen assemblages made possible a
Paleocene age determination.
Kuprianova (1960) noted the occurrence of pollen of Cedrus, Myrica,
Ilex, Nyssa, Liquidambar, Castanea, Platycarya, the Rhamnaceae,
Mystaceae, and Cunoniaceae from Kazakhstan in Central Asia. The
angiosperm pollen is stated to have been derived from sclerophyllous
forms. The Paleocene assemblage indicated a warm temperate or
subtropical climate. The Kazakhstan record of Liquidambar is regarded
as the earliest find of sweet-gum pollen. Kuprianova concluded that this
genus and its Paleogene cohorts covered the coasts and islands of the
Tethys. A record of Platycarya (Juglandaceae) in Paleocene sediments is
interesting. The existing genus is monotypic and restricted to the
temperate Orient. The worldwide Eocene fossil record gives clear evidence
of the modem and largely tropical to subtropical aspect of the early
Tertiary vegetation. Tertiary floras give the evidence of a widespread
tropical zone ranging between 45 degree to 50 degree north and south,
with mild, continuously moist, temperate climates reaching into the polar
184
regions. See Fig. 36. Climates remained broadly zoned throughout most
of the Paleogene but began to modify into diverse types attending the
cooling and drying of the Neogene.
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Fig. 36. Climate and climate belts in the older Tertiary (Paleocene,
Eocene, Oligocene).
Palynology Correlation
Correlation is the process of determining that geological events in
two or more areas are contemporaneous. In palynology it implies the
establishment of qualitative and quantitative similarity between the plantmicrofossil assemblages derived from two or more segments of rock
strata. A comparison with published material from other regions may yield
information of value but should not be expected to provide information
that is as reliable as that derived from nearby control samples. Two steps
are involved in the collection of data : (1) preliminary examination of the
prepared material followed by a qualitative listing of the pollen and spore
flora, and (2) a quantitative determination of the dominant palynomorphs
present. The first examination of the prepared slides should provide
information on the reliability of the sample. If the sample is reliable, the
most useful information normally gained by a qualitative examination is
a record of the total composition of the flora. The vertical range of species
is especially significant and useful. Accessory information may be
Fundamentals of Palynology
185
186
Fundamentals of Palynology
187
provide the best samples for establishing a control section. If a well has
been completely cored, we may then choose the most promising
lithotypes for examination. Well cuttings can be used, but ranges of
species are commonly unreliable because of mixing of cuttings.
Palynological zones can be no closer than the sampling interval. The
number of recognizable zones depends on the history of the vegetation
within and surrounding a basin and on the rate of sedimentation. The
number will be different in different regions. Assemblages or groups of
fossils are always more reliable indicators of zones or of time than are
individual index fossils. Climate changes that affect a significant segment
of the total plant flora are more likely to produce recognizable and
widespread time zones than are other factors that may affect only one
element of a flora. The known stratigraphic distribution of some groups
of palynomorphs is shown in Fig. 37. Fig. 38 is the generalized chart
showing the stratigraphic distribution of some plant groups and genera
in post-Triassic strata. During Early Cretaceous and pre-Cretaceous time
world floras were more uniform than at the present time. Floral
provincialism makes necessary, particularly in the younger part of the
stratigraphic column, the establishment of control sections for each
province or basin concerned.
Palynology may be applied to all problems amenable to solution by
the use of fossils, assuming that palynomorphs can be obtained from
the rocks in question. Pollen and spores are deposited at the same time
in contiguous or even separate continental and marine beds may permit
time lines to be drawn across boundaries between marine and continental
facies. Few other fossils can be utilized in this manner. Pollen and spores
carried by wind and water can be simultaneously deposited in continental
swamp or deltaic sites and in both brackish and wholly marine
depositional basins, thus providing time markers across extremely varied
depositional facies. The diachronous nature of a channel sand and its
matrix can be recognized in many places by the fact that the plant fossils
present in the sand are younger than those in the adjacent rock. This
recognition is particularly useful in subsurface investigations in which
the channels are not visible as such and can be recognised only by their
dissimilar fossils content. Many disconformities can be distinguished
from diastems by the pollen assemblages above and below the zone of
interrupted deposition. Coal and associated strata may contain types of
fossils other than pollen and spores. Therefore correlation of coal seams
devolves almost entirely on the results obtained from the examination of
188
Period
Quaternary
Tertl8ry
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Cretaceous
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189
Fundamentals of Palynology
r--~---"---'---,"--r--'-
Period
Recent
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Fig. 38. Stratigraphic ranges of some post-Triassic pollen and spores in North
America (After Tschudy and Scott, 1969).
190
the spores and pollen that they contain. In exploratory wells the
successive strata often can be dated palynologic ally and thereby can
provide information about the depositional history of the basin. After a
control well has been examined correlative horizons can be established
on the basis of similarities in pollen-and-spores assemblages. This
information, integrated with other data, provides knowledge to guide
further drilling. Correlation diagrams involving several wells may indicate
the direction in which to look for stratigraphic traps or other types of oil
reservoirs.
Palynomorphs (Depositions)
The factors that influence the deposition of inorganic particles also
influence the deposition of palynomorphs. These factors include particle
size, shape, density, coagulability, and the physical conditions at the site
of deposition. Some of the physical conditions of at the site of deposition.
Some of the physical conditions of significance are density of water,
turbulence, salinity, and bottom topography. A set of curves prepared
by Hjulstrom (1955) shows the interrelationships of particle size and water
velocity to erosion, transportation, and deposition. See Fig. 39. Deposits
that have been winnowed may have no pollen in the sand fraction, but a
significant increased pollen concentration may occur in the fraction that
has been removed and deposited in quite water. At the deposition site a
complex of physical, chemical and biological factors influences the
characteristics of the sediment. Terrestrial non-aquaous deposits are
.0
>
g
j
1
<
05
03
02
Fig. 39. Approximate curves for erosion and deposition of uniform material
(After Hjulstrom, 1955).
Fundamentals of Palynology
191
mostly either from arid regions or from glaciers. They also include those
transported by gravity as talus and those developed in situ. Aquatic
depositional sites are continental, transitional, and marine. Continental
deposits include fluvial, lacustrine, and paludal. Lacustrine and paludal
environments provide reducing conditions under which pollen and
spores may be very well preserved. Transitional sites include deltaic,
lagooned, and littoral. The deltaic and lagoonal sites are more likely to
yield palynomorphs than are the littoral sites. Normal marine
environments includes the neritic, the bathyal, and the abyssal. The
neritic zone, particularly off deltas, may yield excellent palynomorph
assemblages (Woods, 1955). Bathyal and abyssal sediments are likely to
be impoverished in organic content from land-based plants but to be
enriched in oceanic organic material.
Pollen grains and spores are rarely so abundant that they make up
most of the volume of an organic deposit. Some rocks, however, may
yield an exceedingly sparse pollen and spore flora. The concentration of
pollen decreases rapidly as distance from shore increases. In some areas
the absolute fossil pollen and spore concentration per unit of sediment
may provide an estimate as to whether the sediment was accumulated
off shore or near shore. The shape of a palynomorph influences the
orientation of it in the sedimentary matrix. In general palynomorphs come
to rest with their greatest diameter parallel to the bedding plane. Nearly
all fossil grains of the genera Carya and Cirratriradites are flattened at
right angles to the line running through their proximal and distal poles.
Nearly all prolate pollen grains present an equatorial view, and most oblate
grains preset a polar view. The first noticeable effect of the weight of
overburden on palynomorphs is corripression, or flattening. In ancient
sediments a nomeversible flattening is evident. Pollen and spores are
compressed with the same attitude as that in which they came to rest,
and their shapes are the determining factors in their preferred orientation.
Pollen and spores embedded in clays are flattened to a maximum degree.
If the matrix has not been compacted, the palynomorphs, where preserved,
will retain their original shape. This preservation of shape is independent
of whether deposition is in a clay, silt, sand, or an organic matrix (bog).
Some evidence of distortion of fossils by pressure from sand grains during
compaction has been observed. Perhaps one reason for the good
preservation of palynomorphs is compression, or flattening. In ancient
sediments a nomeversible flattening is evident. Pollen and spores are
192
compressed with the same attitude as that in which they come to rest,
and their shapes are the determining factors in their preferred orientation.
Pollen and spores embedded in clays are flattened to a maximum degree.
If the matrix has not been compacted, the palynomorphs, where preserved,
will retain their original shape. This preservation of shape is independent
of whether deposition is in a clay, silt, sand, or an organic matrix (bog).
Some evidence of distortion of fossils by pressure from sand grains during
compaction has been observed. Perhaps one reason for the good
preservation of palynomorphs in some shales and coals is that these
matrices provide a protection cushion during compaction, thus permitting
only a minimum of distortion aside from flattening.
Palynomorphs (Diagenesis)
Before or during early diagenesis the least resistant parts of
palynomorphs are destroyed, probably by bacterial action. The cell
protoplasm disappears. The inner layer of the pollen grain coat, the intine,
normally does not persist. Usually the perisporiurn, particularly the thin
walled perisporia of such monolete genera as Asplenium, is readily
destroyed and therefore does not appear in the fossilized state. Coals
are characterized by a high content of lignin and hurnic acids. These
substances are the relatively resistant residues left after partial selective
bacterial and fungal decomposition of the original vegetable matter. The
resistant, original spore and pollen coats are preserved, typically as
compression fossils. During late diagenesis changes in the matrix and in
the organic fraction continue at a retarded rate as additional sediment
accumulates. Interstitial water is gradually squeezed out. After expulsion
of most of the interstitial water by compaction, diagenesis probably
ceases. The oxidation-reduction potential (Eh) of sediments is intimately
related to and perhaps more important than hydrogen-ion concentration
(pH) for the preservation of palynomorphs in sediments. See Fig. 40. This
figure shows that normal marine waters are oxidizing and that only in an
euxinic marine environment is the Eh low enough to provide a reducing
environment. Confined waters, particularly in the presence of organic
matter, rapidly lose their oxygen content. Hydrolysis of silicates causes
this environment to become alkaline as well as reducing. Biochemical
reactions initiated by micro-organisms rapidly remove oxygen and at the
same time produce carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide, resulting in a
lowering of pH. Some anaerobic bacteria release hydrogen, which causes
strongly negative Eh potential to be developed, and as a result strongly
reducing conditions are created.
Fundamentals of Palynology
193
+ 1 0 r---,-----...r--,---r----r----,.--,
+0 B
+ 0.6 +04
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-04
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194
Fig. 41. Crystal imprints on polynomorphs (XI 000) : (a) from the Permian of
Texas; (b) from the Mississippian of Montana (After Tschudy and Scott, 1969).
Fundamentals of Palynology
195
Palynomorphs (Sources)
The principal pollen-producing and spore-producing plants are
those of land origin. These plants include angiospermous and
gymnospermous trees, shrubs, herbs, ferns and fern allies, and, to a lesser
degree, mosses and fungi. In addition to these, flagellates, algae, and
fragments of animals and plants living in the water of the depositional
basin may and often do contribute palynomorphs to the organic fraction
of the sedimentary complex. These fossils are extremely useful additions
to the spore-pollen complex. Fossils are used in making age
determinations and also in the interpretation of ecology at the deposition
site. The disseminules of plants from the various original growth sites
were carried to the place of deposition almost entirely by wind or by
water. The principal processes normally involved in the formation of
sedimentary rocks are erosion, transportation, deposition, diagenesis, and
consolidation of particles or aggregates. Detrital sediments are those solid
particles or aggregates that and in suspension or they have finally come
to rest. Included organic particles are a part of the sediment. The product
of mechanical or chemical breakdown of sediments may consists of both
altered and unaltered rock particles, plus an incorporated organic fraction,
bacteria, fungi, and microscopic anirnallife. To this organic fraction is
added the fallout of pollen and spores from the atmosphere. Within a
depositional area other types of sediment may originate, e.g., important
deposits are carbonates, sulfates, and chloride. Significant volumes of
such sediments have accumulated during various stages of geological
196
time. Sediments, including the organic residues, are moved from source
areas by wind and water. Other minor agencies are ice, volcanic
explosions, or birds. Most sediments are fmally deposited under water.
Exceptions include deposits such as loess and dune sand. Once the
sediments arrive in the sea or other aqueous deposition sites, many of
the particles may be transported long distances before finally coming to
rest. Wave action, bottom currents, turbulence, or mass movement of
water may act to keep some of the fme particles, which include most
pollen and spores, in suspension for a long time. During this phase of
transport particularly, winnowing, or separation, of the fme and light
particles occurs. The average size of particles that are transported
decreases with increasing distance. The organic fraction is commonly
separated from the coarser detritus and deposited with the fme-grained
clastics.
Plants~wing within a basin or an area of deposition may drop
their pollen or spores in situ. The pollen will then commonly be moved
about only by such currents as may be active within the area. Plants
growing in, and forming the vegetation of, a peat bog contribute relatively
enormous amounts of pollen and spores to the sediments that may
eventually be transformed into coal. Wind or water may also carry in
pollen and spores from source areas outside the bog. During the time
that palynormorphs are being transported they may be subjected to
various agencies whose effects may ch .. nge their distribution,
concentration, and state of preservation. The original distribution and
concentration of palynormorphs in a sediment may be altered by sorting,
flotation, stirring, mixing, and resettling. This alteration may result in
qualitative or quantitative change in the recovered pollen and spore
assemblage. The slate of preservation may be adversely affected by
abrasion, chemical action, or the activity of animals. The state of the
specimens may range from only slightly altered to corroded and abraded.
