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Reference Manual (Tech) (Diploma-Be) PDF
Reference Manual (Tech) (Diploma-Be) PDF
Reference Manual (Tech) (Diploma-Be) PDF
FOR
INDEX
Sl
No.
1.
Title
Raw Material Handling Plant
Introduction
Different Raw Materials And Their Sources
Quality Requirements Of Raw Materials
Process And Flow Diagram Of RMHP
Material Handling Equipments
Logistics
Flux
Coke Breeze
Customers of RMHP
Benefits Of RMHP
Safety
2.
1
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
6
6
3.
Page
No.
8
9
9
11
12
12
13
13
22
23
24
24
Power Plant
Introduction
Major Equipments
Fuel Used
Gas Compressor
Gas Filled Boiler
Steam Turbo Generator
BOP
Steam Turbo Blower
Electric Turbo Blower
Gas Turbine Generator
Gas Cleaning Plant
Heat Recovery Steam Generator
27
27
27
28
28
29
46
49
51
54
64
66
Sl
No.
4.
Title
Sinter Plant
Introduction
Raw Materials Proportioning
Sintering Process
Sinter Making
Quality Parameters
Process Flow Chart
Main Areas And Equipments
Safety
5.
92
93
93
97
100
8.
77
77
78
80
90
90
Steel Making
Introduction
Open / Twin Hearth Furnaces - Process
Basic Oxygen Furnace (Ld Converter)
Secondary Steel Making
Casting
7.
68
68
69
70
73
74
74
75
Blast Furnace
Introduction
Raw Materials Used for BF
Quality of Raw Materials
Blast Furnace And Accessories
Techno-economics
Safety
6.
Page
No.
104
104
105
106
107
109
109
113
116
118
120
121
122
133
134
142
Sl
No.
Title
Basic Principles Of Motor
Power Distribution
Power System Equipments
Cables & Relays
SCADA
Electrical Insulation
Testing of Motors
Electronic Devices
Testing, Measuring Instruments And Tools
Drives and Control
PLC
Electrical Safety
Indian Electricity Rules 1956
Maintenance Practices
9.
10.
11
Page
No.
145
152
154
157
162
162
164
164
168
170
187
189
193
197
Technical Services
Track and Loco Maintenance
Environment Management
Computer
Introduction
Hardware and software
Applications Of Computers In Steel Industry
Operating Systems
Computer Language And Programming
Network And Connectivity
Introduction to Windows
Intranet And Internet
Computer Virus
Dos And Donts
Mining
Introduction
Physical Property of Minerals
Mining Equipments
Mines Operation
Safety In Mines
202
225
229
231
234
234
235
236
237
239
240
240
243
243
246
247
250
RMHP
Page 1 of 250
Introduction
Raw Material Handling Plant or Ore Handling Plant or Ore Bedding and Blending Plant play
a very important role in an Integrated Steel Plant. It is the starting point of an integrated
steel plant, where all kinds of raw materials required for iron making/steel making are
handled in a systematic manner, e.g., unloading, stacking, screening, crushing, bedding,
blending, reclamation, etc.
Different types of major raw materials used in an integrated steel plant are :
Sand
Lime stone
Dolomite
Manganese Ore
Quartzite
RMHP also handles BF sludge, Burnt Lime, Coke Breeze, Nut Coke for onward feeding to
Sinter Plant and Blast Furnace
The main objective of raw material handling plant is to
Page 2 of 250
Raw Materials
Iron Ore Lumps (IOL)
Iron Ore Fines (IOF)
BF grade Lime Stone
BF grade Dolomite
SMS grade LimeStone
SMS gradeDolomite
Manganese Ore
Mixed Breeze Coke
9.
10.
11.
Mill Scale
Flue dust
LD Slag
Sources
Daitari, Banspani, MESCO mines etc.
Daitari, Gua, Juruli, Deojhar, Rungta etc.
Birmitrapur, Katani etc.
Birmitrapur, Sonakhan etc.
Barjamunda, MOIL(Purchased)
Generated inside the plant (Blast Furnace &
Coke Ovens)
Generated inside the plant
Generated inside the plant
Generated inside the plant
Right quality raw material is basic requirement to achieve maximum output at lowest
operating cost. Quality of raw materials plays a very important and vital role in entire steel
plant operation. Quality of raw materials (incoming) and processed material (outgoing) is
monitored by checking the incremental samples collected from the whole consignment.
Samples are collected for analysis in our QC lab. The samples prepared after quarter and
coining method are sent for further analysis.
Material
IOL
Chemical
Fe
SiO2
Al2O3
64%
2.5%
2.5%
2.
IOF
Fe
SiO2
Al2O3
3.
4.
5.
Ti
6%
Ti
6%
CaO
53%
CaO
45%
CaO
28%
MgO
2%
MgO
3%
MgO
20%
SiO2
1.5 %
6.
Dolomite(SMS) grade
7.
8.
Mn Ore
Coke Breeze
64%
2.5%
Physical
2.5%
MgO
SiO2
20%
2.5 %
Mn= 30% min
Fixed C>70%, SiO2-12-15%
Moisture- 10-15% max
SiO2
4%
SiO2
4%
-10mm= 5% Max
+40mm= 5% max
+10mm= 5% Max
- 1mm= 30 % max
-5mm= 5% max
+40mm= 5% max
-5mm= 5% max
+50mm= 5% max
-40mm= 7% max
+80mm= 3% max
(30-60mm)
-40mm= 5% max
+70mm= 5% max
10-40mm size
< 15mm
Page 3 of 250
Designated Beds
Sampling Unit
Crushing Unit
Despatch Customer
Major Equipments
Main Function
1.
Wagon Tippler
2.
3.
4.
Truck Hopper
Stackers Cum Reclaimer
5.
Blender Reclaimer
6.
7.
Transfer Car
Crushers: SHRI => 3nos.
Rod Mills => 3nos.
FRC => 3nos.
Belt Conveyors
8.
Page 4 of 250
Logistics
For smooth operation, the planning of Raw Material requirement for the set target is of prime
importance. Raw material requirement plan is to be made ready and communicated to the
concerned agencies well in advance to avoid any setback for the process.
The different agencies which are involved in this process are :
RMHP
Traffic and Raw Material Department
Raw Materials Division (RMD)
Production Planning Control (PPC)
Finance
Commercial
Railways, etc.
Indian Railways act as a linkage between mines and NINL as major mode of Raw Material
transport.
Inside the plant, Traffic Department (of the Plant) plays the major role for foreign (Railways)
wagons/rakes movement and the processed. Depending on the types of wagons, raw materials
rakes supplied by the mines by means of railways are being placed either in wagon tippler or
track hopper for unloading. The types of wagons for unloading in wagon tippler and /or truck
hopper is as given below
The material such as IOL, IOF, Lime Stone, Dolomite, etc, unloaded in wagon tippler or track
hopper is being conveyed through the series of belt conveyors to the designated bed and
stacked there with the help of stackers cum Reclaimer / Twin Boom Stacker. Bed formation
takes place by means of to and fro movement of TBS.