Differential destruction of less resistant forms could radically alter the
composition of the assemblage. Abrasion of pollen grains is usually
minimal. Chemical action including biochemical degradation is the most
destructive agent in the degradation of pollen and spores during transport.
Oxidation, or biological attack, commonly corrodes surfaces or entirely
destroys structure. The acid insoluble fraction of the organic content of
phytoplankton and zooplankton is about 5 percent, whereas the acidinsoluble organic content of marine sediments is more than 30 percent.
Even the acid-insoluble fraction may be totally destroyed if subjected
Fundamentals of Palynology
197
for a long enough time to the effects of aerobic bacteria and fungi or to
atmospheric oxygen.
Permian Palynofloras (Areal Distribution)
From the total of palynologic evidence it is valid to accept the
existence of the two distinct Permian geographic areas of Laurasia and
Gondwanaland, whether or not we accept continental drift. The
palynologic separation of the two landmasses is one of the most striking
features in studying any distribution map of Permian miospores at the
global level. In all the major taxa there is an almost complete separation
of the two landmasses, and it is clear that India belongs to the
Gondwanian landmass. A more logical analysis is to plot world-distribution
maps of all the Permian miospores and define palynofloristic palaeobotanic
provinces with a purely empirical technique, i.e., without reference at all
to class;fjcally defined provinces. This can act as a check on the validity
of both the palynofloristic and classical palaeobotanic methods as
palaeobiogeographic tools. Distribution maps were constructed for all
of the Permian miospores. See Fig. 42, 43, 44, and 45. Few species occur
beyond the limits of particular palaeobotanic provinces. The Saccites
show the greatest member of species that transgress their normal endemic
areas and becomes exotics in a foreign province. The main mixing is on
the fringes of 6rovinces. The Cathaysian palaeobotanic province is the
most interestnig palynofloristically. It is characterized by an abundance
of typically Carboniferous genera. The Cathaysian province was a refugee
(relict flora) area during the Lower and Middle Permian Period, where the
carboniferous flora temporarily survived into the Permian Period, due to
some unknown palaeobiogeographic factor.
Permian Palynofloras (Temporal Distribution)
The generalized stratigraphic distribution of each miospore species
for each continent has been plotted on range charts and analyzed in terms
of the classical Permian geographic areas of Gondwanaland and Laurasia
(Hart, 1965). Each of these palaeogeographic areas shows distinct
palynologic characteristics that allow them to be separated. A better
understanding of Laurasian Permian palynofloras can be derived by
considering each of the Laurasian palaeobotanic provinces ofEurameria,
Angara, and Cathaysia separately. Typical Gondwanian Palynofloras have
been described by many authors. Essentially the complex is characterized
by the presence of Protohaploxypins, Cordaitina, Striatopodocarpites,
198
Fundamentals of Palynology
199
200
CAMERATI
~ 0
~
" r
"
","
.'\
\'.
'
"
M@)
~
\........
"\
'
=0
=0
~,
=@:-
;~,
=~
Y1'
,:!~
b
c~ :~I
=(iJ
;~
l.
}-'
,,~
.-.'
?\"\
: ,;..-)
\.:...;......
,~
-;,~*:~
~.
~. =1=1
=1
"
STRIATITI
~0
I)
-,.,,:,:!;
M~
r ..",
.. -.1.-.
,',-(
ZONATI
\I
t'
'
,I
CINGULATI
=,
="
.~.
=.
;G
~)
=.
"
1ft
e(?3
:
~i
.,.,....
'--:'!I
~.
'~\
Fig, 46. Major miospore characterstics of the Permian florizones from the
Great Karroo basin, South AfriC!l (After Tschudy and Scott, 1969).
Fundamentals of Palynology
201
202
Fundamentals of Palynology
203
PennsylYanian
Permian
TnaS51C
length and position on the central body of the sacci roots. In the
Monosaccites the degree of saccus development is expressed by a
proximal, distal, or proximal and distal attachment of the saccus to the
central body and by the general symmetry of the saccus. The disaccate
Striatiti, in which the thickened proximal cap is sculptured by longitudinal
ribs and striae, are typical and usually abundant in the Permian complexes,
and in terms of its microspore components the Permian Period may be
characterized as the Striatiti complex. Although the saccate miospores
are usually the most important pollenite forms, they do not form the total
complex. Finally, in the Pollenites part of the Permian complex are
miospores belonging to the Aletes. The other major anteturma of
204
Fundamentals of Palynology
205
10
13
Precambrian Microfossils
206
Fundamentals of Palynology
207
208
more than half of the earth's past history. Photosynthesis by green plants
is presumed to account for the present concentration of free oxygen in
the atmosphere. Study of plant microfossils in Precambrian rocks should
contribute important evidence about the early history of the earth before
the atmosphere had acquired its present composition. See Fig. 52. A valid
Present
Million years
70
220
PaleoZOIC
570
Sinian
1200
Early
ProteroZOIc
1900
Archean
2700
Catarchean
-------
---+'--_:.__ .
4500
Protool,ll1etary
staQe of :he
edrth's
de.... elopment
7000
209
Fundamentals of Palynology
Precambrian Microfossils (First Vestiges of Life)
10"
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Fig. 53. Kakabekia umbellata Barghoom (After Barghoom and Tyler, 1965).
210
.:~ .~.......gl
0;'
"~.'
.
~ ~.
(a)
( b)
;~
.
O
.'
.....
(c)
r~'
"(-
(d)
5"
~I .~.
(e)
Fig. 54. Huroniospora and Eoastrion (After Barghoom and lYler, 1965).
upper Precambrian rocks at Bitter Springs, Australia. They have small
septate filaments, and large septate filaments, including 14 species
as members of the Oscillatoriaceae and Chroococcaceae. A modem type
of filamentous algal assemblage had appeared 800 to 1000 million years
ago.
The spore-like, or cystose, structures represent fossils that indicate
the existence of abundant plant life in the Precambrian. Membranous
forms are more common than thick-walled forms. Many of the fossils
are small and lack very definitive features. Most distinctions are based
on differences of surface ornamentation and texture. Precambrian
microfossils assemblages have been reported by Pflug (1966) from
the Belt Series in Montana. Many fossils consists of tiny, short,
multicellular filaments. Many of the cells appear to contain a darkened
residue, possibly consisting of altered protoplasmic material. Isotopic
determinations from related beds within the Belt Series suggest an
211
Fundamentals of Palynology
'1~1
}\
~ ~.
lo/
0)
I \
I:
. ,
\\'\. ,.'\
"
,..
~.l
10,.
~.
'
J,'
~J
11
~
~
It
)
(e)
(d)
'-
CJ
.'.
j'
.
o"'.:-C
0,'.-/
lOu
'----'
'---'
(II)
rl
~~
(f)
(e)
, 'b \:
(M)
(h)
(i)
(q)
20p
1-.-- - - - - .-
212
age of about 1.1 billion years for this material. See Fig. 56. These fossils
are different from Precambrian fossils observed elsewhere by
other workers. The fossils might represent the remains of anaerobic
heterotrophic microorganisms that were buried in situ under accumulating
sediments. If the fossils can be so interpreted, the technique
employed by Pflung might open an additional extensive field for
paleornicrobiologic investigation. The determination of botanical
relationships of this material has significance with respect to evolutionary
history of ancient plants and for its biostratigraphic use in the vast range
of Precambrian deposits.
Quaternary Floras
Early Quaternary floras differ from Neogene floras that they contain
few if an Tertiary relict genera or extinct species. Middle and late
Quatemary floras in general resemble in equivalent modem regional floras.
Many Quaternary pollen assemblages, especially those of glacial origin,
contain abundant and diverse nontree pollen. Arctic-alpine plant species
are lacking in pre-Quaternary floras, are rare in early Quaternary European
floras, and are characteristic in glacial floras of the middle and late
Pleistocene in the middle and high north latitudes of Eurasia. Sequences
of dominant pollen types are characteristic regionally for each interglacial,
and they show both qualitative and quantitative differences from the
postglacial pollen sequences. The potential for reconstructing climates
by the use of pollen floras is greater for the Quaternary than for
older periods. Because pollen identifications are usually on the generic
level, additional detail can be added to the interpretation of the
paleoclimate through the use of megafossils, which often can be
determined on the species level. The identifications of greatest potential
value will be those carried by the smallest taxonomic units, regardless of
the source of the evidence. The beginning of the Quaternary at the
type Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary in Italy is marked by a marine
regression, by the first major late Cenozoic change from warm-to-coldwater foraminifers and mollusks, and by the appearance of new vertebrate
taxa. Paleobotanists had considered the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary
to lie at the beginning of the earlier cool period, the Danau, or Praetiglian.
At the Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary in northwestern Europe, which is
represented by the boundary between the Reuverian and Praetiglian
dramatic numerical and qualitative floral -changes take place. The
most meaningful comparison of interglacial floras depends on having
Fundamentals of Palynology
213
214
215
Fundamentals of Palynology
fir, and jack pine. Inferred Quaternary climate patterns from various parts
of the world are incoIporated in Fig. 57.
Inht'..., -.per....., _
Pol..."
s"'~ llV541
,., ,.,
., "
A~.
"'.r<w 1I'i631
an .."", '"C)
St~
flint (19571
-1151-~~
E........... tl9S81
WIII',",
,.
,
..
I
(~
eo--
Pne....ifn
Cvtd.r
.-
a-
A.ll.."OC WJ ~"''f
~ll!'fI1pr'''lu..,'CI
--'-'*'-prwtet\t
CoIOIr W..,....
--........ T--.~
ten1,., UNtil(!
1'961)
" _. . _ l f F I
Ho_
WU.m
=-__
, ...... t.ndI
Z......,.. (Tl6lb)
,,-
,
\
r--\
Fig. 57. Summary of inferred climate changes ofthe Quaternary and late
Pliocene (After Tschudy and Scott, 1969).
216
the present. The glacial climates were also less continental but cooler
than now. The climate of the last interglacial, on the basis of
paleobotanical evidence, was warmer than present in Europe as well as
in the United States and Southern Canada.
The third through the last glaciation brought tundra or park-tundra
vegetation to Central Europe and northern Italy. In the United States
pollen records of boreal forest genera are found as far south as Florida,
the Ozark Mountains, and Texas. Plant megafossils of arctic affinities have
as yet been identified at only a few United States sites and in
Newfoundland. These sites are all of late Wisconsinan age. But pollen
assemblages suggest that park-tundra conditions may have existed in a
narrow zone attending the glacial border during the retreat of ice in late
Wisconsinan time. Some late Quaternary pollen localities from low
latitudes and the Southern Hemisphere record partial replacement of mixed
arm temperate and subtropical forest with cool temperate and boreal
forest during the Wisconsinan. Though decreases in floristic diversity
are recorded for the European floras during the early Quaternary, the
main changes in Quaternary vegetation of the Northern Hemisphere
involved cliseral migrations of existing vegetation zones (a) in north-south
directions, and (b) with altitude. Few extinctions of plant species are
recorded for the Quaternary interval.
Sample Reliability Factors
The relative reliability of samples is deter-by their source and
methods of collection. There are two broad categories: (a) samples
collected by hand or hand-operated tools, e.g., surface samples and
subsurface samples collected by hand in mines, tunnels, and caves, and
(b) samples collected by mechanical means, e.g., drilling wells, seismic
shot holes, and sea or lake-bottom. Surface samples are most readily
collected at such sites as road or stream cuts, excavations, and cliff faces,
where sedimentary exposures tend to be less cluttered by the soil mantle.
The surface layer should be removed to provide a clean exposure before
the samples are taken. Sediments directly beneath bentonite beds are
usually silicified and much more resistant to chemical and physical
deterioration. Climate has a profound effect on the degree of weathering
and produces its most striking effects in arid areas. Recent to subrecent
unconsolidated sediments may require special collecting techniques. Bog
deposits and bottom muds are cored by forcing a plastic tube into them.
The most common type of contamination in surface samples is modern
Fundamentals of Palynology
217
pollen and spores that may adhere to the surface or may be embedded
in small crevices. Such contamination can be minimized by careful
collecting and by washing before processing. Samples from rotary-drilled
wells are of three classes: (1) conventional cores, (2) sidewall cores, and
(3) cutting samples. Conventional cores are cylindrical pieces of the rock
penetrated by the bit. These cores are most reliable and are most
desirable. Most reliable samples can be obtained from wells drilled with
air or gas than with mud.
Air contaminants are most modem material. Dust in coal mines can
contaminate samples with fossil material. If the material is Recent or nearRecent the problem of differentiating modem material is more difficult
than when working with older specimens. Modem material generally has
a different sheen from that of fossils and often takes stains differently.
Most older sediments have been compacted, and in the process the acidinsoluble microfossils have been flattened. Samples should be throughly
dried before packing and placed in leakproof containers. If the shipping
container is likely to become wet after packing, it should be lined with
oilcloth, oiled paper, or plastic. The water supply can contain modem
pollen, spores, diatoms, dinoflagellates, desmids, etc., and in rare cases
fossils ones. To guard against this kind of contamination many
laboratories use filtered or distilled water for palynological processing.
The apparatus used for crushing samples before they are processed can
be a source of contamination unless it is carefully cleaned between
samples. Caving helps to make well cuttings one of the least reliable types
of sample. If caving is suspected, helpful information can be obtained
from the drilling report. Trips, stuck holes, reaming, and fishing are
common causes of increased caving. The usual cutting fragment is 0.25
inch or less in size. Larger fragments are caved. If several lithologies are
present, they can be sorted and possessed separately. Differences in
fossil content suggest mixed cuttings. Drilling mud can carry
contamination inthe form offme particles from formation other than one
being drilled. Samples should be washed as free as possible from drilling
mud before processing. Circulation is lost when the drill penetrates a
bed that is sufficiently permeable to drain off the circulation fluids, e.g.,
highly porous sandstones, fractured limestones, etc. When circulation
is lost, anything might plug the troublesome bed may be put down the
hole, e.g., walnut hulls, hay, or cotton-seed husks. Some of these materials
can contain pollen and spores of their own.
218
Fundamentals of Palynology
219
220
Polar axis
G~""
Equatorial axis
Proximal view
Radial
,.--, ~
Proximal pol.
Contact
are.
Proximal
surface
SpOre
~nterradlal
Trilete
Equatorial axis
spore
Distal
Laesura
surface
Proximal polar
View
Distal pole
~I~ SUICU'~
~-~
Distal pole
Monosulcate
pollen
Polar Ixis
T ricolporate
pollen
Equatorial view
Polar
View
Bl5accate
pollen
Fundamentals of Palynology
221
222
~.0
Monosulcate
(9
(d @]
Svnco1pate
Oleotpate
Tncolpate
PV
Tncolpate
EV
~V
"~
I,
"
I!
:'
Tetrilcolpate
Pencolpat'
Stephanocolpate
Trlcolporate
PV
Trlcolporate
EV
(])
Ste~anocolpora.e
Perlporate
000
Dlporate
Trlporate
Stephanoporate
PV
Ste,Jhanop(lrate
BreVHf!
colporclte
EV
Dyod
Per.colperate
Syncolpo, .. te
Steph,jlno
tolporate
EV
htrad
POIYdd
223
Fundamentals of Palynology
,C
-~'"
'--"
. rro
~::.--
--,/
;-~>..'
m
.'
~. ,r
"
' _':
I,
.f
' ..
::
224
Fundamentals of Palynology
225
226
Fundamentals of Palynology
227
228
229
Fundamentals of Palynology
Table-6
Categories of Taxa, Prescribed Epithets and Terminations, and
Prescribed Suffixes Indlicating Rank
Category
1.
2
3.
4.
5.
Individuum
F onna specialis
Subfonna
Fonna
Subvarietas
6.
Varietas
7.
8.
9.
10.
Subspecies
Species
Subseries
Series
11.
12.
Subsectio
Sectio
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
Subgenus
Genus
Subtribus
Tribus
Subfamilia
20.
Ordo
21.
Subclassis
Familia
Subordo
Suffix
(represented by specimens)
(microparasites)
Inadmissible Epithets
"typicus"
"originalis"
"originarius"
"genuinus"
"verus"
"veridicus"
Terminations
Forbidden
" -oides"; "-opsis";
and prefIX "Eu-"
-inae
-eae
-oideae
-aceae
-ineae when based on stem ofname ofa
family
-ales
l-phYdda.
= alga.
-mycetidae fungi
=
-idae = cormophytes
22.
Classis
I-PhYC... =alga.
-mycetes = fungi
opsida = cormophytes
(Cont.)
230
SuffIX
{-myCOtina ~ fungi
23.
Subdivisio
{ -myeota ~ fungi
24.
Divisio (Phylwn)
25.
26.
Subregnum
Regnum vegetabile
Fundamentals of Palynology
231
232
L....'
Tr'.Slic
Mkldl, Trta.lc
Upper
.i
Tr ....
Scyth...
Ants."
ladinian
Carnian
Nonan
Ahoot,..
~
VUMACOJuponlt!J
AlIIporltu
Cymdopllts
Lrudaponlts
lJuosporlrt!$
S'r'tUrlt$
y"rtisporltn
Grwlacawpoiknj,eJ:.
Lultdbltldupof'tl
- ----1---- ----
-----~--_+_-+-
l'VGtlKJn,uporfrtl
AIlIlIlIupora
Poly"u.lllt1 tlspomtJ
COIINCllk,uporiUJ
lJuplexlspontes
Ze/muponta
1----1--.--1-41----1--- -I--
H.lio"""" ..
I--'R'::.="::IskA=_=-,,-..---l
EucommiJ(/lft$
--
COn"d"po"t"
Rlwwtipollu
I-f-
Fig. 62. Stratigraphic ranges of selected Triassic genera (After Tschudy and
Scott, \969).
'"'"
AlpIne
C'I
Gel/tid'"''
Fd(..e\
FIICIIU I
T
I
Ij
5 8, 17
124, 25 31
Rhaetian'
("RhiletlC
Syst.m"}
I '"
32, 37,
43.47
USA
T
Up,*"
Keuper"
I
'
NUfhl1l
Keuper 1.11
G,plkeupet
!Middl.
Keuper
uf lome
f--
authorsl
!i 26
;4.~; ,3:5
5nl
1--+---.
~~
"0-
- - - - - -
i-- -
~
i
H
'i'l
C.nfl,,,n
MuSCNlkllk
~
~
~-I--
,,
,,
R~':':OS
Formation
_~ ___ -7-~
1-----
Amslan
rood
I .
LOCIhty
Brady
Bunter
rJ)
<)
ISilo
Group
o "
tnt::
oc:
'3
\
~::~'\
formation) ?
//
T,."
/'
V/"
IFurmlt'on
13
Form.tlon
41
B,o,,,.
Formation
21
36
Kocka.".
Shale
I
upper
Sak.mena
formilion
1-- ....
~,I,-
Grlyllng
FOf'r"IUon
3.4. 29.
34, 35, 56
:~
11
'0 '"
:E-S
,~~
'" ...
tl~
WoU.,
Sandltonel-- 1 - 18
<'-/--
~'-'
II)
.... /
.... .....
Nan,beln
Group
'9
FortNItlon
41
Slk.menl
Formltlon
10. 14
14
16, 22, 23
ROil
Middle
Ind
<)
rJ)
'0<
HawkesburV
Forrnltlon
1-----1-
'in
!a-.fi
/
/Tlngllpl
'~
'C
f-o,...:...
11)0\
..c1.O
0\
.........
FortNIttOn
21
41,57
38
.,
Formation
Formation
,...
- TImber
/Mooroo....
Ole".k
~\IIICI'
Bllndamba'
Group /\1
11,/
V"
--/--
."
I ~I
~g ~f
I~ -,'--
Group
lin ""II
'2 / /
---~
.:i
-''::1 ~~
_I
'2
AntatctlCol
Buean
leigh
Creek
L.d1l111O
:...
Tas",.,1I1
Cool
Mlalurn
1-
South and
East Australl.
Austr.lI.
-----<
i-I
-------i
Lene';t0hle
H.....'
, FO''36"on
:>
w...,,"
At~U"'
I'I
Chinle
Df 50,.,.
jllUlhOl.
Ellesmere
Island
tdn"Uot
Formation
9, 40, 52
I
5
z
;::.
US~a
~
~
1.0
,~
~
234
Fundamentals of Palynology
235
236
Fundamentals of Palynology
237
14. Eisenack, Alfred, 1931; Neue Mikrofossilien des baltischen Silurs, I.:
Palaont. Zeitschr. Vol. 12, pp. 74118.
15. Eisenack, Alfred, 1962; Mitteilungen uber Leiospharen und uber das
Pylom bei Hystrichospharen; Neves Jahrb. Geol. Palaont, Abh.,
Vol. 114, pp. 58-80.
16. Eisenack, Alfred, 1963a; Hystrichospharen; BioI. Rev. Vof. 38, No.1,
pp.l07-139.
17. Engler, A., 1964; Syllabus der pflanzanfamilien, 12th ed., Vol. II,
Angiospermen, Berlin.
18. Gleason, H.A., and Cronquist, Arthur, 1964; The natural geography
of plants; Columbia Univ. Press, pp. 420.
19. Groot, J.J., and Groot, c.R., 1962b; Plant microfossils from Aptian,
Albian, and Cenomanian deposits of Portugal; Com Servo Geol. Port.,
XLVI, pp.131-171.
20. Hammen, Th. Van Der, 1954; El Desarrollo de la Flora Colombiana-en
los Periodos Geologicos, I: Maestrichtians hasta Terciariomas Inferior;
BoLGeol., Vol. 2, No.1, pp. 49-106.
21. Hart, G.F., 1965; The.systematics and distribution of Permian
miospores; Univ. Witwatersrand Press, Johannesburg.
22. Heusser, C.J., 1960; Late Pleistocene environments of North. Pacific
North American-an elaboration of late-glacial and postglacial climatic,
physiographic, and biotic changes; Am. Geog. Soc. Spec. Pub. 35,
pp.308.
23. Heslop-Harrison, J., 1964; Cell walls, cell membranes and protoplasmic
connections during meiosis and pollen development, in Linskens, H.F.
(ed.), Pollen physiology and fertilization; Amsterdam, North-Holland
Publishing Co., pp. 39-47.
24. Hjulstrom, Filip, 1955; Transportation of detritus by moving water,
pp. 5-31 in Trask, P.D., ed; Recent marine sediments-a symposium;
Soc. Econ. Paleontologists and Mineralogists Spec. Pub. 4.
25. Hyde, H.A. and Williams, D.A., 1944; The right word (letter to Paul
B. Sears, dated.July 15, 1944); Pollen Analysis Circular (Oberlin, Ohio,
mimeographed), No.8, pp. 6, October 28, 1944.
26. Jekhowsky, B.de, and Varma, C.P., 1959; Essai de correlation d'apres
cuttings per voie palynologique simplifire dens Ie Tertiare de Mb.2 et
3 Me.2; Inst. Francais Petrole Rev., Vol. 14, No.6, pp. 827-838.
27. Jones, E.L., 1961; Environmental significance of palynomorphs from
lower Eocene sediments of Arkansas; Science, Vol. 134, No. 3487,
pp.1366.
238
Fundamentals of Palynology
239
42. Pokrovskaya, I.M., 1962; Upper Cretaceous and Paleogene spore and
pollen complexes in the European part of the USSR; Pollen et spores,
Vol. 4, No.2, pp. 371-372.
43. Richardson, J.B., 1964; Stratigraphical distribution of some Devonian
and Lower Carboniferous spores; Avanc. Etudes Stratigraphi et
Geologic Carbonifere cong., 5th, Vol. 3, pp. 1111-1114.
44. Richardson, J.B., 1965a; Middle Old Red Sandstone spore assemblages
from the Orcadiam basin, north-east Scotland; ibid., Vol. 7, pt. 4,
pp. 559-605.
45. Rogalska, M., 1962; Spore and pollen grain analysis of Jurassic
sediments in the northern part ofthe Cracow-Wielun cuesta (in Polish);
Inst. Geol. Prace Polska, Vol. 30, pp. 495-507.
46. Simpson, GG1960; Notes on measurement on faunal resemblances
(Bradley volume); Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. 258-A, pp. 300-311.
47. Shaw, A.B. 1964; Time in stratigraphy; New York, McGraw-Hill Book
Co., Inc., pp. 365.
48. Szafer Wladyslaw, 1954; Pliocene flora from the vicinity ofCzorsztyn
(West Carpathians) and its relationship to the Pleistocene; Geol. Prace,
Vol. 11, pp. 238.
49. Tanai, Toshimasa, 1961; Neogene floral change in Japan; Hokkaido
Univ. Fac.Sci. Jour. Ser.4, Geology and Minerology, Vol. 11, No.2,
pp. 119-398.
50. Timofeyev, B. V., 1959; Ancient flora of the Baltic region and its
stratigraphic significance, Vses, Nett. Nauchno-Issled. Geol.-Razved.
Inst. Trudy, Vol. 129, p. 320.
51. Timofeyev, B.V., 1959; Ancient flora of the Baltic region and its
stratigraphic significance; Vses. Nett. Naucho-Issled. Geol.-Razved Inst.
Trudy, Vol. 129, pp. 320.
52. Tschudy, R.H., and Scott, R.A., 1969; Aspects of Palynology; John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, pp. 510.
53. White, D., 1929; The flora ofthe Hermit shale, Grand Canyon, Arizona;
Carnegie Inst. Washington Publ. 405, pp. 221.
54. Wodehouse, R.P., 1935; Pollen grains, New York, McGraw-Hili Book
Co., Inc.
55. Woods, R.D., 1955; Spores and pollen - a new stratigraphic tool for
the oil industry; Micropaleontology, Vol. I, No.4, pp. 368-375.
240
APPENDIX-A
EVOLUTION OF SPECIES
Introduction
Diversity is the rule of the nature. There exista wide array of species
of micro-organisms, plants and animals which differ with each other in
structure, function and behaviour and which have' occupied almost all
ecological niches existing on the planet earth (viz., in its annosphere,
hydrosphere, and lithospere). Out of this preponderant diversity ofliving
beings have emerged two overriding themes or concepts which give unity
to the sciences of life and throw light upon them all. Out of these two
unifying concepts or principles of modem biology, one is the concept of
organization. This tells us that at every level, from the molecule through
the supra-molecular organelle, the cell, the tissue, the organism, the
individual, and upto the population or the society, the properties of life
depend only to a small degree upon the substances of which living matter
is composed. To a much greater degree living things owe their nature to
the way in which the components are organized into orderly patterns,
which are far more permanent than the substances themselves. The other
unifying concept of modem biology is that of the continuity of life
through heredity and evolution. This tells us that organisms resemble
each other because they have received some common ancestor hereditary
elements, chiefly the chromosomes of their nuclei, which are alike both
in respect to the substances which they contain and the way in which
these substances are organized. When related kinds of organisms differ
from each other, this means that in the separate lines of descent from
their common ancestor changes in the hereditary elements have taken
place, and these changes have become established in whole populations.