Number of optimum layers in a bed is controlled by stacker speed. Number of layers in a bed
determines the homogeneity of the bed and is reflected in standard deviation of final bed
quality. More is the number of layers, more is the bed homogeneity and lower the standard
deviation.
Blending is the mechanized process of stacking & reclaiming to get optimum result in physical
& chemical characteristics of raw material, this means that blending is a process of
homogenization of single/different raw materials over a full length of pile/bed.
Flux
Flux is a mixture of Lime Stone and Dolomite in certain proportion required in sinter making.
Fraction of (-3mm.) in crushed flux is 90% and more. The main function of flux is to take care
Page 5 of 250
of gangue in blast furnace and also to increases the rate of reaction to form the good quality
slag. Flux acts as a binder in sinter making to increase the sinter strength. Rod mill or
hammer crusher are used for crushing Limestone & Dolomite Lumps to required size i.e. (3mm.) > 90%.
Coke Breeze
Another important is crushed coke of size fraction (-3mm.) 85%. Coke Breeze is received from
coke ovens and blast furnace. Coke Breeze is crushed in Four Roll Crushers get desired size.(3mm.) 85%.
Customers of RMHP
Sl.
No.
1.
Customer
Blast Furnace
2.
3.
Sinter Plant
Calcining/ Refractory Plant
Product/ Material
Size Ore or Screen Iron Ore Lump, Nut Coke,
Quartzite, Limestone, Dolomite.
Iron ore fines, crushed Flux, Coke fines & Sand
SMS grade Limestone & Dolomite
Benefits of RMHP
Provides consistent quality raw materials to its customer and also controlling the cost by:
Safety
It is dust prone department due to handling of various types of fines hence use of dust mask,
safety goggles, safety helmet, safety shoes etc. is must. Housekeeping is a major challenge in
smooth operation in this department and requires special attention. Spillage of material,
water, oil, belt conveyor pieces is to be controlled by effective housekeeping. This also leads to
personal and equipment health and safety. It makes the surrounding area operation friendly.
Page 6 of 250
COKE OVEN
&
BY-PRODUCT
PLANT
Page 7 of 250
Introduction
Coke making is the process to convert coking coal, through a series of operations, into
metallurgical coke. The process starts from unloading of the coal at the wagon tipplers & ends
at sizing & transportation of coke to Blast furnace.
Formation of Coal:
The plant & vegetations buried under swamp bottom during earthquakes or due to other
environmental changes were subjected to heat & pressure. During the initial period plant &
vegetations decay to form PEAT. Over a long period of time water is forced out due to
tremendous pressure of the overburden & due to heat generation, converting the mass to
LIGNITE. Continuous compaction & ageing converts the Lignite to Bituminous coal. This
process takes million of years.
Types & Sources of Coking Coal:
All coals are not coking coals, i.e. all types of coal cant be used for coke making. Coking coals
are classified as:
Prime Coking Coal (PCC)
Medium Coking Coal (MCC)
These are generally known as Indigenous coal, i.e. available in India. In addition to the above
coking coal the following types of coal are also used for coke making in all NINL plants. At
present the above Coal not being used at NINL, CO Plant.
Imported Coking Coal (ICC) Hard
Soft Coking Coal (SCC)
Coal is extracted from coal mines & processed in the coal washeries to lower down the ash
content to make it fit for coke making.
The different sources of coal are named after the respective washeries and are as follows:
PCC - Bhojudih
- Sudamdih
- Munidih
- Patherdih
- Dugda
- Mahuda
MCC - Kathra
- Swang
- Rajrappa
- Kedla
- Nandan
Page 8 of 250
Ash
VM
FSI
LTGK
19.0
18.5
8-10
8-10
3-4
8-10
21-23
23-25
25-30
18-20
25-28
25-30
>3.5
>3.0
> 3.0
>5.0
>5.0
>5.0
>E
>E
G
>G
>G
>G
Inherent
moisture
2.5-3.0
2.5-3.0
2.5-3.0
2.5-3.0
2.5-3.0
2.5-3.0
MMR
1.10
0.85
0.87 1.0
1.25
1.25
1.00
These wagons get unloaded in wagon tippler. Here the wagons are mechanically clamped &
turned through 165 0 to discharge the coal onto down below conveyors. Then through a series
of conveyors the coal is stacked in coal yard through a Stacker. The coal yard is divided into
separate segments where different types of coal can be stacked in respective earmarked areas.
It is very important to stack different types of coal separately so as to avoid mix up of two
types of coal. From the coal yard, coal is reclaimed through Reclaiming hopper and
transported to Blending Bunker as per prevailing system in NINL plant.
Crushing & Blending:
Blended Coal from Blending bunker is sent to Hammer Crusher. Fine crushing of coal is
essential to homogenize the different inherent constituents of coal otherwise the coke
produced will have different coking behavior depending on its original coal structure.
Crushing also adds to improve the bulk density of coal charge in the ovens. Bulk density is the
compactness or close packing of the coal charge in the oven. (Higher the bulk density better is
the coke strength. Bulk density can also be increased by addition of briquettes. This facility
does not exists in NINL). It is desirable to have 80 to 82 % of 0-3.2mm size coal after crushing.
This is known as crushing Index. However over crushing is not desirable as this reduces the
bulk density & increases micro fines which causes problem in battery operation and quality
liquor & clean CO gas.
Importance of Blending:
Blending plays a vital role in producing good metallurgical coke. Blending is a process of
mixing the different types of coal, i.e. Soft & Hard, in a predetermined ratio to reduce the Ash
percentage of the Blend Coal, keeping the other coking properties intact. As evidenced from
the table under properties of coal the Indigenous coals contain a relatively higher percentage
of ash & Imported coals contain a relatively lower percentage of ash. Hence a proper mixing,
i.e. blending of both types of coal is necessary. However blending is to be done, in a very
accurate manner, so that required coke property does not get adversely affected. Blending is
generally done by adjusting the discharge of different types of coal from bunkers or silos to a
common belt. The different type of coals gets thoroughly mixed during crushing where
blending is done before crushing. Proper mixing takes place at several transfer points, i.e.
during discharge from one conveyor to another conveyor through a chute, during
transportation to coal towers or service bunkers.
Quality Of Coal Blend Charge At Coal Tower:
ASH
8%
to
9%
VM
24% to
25%
MMR
1.12 to
1.16
SULPHUR < 0.6 %
CSN
>6
MOISTURE 8 % approx.
Page 10 of 250
Carbonization Process
The process of converting blend coal to metallurgical coke is known as carbonization. It is
defined as heating the coal in absence of air. It is also the destructive distillation of coal. The
carbonization process takes place in a series of tall, narrow, roofed chambers made of
refractory bricks (Silica Bricks) called ovens. A specific number of ovens constitute a Battery.
The ovens are mechanically supported by Structural & Anchorage.