Fundamentals of Evolution
Evolution is the development of organisms through time. The term
evolution (Latin, evolution - an unfolding or unrolling) means a gradual
orderly change from one condition to another. There are ample geological
evidences which suggest that the planets and stars, the earth's
topography, the chemical compounds of the universe, and even the
chemical elements and their subatomic particles, have undergone gradual,
242
orderly changes during the long history of the universe. This kind of
evolution which includes evolution from atoms molecules to simple and
then complex substances, and from these to still more complex ones
capable of self-duplication, has been termed as inorganic or chemical or
molecular evolution. The most significant outcomes of chemical evolution
are the origin of biologically important macromolecules (viz., proteins and
nucleic acids-DNA and RNA), origin of life and an environment to sustain
life on the planent earth. Further, it is biologically evident that all the
various prokarytes and eukaryotes (viz., viruses, bacteria, plants and
animals) existing on the earth at the present time have descended from
other, usually simpler organisms by gradual modification s which have
accumulated in successive generations. This kind of evolution is started
from the culmination point of chemical evolution into the origin of life,
and still is in process and is called biological or organic evolution. Thus,
the concept of organic evolution holds that all the varied kinds of
animals and plants which now known have developed out of earlier
types by completely natural changes during the passage of time.
The branch of biology which incorporates in it, the studies
concerning the problems of chemical evolution and origin of life and
organic evolution and origin of man and other present day organismal
spceies of planent earth is called evolutionary biology.
The concept of evolution is based on detailed comparisons of the
structures of living and fossil forms, on the sequences of appearances
and extinction of species in past ages, on the physiological and
biochemical similarites and differences between species and an analysis
of the genetic constitution of present day plants and animals. It is an
indubitable fact which has been accepted by all but one or two of those
who are accredited experts in the study of biology. Yet as a scientific
theory, evolution cannot really be said to have begun until about 1800,
and it was not definitely established until the decades after 1859, the
year when Charles Darwin published "On the origin ofspecies" a master
work which laid down the principles of evolution in a form which they
are still largely accepted.
Though much knowledge has been gained about the different
evolutionary processes during post-Darwinian phase, yet our knowledge
is far from complete. Much remains to be discovered, much is to be
learned. The applications of new techniques, such as the use of highspeed digital computers, and the application of comparative biochemistry
Appendix
243
Characteristics of Evolution
Evolution includes following characteristics:
1. Basically evolution is the result of the differential survival in
each generation of the progeny of individuals with certain
special characteristics. In tum these adaptive characteristics
that in part account for the differential survival.
2. Mechanism of inheritance is the foremost important element
which plays an important role in evolution. The ways in which
genes determine the expression of characters in an organism
and the manner in which genes are transmitted to offspring,
shape the whole evolutionary picture. Evolution is often
defmed, and quite rightly, so, as changes in the frequency of
genes in a population. In tum the organization of genes in
chromosomes and the behaviour of these during cell division
affect the mechanisms of inheritance and evolution.
3. Normally sexual reproduction has far much evolutionary
significance than asexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction is
a mechanism that tends to combine the genetic materials of
individuals and produce new and novel combinations. Its effect
is a tremendous increase in variability, and the advantages of
this are so great that the phenomenon has become almost
universal in all plants and animals. Sexuality apparently
developed very early in the evolutionary history of organisms.
4. Without sexuality and interbreeding, species as we know them
today would not exist. But just as important for the evolution,
particularly the multiplication of species has been the
development of barriers (viz., isolating mechanisms) to the free
exchange of genes, be they geographical, ecological,
behavioral, or genetical. The very simple earliest organisms may
have been able to mix their genes with others of the same level
of organization, but present-day organisms, with elaborate and
complicated developmental pathways, cannot exchange genes
with drastically different organisms. When they do the result
of these exchanges is lethality or at best steriligy. The selective
244
Thus, the evolution is the result of the interplay of many and diverse
factors. These factors are themselves subjected to change. Early in the
history of each lineage of plants and animals, structures or processes
have developed which have profoundly influenced the evolutionary
history of that group. So, for example, a segmented body and an
exoskeleton have been major factors in the success of the insects, but in
turn these same factors have restricted the size and habits of the members
of the class Insecta.
,
APPENDIX-B
BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION
Introduction
Darwinian evolution pennits two general predictions----(i) if there were
an evolution from simple forms to more complexones, there must be certain
structural, devlopmental and chemical similarities between different forms
of life, and (2) there must be a means by which variation in populations
arise, and are transmitted from generation to generation. This chapter
will deal only with the evidences that have been found to support the
idea of a relationship between existing organisms and also of a
relationship between extinct and existing organisms, while certain
forthcoming chapters will deal with the way in which change can initiate
and bring about an evolutionary process such as that proposed by
Darwin.
the evidence that organic evolution has occurred is so overwhelming that no one who is acquainted with it has any doubt that new
species are derived from previously existing one by descent with
modification. The fossil record (palaeontology) provides direct evidence
of organic evolution and gives the details of the evolutionary
relationships of many lines of descent, while different biological
disciplines like comparative anatomy, taxonomy, embryology, physiology,
biochemistry, genetics and biogeography provide indirect evidence, in
support of biological evolution. All of these direct and indirect evidences
for biological evolution can be discussed.
EVIDENCES FOR BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION
I. Palaeontological Evidences
246
not only include the bones, shells teeth and other hard parts of an animal
body which may survive, but also any impression or trace left by previous
organisms.
Kind of Fossilization
In the main, the hard parts of organisms (teeth, skeletal parts and
shells) are preserved as fossils. In some of these fossils, the original hard
parts or more rarely the soft tissues of the body, have been replaced by
minerals, a process called petrifaction. Iron pyrites, silica and calcium
carbonate are some of the common petrifying minerals. For example, the
petrified muscle of a shark more than 300,000,000 years old was so well
preserved by petrifaction that not only individual muscle fibres, but even
their cross striations, could be observed in thin sections under the
microscope. However some animals are preserved without petrifaction
but with little or no change from the time of death. For example, a Russian
worker described the finding of a frozen mammoth (an extinct form related
to elephants) in Siberia. It was estimated that the animal had been
preserved in frozen state for approximately 25,000 years, yet the flesh
was so well preserved that it could be, and was eaten by dogs. Further,
numerous specimens of insects, spiders, and mites have been found
preserved in amber in the Baltic region of Europe. During the Oligocene
period, about 38 million years ago, Northern Europe was covered with
coniferous forests (forests of gymnosperms) The trees in these forests
exuded a sticky resin that trapped the spiders, mites and insects. The
resin ultimately hardened into amber, with the arthropods embedded in
it. In some cases the preservation is so good that the colours have not
been changed. Land animals occasionally have been covered with windblown sand or volcanic ash, or have been trapped in bogs, quicksand or
asphalt pits, and their hard parts have been preserved.
Footprints or trails made in soft mud, which subsequently hardened,
are a common type of fossil. For example, the tracks of an amphibian
from the pennsylvanian period, disvovered in 1948 near Pittsburgh,
revealed that the animal moved by hopping rather than by walking, for
the footprints lay opposite each other in pairs.
Still other fossils are in the form of molds and casts, both of which
are superficially similar to pertified fossils but are produced in a different
way. Molds are formed by the hardening of the material surrounding a
buried organism, followed by the decay and removal of body of the
organism. The mold may subsequently be filled by minerals which harden
to form caste which are exact replicas of the original structure.
Appendix
247
248
Appendix
249
temperature to which the rock has been subjected. For example, geologists
standardly use uranium dating to estimate the time of solidification of
rock. Radioactive uranium decays spontaneously to lead. The half-life
of uranium is about 4,500,000,000 years.
Since the uranium of the earth was formed four to five billion years
ago when the great pressure of a contracting dust cloud created
thermonuclear heat, why should not all uranium measurement give the
same age, four to five billion years? The answer lies in the difference
between the radioactive decay in a solid and in a liquid. In a liquid, the
uranium is diluted, washed away, etc. But when liquid solidifies, the
uranium it contains is not free to move, and undergoes its decay into
lead in a highly localized region. The ratio of uranium to its stable product,
lead, indicates the time of solidification of the liquid material and,
therefore, the time at which it was added to the earth's crust.
For the determination of the age of fossils, other radioactive materials
are analyzed. Radioactive carbon (C I4 ) is a natural radioactive form,
produced in the atmosphere from the contact of naturally occurring C12
with UV light. It passes down as C l40 2 and enters plants and then animal
material. The ratio of C l4 to C l2 remains constant during life, because of
the constant interaction of biological organisms with the environment.
Upon death and fossilization, this ratio decreases as the Cl4 undergoes
decay. It is possible therefore, to determine when the fossilized individual
lived by comparing its present C l4 to C l2 ratio with that usually maintained
during life. Radioactive carbon has a half-life of about 5,568 30 years,
and can only be measured upto 25,000 years or about 5 half-lives. This
limitation results because the amount of C l4 in organisms is so small to
begin with. Radioactive-carbon dating is excellent for the anthropological
studies of early tribal civilizations, but not for the earlier strata.
Recently, the transformation of radioactive potassium (0) to argon
and rubidium to strontium has been used in a similar way for dating fossilbearing rocks of any age and type. K4has a half-life of 1-3 billion years.
Also because of its greater concentration in most rocks, it is more
accurate method of dating fossils than uranium, a relatively rare element.
A bed of pre human fossils in South Africa dated by rock composition
gave a result of 500,000 years, whereas radioactive potassium dating
method indicated an age of 1,750,000 years-a most important difference,
considering the nature of the fossils.
250
(iv) Moving up through the various strata, from older to more recent
formations, there is a succession of higher and more complex
forms of life (geologic succession).
Appendix
251
Periods
Epochs
Cenozoic
Quaternary
Recent
(70)
(2)
(0.001)
Pleistocene
(2)
TertIary
Pliocene
(6S)
(10)
Miocene
(25)
Oligocene
(35)
Paleocene
(70)
GeologIcal feature
Plants
Climate wann in
the beginnmg but
gradually cooling.
formation of Alps
and Himalayas.
Invertebrates
Vertebrate..
Age of man
Extinction of
great mammals;
first human
social life.
Arthropods and
molluscs most
abundant. Appearance of modem
invertebrates type.
Cretaceous
(135)
Great swamps in
early part, Rocky
Mountain and
Andes fonned.
Rapid development of
angiosperms (first monocotyledons), gymnosperms
declined.
Extinction of
ammonites, spread
of insects.
Extinction of
drnosaurs and
toothed birds;
rise of primitive
mammals.
Jurassic
(ISO)
Continents fairly
high, shallow seas
over some of
Europe and wastemU.S.
Increase of dicotyledons;
conifers and cycads domi
nant.
Maximum
of
annnonites. Insects
abundant, including social insects.
Dominance of
dinosaurs, first
toothed birds;
early mammals.
(Contd.)
Eras
Epoch.,
Geologlcal.feature
Plants
Invertebrate.,
Vertebrates
(\)
;::I
~
Tnassic
(230)
Chmate wann :
great desert areas.
Limulus present;
Marine invertebrates decline in
numbers
First dinosaurs
Mammal-like
repitiles.
~.
Permam
(280)
Appalachians and
Urals formed.
Glaciation and
aridity.
Last of trilobites;
expansion of
ammonites;
modem insects
arose.
Expansion of
reptiles. mammal-like reptiles arose
Pennsylvanian
(320)
Insect common:
first insects
fossils.
First rephles,
spread of anclent amphibians
Mississippian
(345)
Culmination of
crinoids
(echinoderms)
Spread of
sharks. Rise
of amphibians.
Devonian
(405)
Emergence of
land; some and
regions and glacation.
Silurian
(425)
C11
CI:)
(Contd.)
Era.'
Hpochs
GeologIcal jeature
Plants
Invertebrales
Ordovician
(500)
Canlbrian
(600)
Azoic
(4500)
Great volcanic
activities; some
sedimentary
depOSItIon; extensive erosion soeks
mostly igneous or
metamorphosed.
Ongm of earth.
Igneous rocks.
Numbers given in parentheses indIcate approxImate time since beginning of era period or epoch.
Most mvertebrate
phyla probably
evolved.
Vertebrates
First vertebrates armored
fishes.
Appendix
255
3. Enzyme Similarities
A large number of animals and plants contain identical enzymes.
Several enzymes found in the digestive tract are common in a variety of
animals. For example, trypsin and amylase are found from sponges to
mammals. A number of enzymes used in photosynthesis are common in
a variety of green plants. Such common enzymes and consequently a
common mechanism of process of photosynthesis suggest a common
ancestry of green plants.
256
4. Hormonal Similarities
Like enzymes, hormonal similarities are also found in all vertebrates.