A battery can be classified as per size & design. The most common classifications are:
a. Tall Battery
Small Battery
b. Recovery type (NINL) Battery Gas formed during carbonization is converted to fuel &
again reused. Byproducts are obtained during cleaning of the gas.
Non-Recovery type battery No by products are formed as the generated gas acts as
the fuel.
c. Top Charge (NINL) Battery Conventional battery with charging from the top.
d. Stamp Charge Battery A cake like mass is formed by ramming the coal. This type is
only installed at Tata Steel.
Blend coal from coal tower is charged from top to the ovens. Each oven is sandwiched between
two heating walls from which heat is transmitted through conduction to the coal charge inside
the oven. When coal is charged inside an oven, the coal nearest to both the walls get heated up
first, melts & re-solidifies to form coke. The heat passes to the next layer of coal & so on till
they meet at the center. During the process of carbonization the coal charge first undergo demoisturization (drying) upto a temperature of 250C. Then it starts to soften at around 300C.
It then reaches a plastic or swelling state during 350C to 550C. The entrapped gasses are
then driven out at 400C to 900C. The calorific value (CV) of Coke ovens gas is around 4300
kcal/m3.The gas is cooled to 800C by ammonia liquor/ flushing liquor. The mass inside the oven
then re-solidifies and shrink beyond 700C. Finally coke is produced as a hard & porous mass
at around 1000C.The total time taken for full carbonization is called coking time or coking
period. The oven temp is maintained at about 12000C to 13000C in tall ovens The hot coke is
then pushed out from the ovens. The hot coke is then cooled at CDCP (Coke Dry Cooling
Plant) by inert gas. This process is called Dry Quenching of coke. The cooled coke is then sent
to Coke Sorting Plant for proper cutting, sizing and then to Blast Furnace.
Page 11 of 250
Major Equipments:
Major equipments/machines used in the process of coke making are:
Charging car: It collect the blend coal from coal tower & charges to empty ovens.
Pusher Car or Ram Car: Its functions are to level the charge coal inside the oven during
charging & to push out the coke mass from inside the oven after carbonization.
Coke Guide Car: It guides the coke mass during pushing to the Bucket Car.
Bucket Car: It carries the hot coke to CDCP, hoisted and charging to cooling chamber.
It acts as a fuel.
Properties of Coke
Ash
Ash in coke is inert & becomes part of the slag produced in the Blast Furnace. Hence, ash in
coke not only takes away heat but also reduces the useful volume of the furnace. Hence it is
desirable to have lower ash content in the coke. The desired ash content is upto 12.5% (Max.)
at NINL.
Volatile Matter (VM)
The VM in coke is an indicator of completion of carbonization & hence the quality of coke
produced. It should be as low as possible i.e. < 1%.
Gross Moisture (GM)
It has got no role to play in the furnace. It only takes away heat for evaporation. Hence least
moisture content is desirable. A level around 1% (Max.) is desirable.
Page 12 of 250
MICUM Index
Micum index indicates the strength of coke. M10 value indicates the strength of coke against
abrasion. Lower the M10 value better is the abrasion strength. A M10 value of <7 indicates
good coke strength. M10 of NINL coke is less than 7%. M40 value indicates the load bearing
strength or strength against impact load. Coke having lower M40 value will crumble inside
the Furnace which will reduce the permeability of the burden and cause resistance to the
gasses formed in the furnace to move upwards. A good coke should have a M40 value more
than 80.
Coke Reactivity Index (CRI):
It is the capacity of the coke to remain intact by withstanding the reactive atmosphere inside
the furnace. Hence less the CRI value, better is the coke. Desirable value should be around 22.
Coke Strength after Reaction (CSR)
It denotes the strength of the coke after passing through the reactive environment inside the
furnace. CSR for a good coke is around 64. It is also known as hot strength of coke.
Coke Size
The size of coke is most important to maintain permeability of the burden in the furnace. The
required size for Blast Furnace is more than 20mm size & less than 80mm size. If the
undersize is more the permeability decreases as smaller coke pieces fill up the voids &
increase the resistance to the flow of outgoing gasses. If the oversize is more the surface area
of coke for the reactions reduces. Hence the size of the coke is to be maintained between
+20mm & -80mm
Coal Chemicals
Products and by-products of coal carbonization, their properties and uses,
impurities in Coke oven gas and its cleaning
Quality parameters.
Process of heating coal in absence of air to produce coke is called coal carbonization or
destructive distillation. Purpose of coal carbonization is to produce coke whereas co-product is
Page 13 of 250
coke oven gas. From coke oven gas, various by products like tar, benzol, naphthalene,
ammonia, phenol, anthracene etc. are produced. Generally high temperature
coal carbonization is carried out in coke oven battery of integrated steel plants at temp of
1100 -13000C.
Coke produced in the coke oven battery is sized, crushed and screened to different fraction as
per requirement.
a) 20- 80 mm size- Metallurgical coke required for iron making in Blast Furnace.
b) 10-20 mm size- Nut/Pearl coke partly required for internal use and rest is sold out.
c) 0-10 mm size- Coke breeze, mostly used for making sinter.
d) Metallurgical coke quality is mainly determined by its ash content & strength.
e) Coke strength is measured by a test in coke sorting plant called MICUM test.
f) Hot strength properties of Coke are measured by CSR/CRI test.
Typical proximate analysis of coke as a carbonized product from a coal blend is as follows:Moisture: 0.5%. Ash: 12.5 % (Max.), VM: 0.6-1.0%, Fixed Carbon: 85% minimum.
In the by-product plant major byproducts like tar, ammonia and crude benzol are recovered
from the coke oven gas evolved during coal carbonization. The out put of the chemical products
and their composition & properties of the coal depend on the blend used for coking, the
heating regime & the operating condition of the battery. Tar separated out of coke oven gas as
a mixture of large quantities of various chemical compounds. Tar products are road tar, wash
oil, pitch creosote mixture, medium hard pitch & extra hard pitch etc.
Ammonia in the coke oven gas is recovered as Ammonium sulphate, which is used as a
fertilizer in agriculture sector. Out put of crude benzol depends on the VM content in the coal
blend and temperature of coking. The by products recovered in the process are very important
and useful .Tar is used for road making and as fuel in furnaces. Pitch is used for road making.
The benzol products like benzene, toluene, phenol, naphthalene and xylene etc. are important
inputs for chemical industries producing dyes, paint, pharmaceutical, insecticide, detergent,
plasticiser and leather products.
The coke oven gas from Coke ovens contain lot of impurities, which needs to be properly
cleaned before being used as a fuel gas for Coke Oven heating as well as elsewhere in Steel
Plant. The impurities in coke oven gas are mainly tar fog, ammonia, naphthalene, hydrogen
sulphide, benzol, residual hydrocarbon and traces of HCN. Cleaning of coke oven gas is done
by passing it through a series of coolers & condensers and then treating the gas in ammonia
columns, saturators, washers, tar precipitators, naphthalene washers, benzol scrubbers etc.
for removal of these impurities. After the cleaning operation, the final coke oven gas still
contains traces of impurities. Quality of coke oven gas depends on the contents of various
impurities and its heat value. Typical analysis of impurities in good quality coke oven gas is as
Page 14 of 250
other furnaces in the plant. It is also used as a major fuel in power plant boilers and coke oven
as under firing gas.