For example, thyroid hormone is commonly found in all vertebrates and
this hormone from one class of organism can be substituted for that in
another class of organisms. For example, in frogs deficiency of thyroid
hormone can be corrected by feeding them on mammalian thyroid tissues.
Likewise, another commonly occurring hormone of verterbrates is
melanophore expanding hormone. It is concerned with the pigmentation
of the skin to expand, thus, rendering the skin colour dark. This hormone
is found in amphibians and mammals. In the latter it is a vestigial hormone,
but if it is grafted into the amphibian skin, the skin pigmentation expands.
The presence of these hormones in vertebrates is understandable only
on the basis of descent from an ancestor to which these hormones were
useful.
5. Comparative Serology
When a foreign protein is inoculated into the blood of an animal,
the latter produces a complex protein compound against that foreign
protein inoculated. These compounds are familiarly known as anti-bodies
and the foreign inoculated protein is known as antigen. When a reaction
occurs between antibody and antigen, a soft white precipitate will be
formed. The strength of precipitate depends upon the concentration of
antigen. The precipitate is the precipitin and the test is precipitation test.
One of the remarkable features of this test is, that the antibodies formed,
against one antigen, can also react with antigens of other source,
provided the latter is chemically similar to the first antigen. Antibodies
containing serum is known as antiserum. Antiserum of antigen of an
animal can be tested with antigens of other animals in order to show
their relationships. The test can be interpreted that if precipitate results
with more diluted antigen of one animal against the test animal, then the
former is more closely related to the latter; if precipitate results with less
diluted antigen of that animal, then it is distantly related to the test animal.
Such precipitin tests have conducted to resolve the disputed
relationships of organisms, in recent years. Of scores of examples, here
we give two illustrations.
Till recently, it is believed that whales have relationship with fishes.
It is because, almost all of their anatomy are so strongly modified to
aquatic fish-like life. Only few anatomical clues to show their relationships
to other mammals, remained. However comparative serology of whales
with other mammalian groups indicates that their serum proteins are most
257
Appendix
Rabbit serum
antiserum containing
antibodies eo_inst
human serum
placed in
each tube
258
Similar comparative serological tests reveal the fact that cats, dogs,
and bears are closely related. Cows, sheep, goats, dear and antelopes
constitute another closely related groups in terms of "blood relations."
Serological tests also suggestes that there is a closer relationship among
the modem birds than among the mammals, for all of the several hundred
species of birds tested give strong and immediate reactions with serum
containing antibodies for chicken serum. From other tests it was
'SIIoop serum
------------.....,,~,7)
~/.;. r
.
B 9
.'
'
10
Appendix
259
260
Another type of evidence that indicates that all forms of life are
related comes form the cellular level. The very fact that the cell is the
unit of structure for all living organisms (except viruses) is thought to
reflect the basic relationship among living forms. This relationship is even
further emphasized by the fact that it has been possible for biologists to
construct a picture of the "generalized" cell from which all other types
can be inferred.
Moreover, all cells that have been examined thus far have a DNARNA-protein information and communication system All forms contain
membranes that are made up of double-layered lipoproteins. All cells
(except few bacteria) utilize the glycolytic pathway. Most bacterial forms,
and all uni- and multicellular organisms, have a Krebs cycle and an
electron transport system. All are based on ATP as an energy donor.
Certainly these factors provide an overwhelming demonstration of the
interrelatedness of biological forms.
4. EVIDENCES FROM GENETICS
Genetics, the science of heredity, deals the variability of plants and
animals. Hereditary variations provide the raw material of evolution. There
are mainly two sources of hereditary variations namely, recombination
and mutation. While recombinations, after hybridization yield new
combinations, mutations will create new genetic material which never
existed earlier.
For the past several thousand years man has been selecting and
breeding (i.e., hybridizing) animals and plants for his own uses, and a
great many varieties, adapted for different purposes, have been
established. These results of artificial selection provide striking models
of what may be accomplished by natural selection. All of our breeds of
dogs have descended from one, or perhaps a very few, species of wild
dog or wolf, yet they vary so much, in colour, size and body proportions
that if they occurred in the wild they would undoubtedly be considered
separate species. They are all interfertile and are known to come from
common ancestors, so they are regarded as varieties of a single species.
A comparable range of varieties has been produced by artificial selection
in cats, chickens, sheep, cattle and horses. Plant breeders have
established by selective breeding a terrnandous variety of plants. From
the cliff cabbage, which still grows wild in Europe, have come cultivated
cabbage, cauliflower, Kohlrabi, Brussels, sprouts, brocoli and kale.
Appendix
261
.4;,",.
NEARCTIC
--~-
...
TrOpic of c.ac.,
263
Anyone who is familiar with biogeography of South American and
African regions, immediately be convinced by the fact, that similar
habitats are populated with similar animals. These two are extensive
tropical regions and crossed by the equator. They both have similar
habitats in that-have lowland jungles; extensive river systems and
mountain regions. Both regions extends southward to temperate zones.
Yet surprisingly they have dissimilarities in fauna more greatly than
similarities. The characteristic fauna of Africa includes Lions, Elephants,
Rhinoceroses, Hippopotami, many kinds of Antelopes, Giraffes, Zebras,
Hyenas, Lemurs, Baboons, Monkeys with narrow noses and nonprehenslie tailed Chimpanzees and Gorillas.
In South America, occur Monkeys with broad noses, Tapirs, Oddtoed hoofed mammals, rodents like Capybara. Agouti, Chinchilla and Paca,
Mountain lions like panthers-Ocelots Jaguars of cat family, well known
Uamas Gaunacos, Vicunas, and Alpacas, Armadillos, many opossums,
Giant Anteaters, Raccoons, spectacled Bears and Sloths and many others.
Thus, if both Africa and S. America have similar varying habitats,
then how it could have happened, to them to possess different fauna
instead similar fauna? We cannot simply satisfy with such an answer
that suitability of habitat is important. Because, we do find similarities in
fauna of both regions. They both have such widely ranging animals, bats,
rats, squirrels, hares and rabbits, etc. The other alternative answer might
be the accessibility of these two regions to the animals found in them.
Let us examine this point here more briefly.
Simpson has established a relationship "faunal stratification"
between the separateness of animals and their period of length of
appearance in S. America. Based on it, he concludes that armadillos and
sloths are the oldest inhabitants of S. America since early coenozoic
times. They have not appeared in other part of the world. Monkeys and
field mice have formed part of S. American fauna during mid and late
coenozoic times. While the rest of the fauna have independently evolved.
These facts have been ascertained by fossil record.
The record reveals that during long periods S. American forms have
no contact with those on other continents. Occasionally animals might
have reached the continent by island hopping across the intervening
sea. This type of dispersal is best seen in fauna on continental islands.
For the most part the isthums of Panama, that links S. America to N.
America was submerged and thereby the two continents are isolated.
264
When once geographical isolation take place local fauna along with
invaders might evolve into distinct species, on many different times and
have become unique to S. America.
Thus, this, is the only possibility for the same habitats in different
parts of earth have been populated by different animals and plants. This
fact suggests that animals today we see in different biogeographical
regions, have descended from their predecssors with different structures,
and have migrated from their place of origin to their new areas, but have
failed to return to their place of origin, because it is separated
geologically.
Continental Islands
These islands are located on continental shelves of continents.
These islands sometimes are connected to mainland when ocean water
recedes or the level of islands land rises.
The fauna and flora of continental islands characteristically
resembled those of continents, to which they are formerly joined. One
interesting feature is the presence of amphibianbs and mammals on
continental islands. Islands hopping in these animals is less likely and
hence they might have arrived these island through land connections.
Thus, these evidences have established that biological evolution is
a fact but not a dogma. Consequently, the biologists conviction that,
through a series of changes resulting from natural selective processes,
life came to the state known today, is of such magnitude that entire
science of biology has been oriented according to the evolutionary
doctrine. Organisms have been reclassified according to proposed
evolutionary relationships. Geneticists interpret their results as possible
mechanisms of evolution or sources of variation. So powerful the idea is
,this today, that only a text organization based on evolutionary doctrine
would truely represent the science of biology.
265
Appendix
APPENDIX-C
NATIONAL OIL COMPANY-ONGC
(INDIA)
List of Oil & Gas Fields with Years of Discovery
Name ofField
Year
1.
Cambay
1958
2.
Ankleshwar
196>
3.
Rudrasagar
196>
4.
Kalol
1961
5.
Sanand
1962
6.
Waval
1962
7.
Kosamba
1963
8.
Nawagam
1963
9.
Olpad
1963
10.
Lakwa-Lakhmani
1964
11.
Kathana
1965
12.
Bakrol
1966
13.
Dholka
1966
14.
Ahmedabad
1967
15.
Allora
1967
16.
Manhera Tibba
lQ67
17.
NorthKadi
1967
18.
Geleki
1968
19.
Sobhasan
1968
20.
SouthKadi
1968
21.
Hazira
1969
22.
Wasna
1969
266
Year
23.
Balol
1970
24.
Borholla
1970
25.
Dabka
1970
26.
Amguri
1971
27.
Baola
1971
28.
Indrora
1971
29.
Kanwara
1971
30.
Santhal
1971
31.
Asjol
1972
32.
Lanwa
1972
33.
Linch
1972
34.
35.
North Balol
Changpag
1972
36.
Bombay High
1974
37.
Charali
1974
38.
Sisvva
1974
39.
Southwest Motwan
1974
40.
41.
Bararnura
1975
Nandasan
1975
42.
North Kathana
1975
43.
Bassein
1976
44.
Bhandut
1976
45.
BHE
1976
46.
47.
D--l
1976
Demulgaon
1976
48.
Thalora
1976
49.
Panna
1976
SO.
51.
52.
South Sobhasan
1976
West Sobhasan
1976
B-37
1977
1973
267
Appendix
Name ofField
Year
53.
Heera
54.
Jotana
55.
Karaikal
56.
Padra
1m
1m
1m
1m
57.
B-51
1978
58.
B-55
1978
59.
Dahanu(B - 12)
1978
roo
Gajera
1978
61.
Matar
1978
62.
Sisodra
1978
63.
South Tapti
1978
64
Vnaj
1978
65.
West Motawan
1978
66.
Akhaj
1979
67.
R-9
1979
68.
Ratna(R-12)
1979
69.
An-I
1980
70.
Dahej
1980
71.
G-l
1980
72.
MahiHigh
1980
73.
Mid Tapti
1980
74.
PY-l
1980
75.
R-l
1980
76.
Badarpur
1981
77.
Charaideo
1981
78.
Kudara
1981
79.
Langhanaj
1981
80.
Lohar
1981
81.
Mewad
1981
82.
Mukta (B - 57)
1981
268
Year
83.
84.
85.
Nahorhabi
Namti
Napamua
1981
1981
1981
86.
Ph-9
87.
Barsilla
D-12
1981
1982
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
95.
96.
Gamij
Gojalia
Modhera
Ognaj
G-2
Ghotaru
Manikyanagar (Rokhia)
R-13
R-8
1982
1982
1982
1982
1982
1983
1983
1983
1983
101.
102.
103.
104.
B-48
Bhimanapalli
Changmaigaon
South Dholasan
1983
1983
1983
1984
1984
1984
1984
1984
105.
Gandhar
1984
106.
Kaikalur-Vadali
1984
107.
108.
KD
Kuargaon
1984
1984
109.
110.
North Tapti
South Mewad
1984
1984
111.
112
South Viraj
B-I72
1985
1985
97.
98.
99.
100.
Raj ole
Wadu-paliyad
B-178
Appendix
269
Name ofField
Year
1985
114.
B-174
Buhubar
115.
116.
Chumukedima
D-18
1985
1985
117.
118.
Katjisan
Kaza
1985
1985
119.
Kovilkalappal
1985
120.
1985
121.
Laksbmijan
Limbodra
122.
123.
Narsapur
Narima.nam
124.
Pakhajan
1985
1985
1985
125.
126.
127.
128.
129.
Panna East
CA
130.
R-71
R-7A
113.
131.
132.
133.
134.
m
Konaban (Rokhia)
Palakollu
Sonari
Tatipaka - Kadali
1985
1985
1985
1986
1986
1986
1986
1986
1986
1986
1986
1987
135.
136.
137.
138.
Adamtila
Agartala Dome
B-134
B-179
B-80
139.
Bhuvanagiri
1987
140.
141.
142.
C-22
C-24
GS-8
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
1987
270
Name of Field
Year
143.
1987
144.
Pasarlapudi
1987
145.
Rawa(GS-16)
1987
146.
South Malpur
1987
147.
Thirukalar
1987
148.
Bantumilli
1988
149.
Bechraji
1988
150.
Cbintalapalli
151.
Elao
1988
1988
152.
Hilara
1988
153.
154.
Mandapeta
Mansa
1988
1988
155.
156.
Nada
1988
1988
Nannilam
PY-3
1988
158.
159.
1(i).
R-lO
1988
161.
162.
157.
Sabannati (Motera)
1988
SD-l
1988
SD-4
1988
1988
164.
Unawa
Uriamghat
Adiyakkamangalam
165.
Andada
1989
166.
B-119/121
1989
167.
B -19 (Mukta)
1989
168.
B-46
169.
Banskandi
1989
1989
170.
GK-29
1989
171.
Khoraghat
1989
172.
Lingala
1989
163.
1988
1989
271
Appendix
Name of Field
Year
173.
SD-14
1989
174.
Southwest Patan
1989
175.
Tynephe
1989
176.
West Bechraji
1989
177.
B-149
1990
178.
B-157
1990
179.
B-163
1990
180.
B-183
1990
181.
B-188
1990
182.
Bakhri Tibba
1990
183.
Bankia
1990
184.
Elamanchilli
1990
185.
GS-38
1990
186.
Karnalapuram
1990
187.
Kharatar
1990
188.
Manepalli
1990
189.
Mori
1990
190.
Nandej
1990
191.
Palej
1990
192.
Sangapur
1990
193.
1990
194.
Tiruvarur
1990
195.
B-126
1991
196.
B-147
1991
197.
B-192
1991
198.
B-192A
1991
199.
Bandamurlanka - N
1991
200.
BS-12
1991
201.
BS-13
1991
272
202.
203.
204.
205.
206.
2fJl.
208.
200.
210.
211.
212.
213.
214.
215.
216.
217.
218.
219.
220.
221.
222.
223.
224.
Name of Field
Year
C-26.
1991
1991
1991
1991
Endamuru
Jambusar
Kim
Penumadam
Attikadai
B-127
B-173A
B-180
B-45
B-59
C-23
GK-22~C
GS-29
Gulf-A
1991
1992
1992
1992
1992
1992
1992
1992
1992
1992
1992
225.
Kesanapalli
Khambel
Medapadu
Munnnidivaram
Nandigama
Vadatheru
Vijayapuram
1992
1992
1992
1992
1992
1992
1992
1992
1992
226.
WO-5
1992
227.
228.
229.
Achanta
GS-15
Kuttanalur
1993
1993
1993
230.
Mattur
1993
231.
Pallivaramangalam
1993
Gulf-D
Kavitam
273
Appendix
Name of Field
Year
232.
Ponnamada
1993
233.
B-15
1994
234.
B-193
1994
235.
C-37
1994
236.
GS-23
1994
237.
Halisa
1994
238.
Patharia
1994
239.
240.
241.
Perugulam
Adivipalem
B-153
1994
1995
242.
B-15A
1995
243.
Bhubandar
1995
244.
C-43
245.
Kamboi
1995
1995
246.
Lankapalem
1995
247.
248.
~ahadevapattnam
1995
~ullikipalle
1995
249.
250.
251.
252.
Pundi
WO-15
WO-16
1995
1995
1995
Asmali
1996
253.
B-28
1996
254.
C-39
1996
255.
256.
Enugupalli
Hirapur
1996
1996
257.
Kesanapalli-west
1996
258.
1996
259.
Kherwa
Kizhvalur
1996
260.
Kuthalam
1996
261.
~ekrang
1996
1995
274
Name of Field
Year
262.
Rangapuram
1996
263.
Wadasma
1996
264.
B-23A
1997
265.
Magatapalli
1997
266.
Neyveli
1997
267.
Periyapattinam
1997
268.
Ramanavalsai
1997
269.
Sadewala
1997
270.
Tulsapatnam
1997
271.
Anklav
1998
272.
Gokarnapuram
1998
273.
Kali
274.
Kesavadaspelam
1998
1998
275.
Vatrak
1998
Periodwise Discoveries
1956-58
1959-63
1963-70
16
1970-74
14
1974-80
36
1981-89
101
1989-93
56
1993-98
43
275
Appendix
Production Profile
YEAR
OIL
GAS
LPG
C2C3
(MMT)
(MMM3)
(MMT)
(MMT)
Saleo!
Gas
Balance
Rec.
Oil (MMT)
1961-62
0.044
6.9
1962-63
0.4622
72.9
1963-64
0.7238
116.6
1964-65
0.7696
135.6
1965-66
1.4505
332.3
1966-67
2.5634
449.7
90.35
107.85
1967-68
2.8281
495.3
1968-69
3.1037
565.2
1969-70
3.6506
504.4
93.44
1970-71
3.647
495.9
87.63
1971-72
4.0167
571.4
85.35
1972-73
4.0905
587.2
72.55
1973-74
4.0465
576.8
82.35
1974-75
4.5365
743.1
85.71
1975-76
5.2742
944.1
102.09
1976-77
5.7661
1035.7
235.57
1977-78
7.6042
1331.5
266.33
1978-79
8.9176
1516.3
312.53
1979-80
9.5191
1660.9
1980-81
9.2191
1614.6
1981-82
13.1825
2435.1
1982-83
18.2483
1983-84
23.1671
1984-85
26.2764
5604
1985-86
27.5362
6588.5
0.3208 ..
1986-87
27.8564
8146.9
0.4512
1987-88
27.9095
9874.9
0.5099
5874
525.24
1988-89
29.6442
11718.4
0.6742
6977.72
583.18
314.91
972.15
328.42
0.0734
1230.41
429.74
3468.3
0.1608
1856.72
429.39
4366.2
0.1957
2222.51
482.81
2789.94
..
450.96
0.2418
:-
465.19
~. 90..01..
3308.3
505.02
(Colltd.)
276
YEAR
OIL
GAS
LPG
C2C3
(MMT)
(MMM3)
(MMT)
(MMT)
Saleo!
Gas
Balance
Rec.
Oil (MMT)
8610
646.84
671.39
1989-90
31.9511
1545.6
0.7181
1990-91
30.3295
16318.6
0.8758
0.0275
9866
1991-92
27.8244
17056.2
0.9736
0.1374
11269
704.1
1992-93
24.4273
16317.9
0.9229
0.2555
13035
696.72
1993-94
24.2151
16573.3
0.9308
0.3074
13371
676.99
1994-95
29.356
17935.5
0.985
0.4243
13961
663.49
1995-96
31.79
20951.3
1.1123
0.4886
17047
1996-97
28.685
21266
1.1286
0.5105
17219
665.18
1997-98
29.22
23140
1.144
0.557
19220
622.76
1998-99
27.55
23970
1.181
0.507
19390
Financial Profile
Rs./Crore
Year
Operating Operating
Income Expen. Profit
Interest
Tax
Net
Income
Net Profit
Per
Employee
1971-72
49
35
14
12
0.06
1972-73
51
41
10
0.03
1973-74
82
55
27
25
0.11
1974-75
144
93
51
49
0.22
1975-76
169
129
40
14
24
0.1
1976-77
203
158
45
37
0.15
1977-78
298
224
74
15
52
0.21
1978-79
383
280
103
21
73
0.28
1979-80
436
306
130
23
52
55
0.21
1980-81
452
35~
94
48
46
0.16
1981-82
1348
689
659
86
198
375
1.22
1982-83
2385
1115
1270
87
490
693
2.1
1983-84
3473
1777
1696
88
802
806
2.18
277
Appendix
Operating Operating
Income E'pen. Profit
Year
1984-85
1985-86
1986-87
1987-88
1988-89
1989-90
1990-91
1991-92
1992-93
1993-94
1994-95
1995-96
1996-97
1997-98
1998-99
4035
4388
5627
6107
6972
8133
9605
8147
9707
8174
13628
13530
13336
15346
15103
2274
2332
3401
3990
4801
6012
8631
7636
8891
6148
10760
10694
10471
11935
11545
1761
2056
2226
2117
2171
2121
974
511
816
2026
2868
2836
2865
3411
3558
interest
134
158
121
75
77
100
(125)
(19)
33
236
583
482
332
99
(16)
Tax
745
596
621
535
493
397
51
122
5
195
(60)
409
499
634
820
Net
Income
Net Profit
Per
Employee
882
1302
1484
1507
1601
1624
1048
408
788
1595
2345
1945
2034
2678
2754
2.12
2.96
3.42
3.42
3.52
3.46
2.17
0.84
1.66
3.39
5.13
4.37
4.7
6.35
6.71
OIL PRODUCED
:!II
30
----------
25
- ----_._-
20
I-
:E
:Ii
:.
f5
fO
5
0
~~
Of"", ..
,rt>.I!'~.I!'~~~,~~#,"',"' ....fi,"'~
YEA R
,of'~
,of'
278
PRO 0 U CEO
30000r------------------------------------------------~
25000
1-------
20000 - - - PO
::
::
::15000
10000
5000
o~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Il' r? .,t>
YEA
500
::
t------------
200 - - - - - - - - - 100
- - - - - .... ---'P-4~~~~
o~
____
~~
__
____
-~~
__
____
____
____
~~
",,,,,,, ?jeJ' ~l ~'" 91"'" ",,,,,, .Y"" 'i"'" """, c!' ",<{}- ?jeJ' !-J<K> ",-P> ...!S' ,f'>'" r!$~ !-J4' I!.!f>
,4' ,4' ,-I' ,,4' ,-I' ,,~ ,,~ ,,"f ,~ # .!/i' ,<If> ,<6' ,<If> ,<11' .&> "of' ,<f> ,of'
YEA
Appendix
279
PRO FIT & I N'C 0 MEG RAP H
18000
18000
1<4000
'"~ 12000
::>
...II!0 10000
.
'"w 8000
~-'1lOOO
<> <4000
:.
2000
.1------------
FINANCIAL
YEAR
MANPOWER GROWTH
&OOOr------------------------,
45000
40000 - . _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3S000
~3oooo
:E
W
15
25000
-=-_...-=--------------
ili20000
CD
::ii
15000
10000
5000 -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --------------- - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --------- -
o~~~~~~~~~~~~~-~~~~~~~~~~
"~""~,~,,~,,,,~,,
280
APPENDIX-D
IMPORTANT FIGURES AND DATA
INDIA AFTER 60 YEARS
(1947 TO 2007)
AND WE HAVE
FIGURES TO PROVE IT
350 117-22k
~~~~~-.-~,~~~
rt~rl'lSIbi'i;m~
1
ttt:itt;:mi'::';\l SiM'':
15.5... 60~
....~~~J~l?!~
17~it'&i!!
?9Q:49J!J. ,ZUllI-1St>
~..:.m:mZli[:jI:lItt::\1
&m~
llJ;il+~rDi"l;.#ii':.6M!jJ
J . _64.7
'lillZM'!ltMUf GH
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.....;3,11
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1.1. I 218 .
J4?~
58
' III
(~I~,:mlllI
0.5
5.,54
~~\l:.:t,z;m;!
19l~?.il_65,5~?
Q't:l'.mm'lC!
t:g"~lit!tJ#~!Ma
Jugl1u
Dhoom-2
........
..140..
". . ~.03.4
I 5.64 I~..~~
~~
93
\90,000
171
14.031<Jkh
--~_,,,,,I.
" _ __
r:~ ::';"u\',];:'!.:t\ldJWii
?OO 15.641akh
281
Appendix
TOI 27.11.2007
282
Bare Truth: These two pictures - one taken in 1968 (top) and the other in
2007 - show the retreating Rongbuk Glacier of Mount Everest on the Tibetan
plateau. The rugged Tibet plateau, seen as a sensitive barometer of the impact
of global warming, IS experiencing accelerating glacial melt and other ecological
changes. The mountainous region's glaciers have been melting at an annual average
rate of 131.4 square km over the last 30 years.
-------:
.
r
",,"
Feeling the Heat: A Nasa Image shows a portion ofCunada's Northwest Passage.
Arctic Ice has shrunk to the lowest level on record and has raised the possibIlIty
of the Northwest Passage becoming an open shipping lane.
283
Appendix
TOI 15.12.2007
Future Tense? Activists hold their noses as they pretend to learn to swim due
to increased sea levels caused by global warming. They were protesting in front
of the venue of the climate change conference in Bali, IndonesIa, on Tuesday. As
the meeting began a hunt for a new global deal to fight global warming by 2009,
it witnessed skIrmishes over how far Chma and India should curb greenhouse
gas emIssions.
284
Alternative Energy: The world's biggest 40,000 square metre root-based solar
system IS seen In the Southern German town ofBuerstadt. It rains frequently In
Germany. Yet the country has managed to become the worlds leading solar power
generator and 55% of the world's photovoitaic (PV) power is generated on solar
panels. So far 3% of Germany's electricity comes from the sun, but government
wants to false the share of renewables to 27%. It is a thriving mdustry with
booming exports that has created tens of thousands of jobs. There are now more
than 300,000 PV systems In Germany with growing demand from households,
farmers and small bUSInesses, while the nation's energy law had planned fOf
100,000.
Appendix
285
TOI17.8.2007
Oil Imports to Grow 85%: India's dependency on oil imports is likely increase
to about 85% by 2012 from the current level of70%, driven by the rising demand
for energy, industry body Assocham said on Thursday.
This despite "refining capacity in India poised to increase by 58% to touch
235 million tonnes in the next five years... in view of the growing demand for
energy with little resources at its disposal for harnessing alternative sources,"
the chamber said. A chamber paper on 'Future Imperatives of Crude Oil Scenario'
shows that India's dependence on crude oil import would rise, as domestic
discoveries have not been taking place, to touch, to touch the level of 12-13%
compared to 7-8% at present.
TOI 9.8.2007
Largest planet discovered: Astronomers have discovered the largest-known
planet - about 70% larger than Jupiter. Located in the constellation of Hercules,
it circles a star about 1,435 light years away from Earth.
286
A sharper imbalance
Theoceans, wtIidI.....
~
about 1I third of 1110 (.arbon dklKlcte emitted from buf'ntng
_'NOr"'}.
_ .,.-..ng
....roc.
........ ..,..1'IudIen
pH iIIIIm; of the upper 165 ft ~ ~ water:
- - _ ...... acIdty
TOl 19.12.2007
POTS Of MONEY!