Coke oven gas is a product of Coke oven battery operation during high temperature
carbonization of coking coal. It is the most important gaseous fuel in an integrated steel plant.
The composition of coke oven gas varies with temperature of carbonization, time of
carbonization and type of coal. It is not that toxic as BF gas. It has a calorific value of 41004400 K Cal/Nm. Coke oven gas is mostly used as under firing gas in coke oven battery and
mixed with other fuel gases for combustion in various furnaces in steel plants. LD gas is
produced in LD Converter during the process of steel making. It has a very high concentration
of carbon monoxide (up to 80% in peak period). It is cooled, cleaned of dust & stored in
gasholder for use as a fuel gas. It has a calorific value of 1800-2000 K Cal/Nm. It is generally
mixed with BF gas and coke oven gas to moderate the heating value as per requirement and
used in different furnaces.
Mixed gas is a mixture of BF gas, Coke oven gas and LD gas in different ratios to have a
gaseous fuel of desired calorific value and combustion characteristics. It is a more ideal fuel for
specific application with specific properties. Burning of gaseous fuel is quite clean without
smoke. It requires less amount of excess air for complete combustion, hence giving thermal
efficiency. Gaseous fuels occupy large space, hence storage is difficult and expensive. Fuel
gases are poisonous, inflammable and explosive in nature. Hence careful handling in its
utilization is needed.
Combustion
All conventional fossil fuels (solid, liquid and gases) contain basically carbon and /or hydrogen
which when burnt react with oxygen from air forming carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide &
water vapour. This process is called combustion. In the combustion process, rapid chemical
combination of oxygen with the combustible portion of the fuel results in heat release. The
most common fuels contain carbon & hydrogen either as element or as parts of compound.
These combustible elements & compounds react with oxygen to form carbon dioxide (CO2) &
water vapour (H2O). Carbon monoxide can also be formed. Sulphur is also present in some
fuels & sulphurs combustion products can cause corrosion & environmental pollution. The
requirements for combustion are fuel, oxygen & 3 Ts i.e. Time, temperature & turbulence.
The solid fuels are burnt in beds in lump (or pellet form) or in pulverized form suspended in
air stream. The liquid fuels are burned either by vaporizing & mixing with air before ignition
(when they behave like gaseous fuels) or in the form of fine droplets, which get evaporated
while mixing with air stream during mixing.
The gaseous fuels are either burnt in burners where the fuel and air are pre-mixed or the fuel
& air flow separately into a furnace & simultaneously mix together as combustion proceeds.
All the fuels contain basic elements such as carbon, hydrogen, sulphur or its compounds.
Page 16 of 250
Fuel Economy
Major energy inputs to Steel Plants are coking coal for coke making, non-coking coal for steam
and power generation & purchased petroleum fuels like furnace Oil/ LSHS/ Diesel/
Petrol/Naphtha. Since cost of energy accounts for nearly one-third cost of cost of production of
saleable steel in Steel Plant, any saving in energy consumption will contribute to increase in
profitability of steel plants & improvement in competitiveness in world market. Fuel economy
in steel industry will contribute directly to the conservation of scarce energy resources of the
country. Fuel economy in steel plants can be achieved by optimizing the fuel combustion in
different areas by adopting energy efficient technology, use of energy efficient burners,
modification of burners, reduction of furnace losses & waste heat recovery and operating the
plant at optimum load. Reduction of fuel consumption in furnaces can be achieved also by
maintaining proper fuel/air ratio in furnaces, oxygen enrichment of combustion air, furnace
pressure control, furnace temperature control, waste heat recovery by regenerators,
recuperators and waste heat boxes, insulation of high temperature systems.
Utility Chemicals and Uses.
-Water treatment chemicals for boiler water and process cooling water treatment
-Uses of Nitrogen, Oxygen, Argon, Acetylene, LPG / Propane in steel plants.
Producing quality steam in boilers depends on properly managed water treatment to control
steam purity, deposits and corrosion in boiler assembly and accessories. Poor quality boiler
feed water results in efficiency losses and may result in tube failures and inability to produce
steam. Similarly, process cooling water treatment is mandatory for controlling suspended
solids, algae growth, corrosion and fouling of process heat exchangers, coolers and condensers.
Chemicals such as sodium carbonate, sodium aluminate, and sodium sulphite and trisodium
phosphate are generally used for preventing scale formation in boiler tubes. Caustic soda and
tri sodium phosphate are used to desired alkalinity level for preventing corrosion of
equipments and tubes. Hydrazine hydrate is added to de-aerator for removal of dissolved
oxygen from boiler feed water to prevent pitting on contact surfaces. In treatment of process
cooling water in cooling tower operation, soda ash is used for controlling desired alkalinity of
water for preventing corrosion. Zinc sulphate is added as anti algae compound to prevent
algae growth. Organo phosphate or sodium dichromate is used in cooling water as
anticorrosion compound. Sodium hexa meta phosphate is added to prevent scale formation and
fouling in heat exchange equipments.
However, many other types of environment friendly chemicals have been developed and are
being used in water treatment for boiler water production and cooling water conditioning in
modern steel plants. Various utility gases like nitrogen, oxygen, acetylene, argon, propane and
LPG are commonly used in the process of iron & steel making as well as to facilitate
miscellaneous repair, maintenance and auxiliary works. Nitrogen is generally used as purging
medium in a system for safe maintenance work as well as to provide inert atmosphere for
safety during hot work. Argon is basically used to create inert atmosphere required for specific
process as well as for special type of metal welding job. Oxygen produced in oxygen plant is
Page 17 of 250
basically useful for blowing in steel making process and used also for blast enrichment in
Blast furnace. Other application is use of oxygen along with acetylene and propane in gas
cutting of various type metals and slabs. Acetylene and propane are normally used for cutting
of steel slabs, plates, coils and structurals. Propane and LPG are also utilized as support fuels
to enrich the heating value of some of the gaseous fuels required for different furnaces in steel
plants.
Quality Control (Research And Control Laboratory
Standards,
Analysis of samples
Safety precautions
Progressive norms and Process parameter values are decided by individual NINL Plant/Unit
based on current requirement and on-going process. Norms and parameter values as decided
act as a base for Quality Management function to exercise control over incoming raw
materials, various production processes and the products finally obtained. It guides the men &
machines in the plant by testing, inspection, research and reports. There are some standard
institutions to refer for standard laboratory practices, procedures & equipments to be used for
correct methodology & authentic test results. The concerned Institute/ Organization as
mentioned below issues the updated versions of documents from time to time. These are
available in Technical Libraries maintained by NINL Plant/ Units.
Sampling
Sampling is the mother of all activities in quality control. The process assumes great
significance as volumes of materials are handled in a Steel Plant. The time & labour spent on
analysis will be meaningless without the sample being truly representative. Sampling is the
process of obtaining a small portion from a large quantity of material and should be so carried
out as to truly represent the composition of the whole lot. Sampling is relatively easy in case of
homogeneous materials. Unfortunately, most of the materials handled in Steel Plants are
found to be heterogeneous in nature and so, sampling has to be done with great care. When it
is considered that the final sample for chemical analysis usually weighs only one gram and
that each must truly represent 50 to 500 tonnes of material in case of Ore, Coal & Coke, the
Page 18 of 250
enormous problem of sampling may be well appreciated. Sampling usually consists of three
distinct operations repeated as many times as necessary. These are crushing, mixing and
cutting. By repeating the three operations, a sample may be reduced to the desired weight.
Sampling Practice
Ores & similar materials, unless already fine enough, are broken or crushed to a proper size.
Jaw Crushers & Roll Crushers fulfill these requirements. Various methods are available for
sampling of Ore, Coal & similar materials. Coning & Quartering is a well known process of
sampling. This is a hand cutting method. The crushed materials are shoveled into a conical
pile, each shovelful being thrown upon the apex of the cone so that it will run down evenly all
around. A slight damping of the ore is said to allow better mixing by coning. When the cone is
completed, men who walk around, drawing their shovels from center to periphery, work it
down into the form of a flat truncated cone. Care should be taken not to disturb the radial
distribution of the coarse and fine particles. After flattening, the ore is divided into four
quarters by means of a sharp-edged board, or better by a steel bladed quarterer. Two opposite
quarters are removed and the remaining two are taken for sampling. The sample may again
be mixed by coning & quartering, or it may be crushed, if necessary, and then coned and
quartered. These operations are repeated until a sample is obtained which may conveniently
be reduced to the degree of fineness required for analysis.
Moisture Sample
Most of the time, chemical analysis result is reported moisture free basis. Moisture
determination involves weighing and drying sample at 105 deg. Centigrade and the loss in
weight gives the moisture content.
Ores containing Metallic
When an ore containing metallic is being sampled, the original sample must be carefully
weighed, the particles found on each sieve separately preserved and then weighed.
Sampling of Metals & Alloys
Metals & Alloys can not be sampled by crushing, mixing & cutting. Such products can best be
sampled either by taking a sample in the molten condition or by milling or sawing which
enables the material to be collected from the entire cross section of the cast bar or ingot. In
some cases, it may be impractical to take millings or sawings and for these drillings may be
suitable.
Sampling of Molten Metal:
For taking samples from the molten metal, three spoonfuls should be taken at the beginning,
middle and end of the tapping period, avoiding inclusion of dust & slag. These should be cast
separately in heavily chilled moulds in convenient sizes.
Page 19 of 250
Dimensional tolerance.
Surface finish.
Internal soundness.
Finally packaging of the products is equally important so that the product reaches its
destination in a sound condition. This is also inspected before dispatch.
Safety Precautions in the use of Laboratory Chemicals
Apparatus & glassware should be kept clean & free from corrosive, dangerous matters
& also foreign matter of any description.
Bulk supplies of chemicals should be kept in a safe place. The store should be cool and
free from excessive temp fluctuations and preferably situated outside the lab.
Neutralizing agents, fire extinguishers of various types and first-aid appliances should
be readily available, and all personnel should be familiar with their correct use in cases
of emergency.
Chemical Burns: Wash off the affected part as quickly as possible with a large quantity
of water. If the burns are caused, due to acids, apply limewater, a mixture of baking
soda and water. In case the burns are due to alkalies, neutralize with weak vinegar or
lemon juice after thorough washing with water.
For burns caused by Bromine, sponge immediately with a strong solution of sodium
thiosulphate until all the bromine colour is gone. Then wash up the mildly poisonous
sodium thiosulphate with liberal quantity of water.
In case of burns caused by boiling water, any other liquid or a burner, exclude the burnt
portion from air by applying thin paste of starch, Vaseline or flour. Then dress after
applying a mixture of equal part of limewater and raw linseed oil.
Page 21 of 250
50ppm
Phenol
1ppm
Cyanide
0.2ppm
10ppm
The most important byproduct of Coke oven is the raw Coke oven gas. The basic constituents
of clean coke oven gas are:
Hydrogen
50 to 60%
Methane
25 to 28%
Carbon Monoxide -
6 to 8%
Page 22 of 250
Carbon Dioxide
3 to 4%
Other Hydrocarbons -
2 to 2.5%
Nitrogen
2 to 5%
Oxygen
0.2 to 0.4%
Calorific value
4300 kcal / m3
Wagon Tippler
Unloading of coal
Coal Yard
Reclaiming
Crusher or Silos
Crushing & Blending
Coal Tower
+20 to -80
BF
Hard Coke
+10 to -20
Batteries
(Carbonization)
Coke Sorting
Plant
SP
Nut Coke
-10
Raw CO Gas
SP
Coke Breeze
By Product Plant
Tar
Clean CO Gas
Ammonium Sulphate
Napthalene
Page 23 of 250
NEW
BATTERY
5
1
4
800 mg/Nm3
50 mg/Nm3
16 sec/charge
EXISTING
BATTERY
10
1
4
800 mg/Nm3
50 mg/Nm3
50 sec/charge
ISO 14001: 2004 is an environment management system which deals with the ways and
means to make the environment pollution free. Its main thrust is to make Land, Air & Water
free of pollutants.
Safety
Safety is the single most important aspect in the steel industry. This aspect covers both
personal as well as equipment safety. The use of PPE s (Personal Protective Equipment) is a
must for the employees in the shop floor. The use of PPEs like safety helmet, safety shoes,
hand gloves, gas masks, heat resistant jackets, goggles and dust masks are to be used
religiously while working in different areas of coke ovens. Different laid down procedures like
EL 20 / permit to work ,as followed in different steel plants, are to be strictly followed before
taking any shut-down of equipment for maintenance.
The stipulated SOPs (Standard Operating Practices) and SMPs (Standard Maintenance
Practices) should be adhered to strictly. Persons should be cautious about the gas prone areas
and should know about the gas hazards. EMD clearance is a must before taking up any job in
gas lines or gas prone areas. A life lost due to any unsafe act is an irreparable loss to the
company as well as to the family which can not be compensated.
environmental and occupational health and safety management systems within the
organization.
Impacts of fully implemented OHSAS are:
Page 25 of 250
POWER PLANT
Page 26 of 250
Introduction
The Captive Power Plant of NINL is a combined cycle co-generation power plant having
installed capacity of 62.5 MW which consists 2 nos. of Steam Turbo generator of 19.25 MW
each & one Gas Turbo Generator of 24 MW capacity. Gas Turbine works on the principle of
Joules cycle, whereas steam turbine works on the principle of Rankine cycle.