'($w; bt9~"t
f~u
!its ~1!
l\)OZ...JOO:l
~.~
O'NC
BIiorii}ir!>i
1.40 :)
,>
',1,360
:!(>S
IH~~,,"
IClCl~li<
'The f~,~
,566
WM~i1 tt'~ltAM
~,y~<!.,
~~1(i'O.%~!y!
vrlt;-e.
~:...c..ltt::;,_)
BHJ~
Unt<.:.!Ch
""""~!lailr<fu<.tr;.,.,
"'t"ilJ 111(J\l!Jr't'~
".
AtunOff~""'~
2t>7
216
lOI
'}71>
TO! 20.12.2007
I ~~d
CNng?, ('lbl
Earl'.r
I ile",,('(j
287
Appendix
TO! 24.12.2007
valentine's day is
popular among those
I fusl)era ~~~~_
288
APPENDIX-E
NEWS IN FOCUS
INDIA TO SOON HAVE A RESEARCH
BASE IN ARCTIC
TOI 2.9.2007
Ny Alesund (Norway): India will soon have a permanent postal
address in the Arctic. Taking advantage of the unique international
Svalbard Treaty signed in 1920, to which it was a signatory, India will be
able to set up a permanent research station at Ny Alesund, on the
Svalbard archipelago which comes under Norwegian sovereignty,
boosting its knowledge of climate change, other critical natural
phenomena and the disturbance humans cause to nature's processes.
Perhaps waking a bit too late in the day, considering India has
already sent 26 missions to the Antarctic and has two permanent bases
there, the research base at 79 degree north will be set up under a fiveyear contract with the Norwegian government and Kings Bay, the
Norwegian government-held company that runs the logistics at the
research station.
Appendix
289
which earlier was better known for its coal mining industry -as long as
it falls within Norwegian regulations. Formal negotiations between the
two countries are close to completion for India to take position close to
the North Pole.
The move to set up the permanent station at Ny Alesund matured
with India sending its fIrst Arctic mission recently. Three of the fIve
researchers sent as part of the fIrst of the two teams comprising the
mission have already made themselves at home at the international
research station. Rubbing shoulders with the Chinese, Germans and
French, and obviously the Norwegian researchers, they are busy
collecting samples.
The sun never sets, quite literally in the Arctic summer. Besides the
bags of tagged samples one finds kept in an old school building of the
camp, there are other tell tale signs that Indian researchers are at workempty packets of Indian cigarettes, though stashed well in the bins, not
strewn around.
"This is not unfamiliar climes as we have a long history in the
Antarctic but this surely provides completely new avenues for research
to us," explains an excited Dr C G Deshpande, scientist at the Indian
Institute of Tropical Meteorology and member of the team.
In his politeness, he never lets out the political significance of his
research at the Arctic. His measurements of aerosols (particles of
pollution generated naturally as well as from human activity) will help
India pin down the impact of pollution from the developed countries on
the Arctic, in contrast to studies that have blamed Indian for adding to
the aerosol pollution earlier.
Dr S M Singh, scientist at the National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean
Research, the second of the triumvirate at Ny Alesund, is picking up soil
and water samples around the station. An ankle sprained, he still walks
around for his pound of soil. "There is little time, we have only two more
weeks here. I am collecting microbes from the region, to compare with
those collected at the Antarctic. These microbes can help measure
changes in seasons as well as provide potential solution to diseases like
leukoderma. "
Dhruv Sen Singh, reader in the Department of Geology of Lucknow
University, listens to Lata songs in the evenings, while munching on
sweets and namkeen in his warm room at the station, and completes the
triumvirate. His job: study glaciers and their habits.
290
Appendix
291
Melting Point: Ice has fallen below the 2005 record low absolute
mmimum, say experts.
292
court. Islands have also appeared in recent years off Greenland and
Canada.
Rapley also said the IPCC was "restrained to the point of being
seriously misleading" in toning down what he said were risks of a melt
of parts of Antarctica, by far the biggest store of ice on the planet that
could raise world sea levels.
Still, in a contrast to the warnings about retreating ice and climate
change, snow was falling in Ny Alesund on Monday, several weeks earlier
than normal in a region still bathed by the midnight sun. About 30 to 130
people live in the fjordside settlement, backed by snow-covered
mountains. Bjoernoy said it was freak storm that did not detract from an
overall warming trend.
TOI 25.7.2007
INDIAN TEAM TO STIIDY ARCTIC GlACIERS
New Delhi: With the government showing keen interest in increasing
the country's scientific understanding of glaciers in the wake of global
warming threats, India will soon send a team of researchers to the Arctic
to study glacial geology and pursue research in other key fields.
While India has sent 26 missions to the Antarctic and made its
presence felt in the polar research fraternity, this will be its first foray
towards the North Pole.
New Venture: This will be India's first foray towards North Pole.
293
Appendix
294
There is new hope that Earth, if not the life on it, might survive an
apocalypse five billion years from now.
That is when, scientists say, the Sun will run out of hydrogen fuel
and swell temporarily more than 100 times in diameter into a so-called
red giant, swallowing Mercury and Venus.
Astronomers are announcing that they have discovered a planet that
seems to have survived the puffing up of its home star, suggesting
there is some hope the Earth could survive the aging and swelling of the
Sun.
295
Appendix
Ray of Hope
Silvotti said the results showed that a planet at Earth's distance "can
survive" a red giant, and he said he hoped the discovery would prompt
more searches. "With some statistics and new detailed models, we will
be able to say something more even to the destiny of our Earth (which,
as we all know, has much more urgent problems by the way)," he said
via e-maIl. Silvotti and his colleagues reported therr results on Thursday
in Nature.
In an accompanying commentary, Jonathan Fortney of Nasa 's Ames
Research Center in California wrote, "This system allows us to start
examining what will happen to planets around stars such as our own
Sun as they too evolve and grow old."
The star V 391 Pegasi is about 4,500 light years from Earth and is
about half as massive as the Sun, burning helium into carbon. It will
296
eventually sigh off another shell of gas and settle into eternal senescence
as a white dwarf.
Meanwhile, the star's pulsations cause it to brighten and dim every
six minutes. After studying the star for seven years. Silvotti and his
colleagues were able to discern subtle modulations in the six-minute cycle,
suggesting that the star was being tugged to and fro over a three-year
period by a massive planet. "Essentially, the observers are using the star
as a clock, as if it were a GPS satellite moving around the planet," said
Fred Rasio of Northwestern University.
This is not the first time that a pulsing star has been used as such a
clock. In 1992, astronomers using the same technique detected a pair of
planets (or their corpses) circling the pulsar PSR 1257+ 12. And only on
Wednesday, X-ray astronomers from the Goddard Space Flight Centre in
Greenbelt, Maryland, and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
announced that they had detected the remains of a star that radiation
had whittled down to planetary mass circling a pulsar in the constellation
Sagittarius. Those systems have probably endured supernova explosions.
The Pegasus planet has had to survive less lethal conditions,
although it must have had a bumpy ride over its estimated 10 billion years
of existence. An expert said, "Stellar evolution can be a wild ride for a
planet that is trying to survive, especially inner planets like Earth."
TOI 8-12-2007
GROWING GREEN
Negotiations in Bali for cleaner technology and development
"It cows are causing global warming, and I ate a hamburger, could I
claim carbon credits for helping eliminate a cow?" asks a reader in the
letters coplumn of a US newspaper. Despite George Bush's refusal to
commit the US to any international agreement that would adopt emissions
targets, it is clear that climate change has com to impact people's
consciousness everywhere. At the UN Framework Convention on Climate
Cange meet in Bali, representatives from 190 countries have converged
to compare notes and thrash out agreements on how to tackele the climate
change challenge facing the planet. The US continues to stress the same
points it raised at the last meeting in Montreal in 2005, that it would not
consider any commitment unless India and Cina made similar promises,
since together the three countries are the word's largest polluters.
However, since carbon stocks in the atmosphere - that have triggered
glonal warming - are the result of 300 years of devlopment in
industrialised countries, the rich need to bear higher costs and take more
Appendix
297
i-I
298
On the table before the gathered 10,000 plus delegates will be several
critical parts of the CDM mechanism. Knowing these could be as critical
for developing countries like India as for rich countries like EU. No
wonder, Bali is seeing one of the largest gathering of businessmen from
around the world. Indian industry associations too have flown
delegations, besides the carbon market dealers also landing up at the
busy tropical station.
One of the key issues to be thrashed out would be the inclusion of
forestry as one of the many CDM project options. India Inc, especially
the paper and pulp industry, is keen to make money from its forestry
operations and the government wants to earn credits from 'avoiding
deforestation' - a climate speak which means demanding money from
rich countries for maintaining the forest cover at the cost of economic
development. It is a contentious issue, because it could provide a lot of
carbon credits if allowed under the CDM process which could also lead
to a crash of prices with supply side seeing a surge.
But the proposal will see opposition from some G-77 countries itself
with Brazil and some other key nations that are losing their forests fast
prefering to keep the forest sector out of CDM and demanding a new
mechanism to deal with it.
"The only time that one may see industrialized country industry and
developing world businesses speaking the same language will be when
it comes to relaxing the regulations and conditions for carbon credits," a
senior Indian official from Bali told the Times of India.
At present, there are stringent conditions to be met before a project
is allowed carbon certificatl!s. One key issue is of 'additionality'- proving
that the clean technology project would have been unviable without the
299
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our DINOSAURS'
300
301
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The move to hold talks with China comes as a change from India's
earlier stance. India had declined to work with China, Nepal and Pakistan
on Himalayan glaciology earlier owing to security concerns. But recent
reports of the UN panel on climate change has made the government
think twice on issues of data and knowledge sharing on glaciers.
In the last meeting of the Pr-,'I's scientific group on climate change,
the point about generation of data across the subcontinent and sharing
of this data had been highlighted.
302
While some preliminary work has been done on glaciers on the Indian
side of the Himalayas, scientists recognise that the Indian glacial river
systems-Ganga as well as Brahmaputra-are dependent on the glacial
fonnations in Nepal and China as well.
TOI 3.8.2007
RUSSIA GOES UNDER SEA, CLAIMS N POLE
Moscow: Members of Russia's parliament in a mini-submarine planted
their country's flag 4 km below the North Pole at the climax of a mission
to back up Russian claims to the region's mineral riches~~~
"The Mir-1 submarine successfully reached the bottom o{the Arctic
Ocean... at a depth of 4,261 metres," veteran Arctic explorer and expedition
leader Artur Chilingarov told the Vesti television channel.
A metre-high flag, made of titanium so as not to rust, was deposited on
the seabed, the ITAR-TASS news agency cited an expedition official as
saying. Chilingarov was joined by fellow parliamentarian Vladimir Gruzdev
and four others, three of whom followed in a second mini-submarine, which
touched the seabed 4,302 metres below the surface, Vesti reported.
Miniature submarines from this Russian research vessel dived into the
Arctic Ocean to plant a flag on the seabed under the North Pole
Billed as the first to reach the ocean floor under the North Pole, the
expedition aims to establish that a section of seabed passing through
the pole, known as the Lomonosov Ridge, is in fact an extension of
Russia's landmass.
"We must determine the border. The most northerly border of the
Russian shelf," Chilingarov said in comments broadcast before the dive
from the Akademik Fyodorov research ship leading the expedition.
The voyage reflects growing international interest in the Arctic partly
due to climate change, which is causing greater melting of the ice and
making the area more accessible for research and economic activity.
303
Appendix
Jeremy Rifkin
If there were any lingering doubts as to how ill-prepared we are to
face up to the reality of climate change, they were laid to rest this month
when two Russian mini submarines dove two miles under the Arctic ice
to the floor of the ocean, and planted a Russian flag made of titanium on
the seabed. This fIrst manned mission to the ocean floor of the Arctic,
which was carefully choreographed for a global television audience, was
the ultimate geopolitical reality TV.
Russian President Vladimir V Putin congratulated the aquanauts while
the Russian government simultaneously announced its claim to nearly
half of the floor of the Arctic Ocean. The Putin government claims that
the seabed under the pole, known as the Lomonosov Ridge, is an
extension of Russia's continental shelf, and therefore Russian territory.
Not to be outdone, Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper hurriedly
arranged a three-day visit to the Arctic to stake his country's claim to
the region.
Although in some respects the entire event appeared almost
comical-a kind of late 19th century caricature of a colonial expedition
- the intent was deadly serious. Geologists believe that 25 per cent of
the earth's undiscovered oil and gas may be embedded within the rock
underneath the Arctic Ocean. The oil giants are already scurrying to the
front of the line, seeking contracts to exploit the vast potential of oil
wealth under the Arctic ice. The oil company BP has recently established
a partnership with Rosneft, the Russian state-owned oil company, to
explore the region. Aside from Russia and Canada, three other countriesNorway, Denmark (Greenland is a Danish possession that reaches into
the Arctic) and the United States-are all claiming the Arctic seabed as
an extension of their continental shelves and, therefore, sovereign
territory.
Under the Law ofthe Sea Treaty, adopted in 1982, signatory nations
can claim exclusive economic zones for commercial exploitation, up to
304
200 miles out from their territorial waters. The US has never signed the .
treaty, amidst concerns that other provisions of the treaty would
undermine US sovereignty and political independence. Now, however,
the sudden new interest in Arctic oil and gas has put a fIre under US
legislators to ratify the treaty, lest it is edged out of the Arctic oil rush.