When both these cycle are working together in a single plant and Gas Turbine exhaust heat is
used to produce steam in HRSG and the generated steam of HRSG is used in steam turbine to
produce additional power, the entire system is called Combined Cycle Plant. With process
steam together it is called Co-generation combined cycle power plant.
MAJOR EQUIPMENTS OF POWER PLANT
3nos. of Gas fired Boilers each rated for 65TPH of steam generation at 62ata, 482c
and 1 no Heat recovery steam generator of 45 TPH.
1no. of Gas Turbo- Generator rated for 23.59MW at 30c & 70% RH.
Common steam Header for H.P. steam with double Bus design each rated 70% of
total steam.
2nos of PRDS rated for 30TPH each to supply process steam, (saturated) steam for
own auxiliaries & for deaeration at 10ata, 240c.
1no. of steam Turbine driven Blower consuming 57TPH at 60ata, 480c steam for
supply of cold air blast to Blast Furnace.
In addition to the above, the H.P. steam header shall receive 42TPH of steam at
60ata, 480c from the 3nos of Heat recovery Boilers located at CDCP unit of cokeovens unit.
Fuels Used
B.F.Gas 117000 Nm/h; C.V. 754 Kcal / Nm. Press: 500-600mm WC.
Converter Gas 4800 Nm/h; C.V. 2000 Kcal / Nm. / Dust content: 5-10mg/Nm.
LDO 776 Kg / h; C.V. 10000 Kcal / Kg for flame stabilization & support.
Page 27 of 250
Gas Compositions
% by Vol.
BF Gas
Converter. Gas
Co. Gas
CO2
22
17
CO
22
69
H2
59
CH4
28
52
19
2.5
N2
CnHn
water, there by losing most of its entrained water, and enters the corrugated sheets which
directs the steam in a turbulence path and forces are remaining entrained water the
corrugated sheets. Since the velocity is relatively low this water cant be picked up again and
therefore runs down to the corrugated plates and returns to the lower part of the drum. The
direction of steam flow is again reversed before entering the series of holes in the dry box. Dry
steam leaves the drum through numbers of top outlet nozzles called saturated link. In
addition to this it contains feed distribution pipe which runs along the length of the drum in
connected to feed inlet piping, feed water is distributed uniformly through the small holes in
the distribution pipe below the water level. The blow down piping has uniformly pitched
smaller holes through a portion of water of solid concentration is tapped off. The Super
Heaters are of two stages, two elements vertically spaced, and self supported type. They are
located in boiler rear area in between boiler bank tubes and boiler rear wall tubes, arranged
side by side. A De-super heater is provided in between two SH stages to permit reduction of
steam temperature when necessary .The reduction is taken place by injecting spray water into
the steam path through a perforated tube at the entry. The water source is from boiler feed
water system. The de-super heater is located in a vertical position for the spray occurs due to
differential pressure between injecting water and steam.
The Phosphate dosing takes place in the upper drum .The single stage Economizer, which is
located in flue gas path in between boiler and the air pre-heater consists of three modules, one
inlet header and one outlet header. Feed water from boiler feed pump enters at the inlet
header via a feed control station, gets heated up in coils by the flue gas coming out from the
furnace and goes to the steam drum connected from the outlet header of the Economizer.
Water and Steam Circuit:
Feed water enters the upper drum through Economiser. Circulation between upper drum and
lower drum takes place through bank tubes-panel tubes, etc because of various temperature
differences exist in the furnace. Through the baffle wall, furnace D-tubes and bank tubes
located in the higher heat absorbing area (in the boiler rear) water rises up in the circuit.
From the burner radiant heat is absorbed by D tubes, baffle tubes and rear tubes. In the rear
pass convection heat is picked up by super heater coils and bank tubes. The boiler sidewall,
which acts as the down comers, is shielded by arrow of tubes in the rear of boiler. To achieve
this insulation material is placed in between boiler sidewall and boiler baffle wall tubes. This
also prevents a variation in water level from boiler rear to front, which may otherwise be
caused by the low heat absorbing bank tubes acting as down comers in the front half. The
steam water mixture generated in the circuit will be collected in the upper drum. The steam
and water are effectively separated by internals provided in the upper drum. The saturated
steam is then passed into the super heater coils through the two saturated steam outlets. A
row of supply tubes (16 nos) between water wall lower headers and lower drum, and a row of
Page 29 of 250
riser tubes (26 nos) between upper drum and water wall upper headers are connected for
effective circulation of water and steam in the system.
Air and flue gas system:
Combustion air: Air from atmosphere passes through the FD fan to the air preheater. The
air preheater outlet duct feeds air to the wind box.
Scanner Air Fan: Flame scanners, which are used to sense the presence of flames, are
required to be cooled during the entire operation of the boiler. A portion of combustion air is
diverted for flame scanner cooling through a filter and Scanner Air Fan.
Flue Gas: Flue gases travel horizontally in the furnace and then pass through super heaters,
boiler bank, economizer and air preheater. In the air heater the residual heat of flue gas is
used to preheat the combustion air. From the air heater the flue gases pass through the ID fan
to chimney.
Ducting: All ducts are of welded construction, properly stiffened and reinforced to withstand
the pressures and vibration, consisting of dampers, expansions joints and access doors.
Generally all ducting system is made of carbon steel plate. Duct exceeding 1.5 cm2 cross
section are sent as walls, which are assembled at site.
Expansion Bellows: These by way of their construction can absorb the thermal expansion of
duct system. The bellows are made of metallic and non metallic (fabric) materials. The
metallic bellows are made up of thin sheets of thickness 2.5 mm or 1.6 mm. The form of the
bellows and sizes of the sheet determine the quantum of expansion value that they can absorb
effectively. In order to increase the quantum of expansion multi bellow expansion joints are
used. Whenever the expansion bellows are in deformed state, they exert a reaction on the
ducting system depending on the degree of deformation .The bellows in ID system are made of
Carorton steel and in other areas are carbon steel. Support load should not be transmitted
through the expansion joints.
SV (Swirling Vane) BURNER: Essentially the burner consists of a wind box, air register, oil
gun assembly, BFG annulus assembly, COG spud and HEA igniter assembly with burner
throat. This is a round burner with adjustable primary and secondary vanes. The air resister
assembly is designed such that the combustion air (from the FD fan) entering the wind box is
divided into primary air stream and secondary stream .The primary air constitutes a small
percentage (approx 30%) of the total air. It flows through primary air sleeves, which houses
guns. The purpose of primary air is two fold namely;
Page 30 of 250
It fills the vertex created by combustion in the secondary air zone (i.e. burner throat),
there by preventing the fire from drawing into burner nozzles.
The burner primary air vanes, which are arranged concentrically around the burner, are
operated by primary spinner vane assembly handle. The vanes impact a rotary motion to the
primary air-entering burner and control the velocity of air mixing with fuel.