What makes the whole development so utterly depressing is that
the new interest in prospecting the Arctic subsoil and seabed for oil and
gas is only now becoming possible because of climate change. For
thousands of years, the fossil fuel deposits lay locked up under the ice
and inaccessible. Now, global warming is melting away the Arctic ice,
making possible, for the fIrst time, the commercial exploitation of the oil
and gas deposits. Ironically, the very process of burning fossil fuels
releases massive amounts of carbon dioxide and forces an increase in
the earth's temperature, which in turn, melts the Arctic ice, making
available even more oil and gas for energy. The burning of these potential
new oil and gas frods will further increase CO2 emissions in the coming
decades, depleting the Arctic ice even more quickly.
But the story doesn't stop here. There is a far more dangerous
aspect to the unfolding drama in the Arctic. While governments and oil
giants are hoping the Arctic ice will melt quickly to allow them access to
the world's last treasure trove of oil and gas, climatologists are deeply
worried about something else buried under the ice, that if unearthed,
could wreak havoc on the earth's biosphere, with dire consequences for
human life.
Much of the Siberian sub-Arctic region, an area the size of France
and Germany combined, is a vast frozen peat bog. Before the previous
305
Appendix
ice age, the area was mostly grassland, teeming with wildlife. The coming
of the glaciers entombed the organic matter below the permafrost, where
it has remained ever since. While the surface of Siberia is largely barren,
there is as much organic matter buried underneath the permafrost as there
is in all of the world's tropical rainforests.
Now, with the earth's temperature steadily rising because of CO 2
and other global warming gas emissions, the permafrost is melting, both
on land and along the seabeds. If the thawing of the permafrost is in the
presence of oxygen on land, the decomposing of organic matter leads to
the production of CO 2 If the permafrost thaws along lake shelves, in the
absence of oxygen the decomposing matter release methane into the
atmosphere. Methane is the most potent of the greenhouse gases, with
a greenhouse effect that is 23 times greater than that of CO 2.
Researchers are beginning to warn of a tipping point sometime within
this century when the release of carbon dioxide and methane cou' create
an uncontrollable feedback effect, dramatically warming the atmosphere,
which will, in turn, warm the land, lakes and seabed, further melting the
permafrost and releasing more carbon dioxide and methane into the atmc
phere. Once that threshold is reached, there is nothing human beings
can do, of a technological or political nature, to stop the runaway
feedback effect. Scientists suspect that similar events have occurred in
the ancient past, between glacial and interglacial periods.
Katy Walter of the Institute of Arctic Biology at the University of
Alaska in Fairbanks and her research team calls the permafrost melt a
giant "ticking time bomb". A global tragedy monumental proportions is
unfolding at top of the world, and the human race is all oblivious to
what's happening.
them: Study
Paris: The great whodunnit of palaeontology has been given a new
twist with findings that the Neanderthals were in all likelihood not killed
off by a mini-Ice Age, as some authorities contend. Neanderthals, smaller
and squatter than Homo sapiens, lived in parts of Europe, Central Asia
and the Middle East for around 170,000 years.
306
The team probed three dates that have been variously proposed for the
end of the Neanderthals. The evidence from these days comes from artifacts
found in Gorham's Cave in Gibraltar, where Neanderthals interspersed
periods of residence with modem humans. The two most-commonly
proposed dates are 32,000 years, 28,000 years and 24,000 years ago.
That coincided with Earth's last "glacial era", a term that despite its
name also included periods of instability, warm and cold alike. The most
redoubtable of these periods were so-called Heinrich Events, when the
balmy North Atlantic drift, which supplies Western Europe with warmth
despite its high northerly latitude, abmptly shut down, plunging the
continent into deep cold.
307
Appendix
But none of the three proposed dates chime with a Heinrich Event,
says Tzedakis, whose team's research is published on Thursday by the
weekly British journal Nature.
"We can eliminate catastrophic climate change as the cause of the
Neanderthals' extinction," he said. But then what-or who-killed them?
Two rival theories are out there. One says that the Neanderthals were
slaughtered by modem humans. Another says that Neanderthals and
modem Man intermingled and even interbred. And, the distinct
Neanderthal lineage petered out.
TOI 27.11.2007
UN CLlMAlE CIRCUS ROLLS IN ON CO2 CWUD
Bali Summit will emit Equivalent of 100,000 Tonnes Extra CO2
Nicola Smith & Jonathan Leake
It has been billed as the summit that could help save the planet, but
the latest UN climate change conference on the island of Bali has itself
become a major contributor to global warming.
Calculations suggest flying the 15,000 politicians, civil servants,
green campaigners and television crews into Indonesia will generate the
equivalent of 100,000 tonnes of extra CO2 , That is similar to the entire
annual emissions of the African state of Chad.
The preparations are acquiring the feel of a huge party, with the
Indonesian government seeing it as a chance to promote Bali as a tourist
destination after the 2002 terrorist bombings that killed 202 people.
When it was first CODI' - .;d, only a few thousand politicians, civil
servants and environmentahsts were expected to attend the conference.
The meeting, which runs from December 3 to 14, aims to create the
framework for a successor to the Kyoto treaty on reducing global
greenhouse gas emissions, which expires in 2012.
However, climate change's growing political importance has led to a
surge in interest in the conference,_ which is being held in the luxury
holiday resort of Nusa Dua on Bali's palm-fringed southern coast.
Attendees are expected to include celebrities like Leonardo DiCaprio, the
actor and Arnold Schwarzenegger, governor of California. Many are
merely "observers" who have no fonnal role to play in the talks, including
20 MEPs and 18 assistants whose itinerary includes a day-long trip to
the idyllic fishing and surfmg village of Serangan.
The UN has also recently received thousands of new registrations
from groups campaigning for the environment or fighting against poverty
308
WWF, one of the largest, is sending more than 32 staff to the meeting.
Thousands more are coming from businesses, especially the burgeoning
carbon trading sector.
Indonesian officials say the fmal tally could reach 20,000-and fear
it could stretch the resort's infrastructure to the limit. About 90% of the
emissions will be generated by delegates flying thousands of miles to
Bali, with the rest coming from the facilities they will be using.
Chris Goodall, a carbon emissions expert, estimated each person
flying to Bali would, on average, generate the equivalent of 6.4 tonnes
of CO2 If 15,000 people attend, this adds up to 96,000 tonnes of CO2 To
this must be added about 10,000 tonnes of CO2 from the conference venue
and hotels - a total of 106,000 tonnes.
FASfER, SMAILERCIDPLAUNCHED
San Francisco: Intel Corp, the world's biggest microchip maker,
unveiled fast new processors on Sunday made with new techniques that
can etch circuitry nearly 200 times smaller than a red blood cell.
The chips are the first in the world to be mass-produced with a 45nanometer process, about one-third smaller than current 65-nanometer
technology. A nanometer is one-billionth of a meter.
"Across all segments we're increasing performance and increasing
energy efficiency" said Tom Kilroy, general manager of Intel's enterprise
group.
Known by the project name Penryn, the chips hold little in the way
of fundamental design advances but are an important step in continuing
the industry's track record of delivering chips that get smaller and faster
every two years or so. They use a new kind of transistor-the basic
building block of microchips-that Intel unveiled earlier this year in what
was hailed as one of the industry's biggest advances in four decades.
Penryn is the "tick" in Intel's "tick-tock" strategy of shrinking an
existing chip design to a smaller size, then following up the next year
with an all-new blueprint, known as a microarchitecture.
309
Appendix
310
Outsourcing Centre
311
Appendix
TOI 28.8.2007
PARTICLES TIlATTRAVELFASIERnIANUGHfFOUND
Hamburg: Two German physicists from the University of Koblenz
claim to have done the impossible by finding photons that have broken
the speed of light.
If their claims are confirmed, they will have proved wrong Albert
Einstein's special theory of relativity which requires an infInite amount
of energy to propel an object at more than 299,337.984 kilometers per
second.
However, Gunter Nimtz and Alfons Stahlhofen say they have
possibly breached a key tenet of that theory. They say they have
conducted an experiment in which microwave photons-energetic
packets of light-travelled <instantaneously' between a pair of prisms
that had been moved from a few millimetres to up to one metre apart.
When the prisms were placed together, photons fIred at one edge
passed straight through them, as expected. After they were moved apart,
most of the photons reflected off the first prism they encountered
and were picked up by a detector. But a few photons appeared to
<tunnel' through the gap separating them as if the prisms were still held
together.
Although these photons had travelled further, they arrived at their
detector at exactly the same time as the reflected photons. In effect, they
had travelled faster than light.
The duo said being able to travel faster than light would lead to a
wide variety of bizarre consequences. For instance, an astronaut moving
faster than light would theoretically arrive at a destination before leaving,
they said.
312
313
Appendix
From now on, every major public project, every public decision will
be judged on its effect on climate, and on its carbon cost.
ABOMINABLE FOOTPRINTS
We're consuming 40 per cent more than what earth can sustain
314
Clean Fuel
Its entire annual production of 30 million gallons is already tied up
for exports to customers in US and Europe.
With production of biodiesel, India's place as a source of green
energy will get yet another star. Already, Pune-based Suzlon is one of
the leading players in wind energy and Delhi-based Moser Baer is setting
a large facility for making solar panels. Says Rajiv Shukla, Avendus
Advisors who is helping Naturol to raise $100 million for its expansion
315
Appendix
programme: "Though these are early days for alternative energy sources,
there is a huge opportunity in the business."
Though biodiesel fades in comparison to the performance of
gasoline, western countries are increasingly choosing the fuel. In these
days, when crude trades over $80 a barrel, biodiesel is economical.
Secondly, states like California in the US have already begun
incentivising use of alternative fuels that are low in carbon emission.
Says CS Bhaskar, managing director and CEO, Naturol: "Going forward,
we expect new regulations to increase the use of alternative fuels."
Biodiesel, an equivalent to crude derived diesel, is processed from
biological sources. Naturol will make its biodiesel from Jatropha plant
with Belgian technology. The plant derived biodiesel can be used in
normal diesel engine vehicles without modifying them, Biodiesel produces
between 40-60% lesser carbon dioxide emission but emits more smog
forming residues.
Vehicle manufacturers in Europe, who were initially vary ofbiodiesel,
are now more willing. European auto makers like Scania now say that
their vehicles can run on 100% biodiesel. Virgin's Richard Branson who
is testing the use of biodiesel in one of his trains, has planned the first
commercial flight that will be powered with a 60% biofuel-kerosene blend
in 2008.
Globally, biodiesel costs lesser than normal diesel. Its price is
benchmarked to the international prices of crude. In 2006, US and Europe
consumed nearly five million tonne of biodiesel, a negligible quantity
compared to diesel consumption. It is expected to increase to 100 million
tonne by 2016.
TOI 13.10.2007
316
so-called dark galaxies without stars, as well as eftend the search for
extraterrestrial radio signals a thousandfold, to include a million nearby
stars over the next two decades.
Today, 42 of the antennas, mass-produced from molds and
employing inexpensive telecommunications technology, will go into
operation. "It's like cutting the ribbon on the Nina, the Pinta and the
Santa Maria," said Seth Shostak, an astronomer at the Seti Institute, in
Mountain View" California, who. pointed out that this was the ftrst radio
telescope ever designed speciftcally for the extraterrestrial quest. The
telescope, named for Paul G Alien, who provided $25 million in seed
money, is a joint project of the Radio Astronomy Laboratory of the
University of California, Berkeley, and the Seti Institute. "If they do fmd
something, they're going to call me up ftrst and say we have a signal,"
Alien said in an interview, adding, "So far the phone hasn't rung."
Describing himself as "a child of the 50s, the golden age of space
exploration and science ftction," Allen, a founder of Microsoft, said he
fIrst got interested in supporting the search for extraterrestrial intelligence
after a conversation 12 years ago with Carl Sagan, the Cornell astronomer
and exuberant proponent of cosmic wonder.
When the idea later arose to build a telescope array on the cheap,
using off-the-shelf satellite dish technology and advanced digital signal
processing, Alien was intrigued. "If you know anything about me," he
said, "you know I'm a real enthusiast for new unconventional approaches
to things."
Appendix
317
318
Subodh Vanna
As rising temperatures threaten to create floods and droughts, the UN
Human Development Report calls for steps to cut down carbon
emission by 50% over the next generation
Developed countries should cut their carbon emissions at least by
80% by the year 2050, with 20-30% cuts by 2030, if the earth has to be
saved from a complete environmental catastrophe, says the Human
Development Report (HDR) 2007 released on Tuesday.
The report also calls for 20% cuts in carbon emissions by fast
growing economies like India and China. These steps would stabilise
CO2 equivalent concentration at 450 parts per million in the atmosphere
(currently it is 379 ppm). The cost of this process would be only 1.6% of
global GDP up to 2030. To achieve these emission targets, the report
proposes a set of policies which include carbon taxation, cap-and-trade
programmes, reduction in emission quotas, encouraging renewable energy
through economic incentives, stringent implementation of efficiency
measures in industry buildings and transport and support to breakthrough
technologies for carbon capture and storage.
The United Nations Development Programme's annual report focuses
on various aspects of human development like health, gender and poverty
every year. The 2007 report makes a strong case for action on climate
change which it calls the "defming human development issue of our
generation" .
Drawing upon the scientific evidence revealed by the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the UN report says
Appendix
319
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