The secondary air flows around the primary sleeve to the burner throat where it provides
necessary air to sustain flame. The vanes, which are arranged at the extreme to the annulus
between primary air sleeve and secondary air sleeve, impart a rotary motion to the secondary
air entering the burner. These vanes can be operated by a handle from outside to set the
desired angle.
The PA and SA flows are controlled separately by means of individual dampers. The PA
damper is operated manually with control lever and can be locked at desired position. The SA
damper is driven by the continuously modulating damper drive, which maintains a constant
pressure differential between the tap upstream of PA damper box and the furnace pressure
tap.
The burner front plate is equipped with observation ports, which permit viewing the fire
through the annulus between the PA and SA nozzles.
Fuel oil preparation: It consists of filtration and pumping to maintain oil free from dust,
dirt, sediments, sludge etc and header pressure constant at all firing rates by a pressure
control cum regulating valve that relieves the excess pressurized oil to the day tank.
Fuel oil atomization: Atomization is the process of spraying the fuel into fine mist, for
better mixing of the fuel with the combustion air for efficient combustion. While passing
through the spray nozzles of the oil gun, the pressure energy of the oil is converted into
velocity energy, which breaks up the oil into fine particles. Poorer atomization cause longer
burning time resulting carryover and makes the flame unstable due low rate of heat liberation
and incomplete combustion. Viscosity of oil is the major parameter, which decides the
atomization level. For satisfactory atomization its value should be 16 to 28 centistokes.
Air cooled atomizer oil gun assembly is protected from the hot furnace radiation by flowing
fuel oil and air which keeps it relatively cool. The cap nut that holds the atomizer to the oil
gun body is provided with specially sized cooling holes. The holes in the cap nut direct cooling
air effectively over the atomizer spray plate. The low pressure air tapped from FD fan cold air
interconnecting duct is pressurized in the scanner/gun cooling air fan and piped to the
Page 31 of 250
individual oil gun guide pipe with flexible hoses at the required places. Once the burner is
stopped it is required to remove oil gun from firing position in order to protect the atomizer
over heating.
Scavenging of fuel oil guns: Before stopping the burner the oil gun is scavenged with air
(coming from scanner air fan) to keep the small intricate passages of atomizer parts clean. It is
always scavenged with associated igniter in service to burn out the oil. In the auto
programmed burner stop sequence a planned shut down is followed by air scavenging the oil
side for quite some time to achieve this requirement. During emergency tripping of burners or
boiler the oil gun does not undergo auto scavenging. In such cases oil guns shall be restarted
and manually scavenged immediately on resuming boiler operation.
System vents: These are provided to drive out entrapped air or gas inside the system.
System drains: Each section of oil is provided with a drain valve, normally kept closed
during operation and when it is taken out of service then the drain valves are opened when it
is hot to avoid clogging.
Burner Management System (BMS): It is designed to ensure execution of safe, orderly
operating sequence in start up and shutdown of fuel firing equipment by providing permissive
interlocks, and to prevent errors in operating procedure. The system provides protection,
should there be a malfunction of fuel firing equipment and associated air system. Once the
equipment is in service operator must use the safe operating practices.
Basically the system is designed to perform the following operational functions;
Furnace purge supervisionTo Prevent any fuel firing unless a satisfactory furnace purge sequence has first been
completed. To start purge cycles proceed as below:
Page 32 of 250
This will start furnace purge if all the requirements are satisfied, as indicated by the
yellow purge ready light.
If the Purge Ready light does not come after the conditions above are competed, check
the following;
Airflow is >30 %.
When purge start command is given by the operator a five minute purge cycle starts indicated
by purging light ON. At the end of five minutes the boiler trip circuit is reset (provided no
boiler trip command is present). The purging light goes out and yellow purge compete light
comes on.
Light oil on-off control and supervision Once boiler trip is reset it is permitted to open the
Light oil trip valve (LOTV). When open command is given will open LOTV if following
conditions are satisfied:
Any light oil nozzle valve not closed and light oil header pressure not very low.
Any light oil nozzle valve not closed and atomizing air pressure not very low.
When LOTV is moved from fully closed position to open position, green light goes out and red
light comes on.
Page 33 of 250
Any burner can be started either from the console or from the LBCB, on selection from console
for remote / local operation. If above conditions are satisfied, by pressing start push button
will initiate burner start / igniter start command .It generates a 5 second pulse for closing
burner secondary air damper for light off sequence. After 5 seconds burner secondary air
damper is commanded to open. After that a 15 second pulse is initiated during which ignition
rod is advanced. The burner atomizing air valve is commanded to open. The sparking
transformer is energized and sparking takes place for a period of 15 seconds. During this 15
seconds, burner nozzle valve is commanded to open. Burner valve remains open if respective
flame scanners sense FLAME with in 10 seconds from valve lift off. If not burner valve and
burner atomizing valves are commanded to close.
On loss of any one of the following conditions the burner is tripped and burner nozzle valve &
atomizing air valves are commanded to close:
Then the burner scavenge cycle is initiated only, if other burner is in service mode and
selected burner is for LDO firing. After scavenge valve reaches full open position, a 300
seconds scavenge time is initiated and scavenging takes place for 300 seconds. At the end of
300 seconds the burner atomizing valve and burner scavenge valve are commanded to close.
Scavenge cycle is also initiated from local LBCB by switching the local gun maintenance
switch to scavenge position.
Boiler Auto Control System: It consists of the following:
1. Feed water control (drum level control): The objective of this control is to maintain the
drum level to the normal water level at all loads. In this, the control is in two fold: a) at low
load (by single controller and 30 % control valve) and at high load (by three element controller
Page 34 of 250
and 100 % control valve). At lower load the full load control valve is kept closed. The drum
level measured signal is compared with the drum level set point. The error signal will have a
proportional, integral and differential action in the single element controller. This controller
output will be the position demand signal for the start up feed control valve and operation. At
higher load the start up and stand by full load control valve shall be closed. The pressure and
temperature compensated steam flow shall be measured in main steam lines. The error signal
produced between drum level measured signal and drum level set point shall have
proportional integral and differential action in the three-element drum level controller. This
will be added with steam flow signal, which is the feed water flow demand signal (set point for
feed water flow). This will be compared with the feed water flow in the feed water controller.
Deviation if any will have a proportional and integral action in the feed water controller. This
controller output will be the position demand signal for the full load control valve.
Auto/manual station is provided for auto/manual selection. Position indicators are provided for
the start up and full load feed control valves.
2. Furnace draft control: The main objective of the control is to maintain the furnace
pressure constant at the desired set value at all loads. This is achieved by changing the flow of
fuel gas by modulating the inlet damper of the ID fan. Furnace pressure is measured and
recommended control range for the pressure transmitter is 50-mmwc to+ 50 mmwc.
Excessive deviation is alarmed and the control is transferred to manual. Excessive furnace
pressure is monitored for directional block on ID and FD fans. Furnace pressure is compared
with set point and error will have proportional and integral action. Fuel demand signal is
added as a feed forward feature. MFT feed forward feature is provided to minimize negative
furnace pressure excursion. Separate auto/manual station and position indicator for ID fan
regulating device is provided.
3. Air Flow Control: The combustion air flow is measured in the duct by means of aerofoil
.This flow has pressure and temperature compensation. The flow is liberalized by means of
square root extractors. This signal is compared with the developed set point. The air flow
demand from combustion control and actual fuel flow whichever is high (lead-lag system) is
selected to ensure enrich combustion air. The oxygen in the flue gas at the inlet of Air heater
is measured as primary or redundant. Transfer switch can be selected for either average value
or individual value. This signal is compared with excess air set point and any error will have
proportional and integral action to have better combustion efficiency. High/low limiters are
used to limit the value in case the oxygen analyser is out of service. Under any circumstance
the air flow should not be less than 30 % MCR flow. This signal is the developed set point for
the air flow control. Any difference between the developed set point and the air flow signal will
have proportional and integral action in the air flow controller. This position demand signal
will be selected to the corresponding FD fan in service through auto/manual stations.
4. Fuel Flow Control:
Fuel- Unit has been designed for firing LDO, COG, BFG or either independently or in
combination. All the time LDO is used as start up fuel, LDO/COG can be used as a supporting
fuels for any combination firing for the following reasons:
Page 35 of 250
As a safe start up fuel and for controlled heat input during light off.
a. Light Diesel Oil (LDO):It is used for cold start up and warm up fuel. It is fired in both
the elevations.
b. Coke Oven Gas (COG):it is supplied to the boiler from coke oven batteries. It is used
warming up and for load carrying. This gas gives a stable flame with out any need of oil
flame support. There are two independent coke oven gas spuds arranged in two elevations
.When this gas is to be fired ,first oil guns have to be taken into operation and then COG
can be admitted and see that flame stabilization and oil guns can be withdrawn.
c. Blast Furnace Gas (BFG) or Blast Furnace Gas + Converter Gas(BFG+CG): Bf
gas or mixer of BFG+CG supplied to the boiler from their respective batteries shall be
available at the specified pressure .The calorific value of the gas is low and hence needs
ignition source support at low loads when burnt separately. For reliable flame scanning an
auxiliary firing of LDO/COG is restored whenever there is a need for BFG firing.
Note:
Oil and COG should not be fired in the same burner. Fire them at different elevations for
better control of air flow and flame.
When combination firing, the total heat input through all fuels should not exceed MCR
generation.
When firing BFG with oil support the oil firing should be only at minimum MCR.
Fuel flow demand from combustion control and air flow signal from air flow control connected
for fuel air ratio are compared and the lower is selected for the set point of the fuel flow
controller(lead-lag system).This is to ensure that under any circumstances the fuel flow should
be lesser than the air flow.
Fuel flow is measured by adding the light diesel oil flow corrected for calorific value and the
flow of fuel gasses, BFG+CG and COG corrected for the respective calorific values. This total
fuel flow signal is hooked up to the control after a delay to suit the process lag.
The actual fuel flow signal is compared with the developed set point signal above and any
deviation will have proportional and integral action. The controllers output signal is the
position demand signal for gas and LDO control valves. This demand is splitted in to
individual demands for each control valve. Bias unit is provided to modify the signal when
ever required. An auto / manual station is provided for each control valve.
5. Master pressure Control: The objective of this control is to maintain the common steam
header pressure or boiler outlet pressure constant at the desired value by adjusting the firing
rate (both fuel flow and air flow).The selected pressure signal is compared with the set point
Page 36 of 250
and any error will have proportional and integral action. A proportional value of total steam
flow and derivative of drum pressure signal are taken as feed forward feature for the control.
An auto/manual station is provided. The output of Auto/manual station is the air flow demand
and fuel flow demand signal.
6. SH steam temperature control: This control system is required to maintain the main
steam temperature at the final super heater outlet at a stipulated value. To achieve this it is
having a cascade controller with outer loop and inner loop. In the inner loop the steam
temperature at SH outlet is measured and compared with set point. The error is fed to the
proportional, integral and differential controller. The controllers output is going as a set point
to the outer loop. Again the error is fed to the outer controller. The desired controller signal is
multiplied by the steam flow derivative feed forward signal. The signal is fed to the feed
control valve through the auto/manual station.
7. LDO pressure control: This control is envisaged to control the loop pressure at the outlet
of the LDO pumps. The LDO outlet pressure is measured, compared with the set point and the
regulating error is fed to the proportional and integral controller. The output signal from the
controller positions the LDO pressure for the control valve. An auto/manual station is
provided for this control valve.
Soot Blower: Two types of soot blowers namely Long Retractable & Rotary blowers are
envisaged for cleaning of fire side deposits from super heaters, boiler bank and economizer
region during operation of the boiler. Steam is used as blowing medium.
Tubular Air Preheater
Tubular air preheater is installed to preheat the combustion air with leftover heat from flue
gases.
Forced Draft Fan
Forced Draft (FD fan) fan supplies air for combustion in side the furnace.
Induced Draft Fan
ID Fan takes away the flue gas from the furnace and releases to the atmosphere through
chimney. The ID fans of boiler 1 &2 have two speeds. ID fan of boiler-3 is having hydraulic
coupling for speed control.
STEAM TURBO GENERATOR
Introduction
A steam turbine is a mechanical device that converts thermal energy of pressurized steam into
useful mechanical work. The original steam engine which largely powered the industrial
revolution in the UK was based on reciprocating pistons. This has now been almost totally
replaced by the steam turbine because the steam turbine has a higher thermodynamic
efficiency and a lower power-to-weight ratio and the steam turbine is ideal for the very large
Page 37 of 250
power configurations used in power stations. The steam turbine derives much of its better
thermodynamic efficiency because of the use of multiple stages in the expansion of the steam.
This
results
in
a
closer
approach
to
the
ideal
reversible
process.
Steam turbines are made in a variety of sizes ranging from small 0.75 kW units used as
mechanical drives for pumps, compressors and other shaft driven equipment, to 1,500,000kW
turbines used to generate electricity. Steam turbines are widely used for marine applications
for vessel propulsion systems. In recent times gas turbines, as developed for aerospace
applications, are being used more and more in the field of power generation once dominated by
steam turbines.
Steam Turbine Principle
The steam energy is converted mechanical work by expansion through the turbine. Th
expansion takes place through a series of fixed blades (nozzles) and moving blades each row of
fixed blades and moving blades is called a stage. The moving blades rotate on the central
turbine rotor and the fixed blades are concentrically arranged within the circular turbine
casing which is substantially designed to withstand the steam pressure.
On large output turbines the duty too large for one turbine and a number of turbine
casing/rotor units are combined to achieve the duty. These are generally arranged on a
common centre line (tandem mounted) but parallel systems can be used called cross compound
systems.
There are two principles used for design of turbine blades the impulse blading and the
reaction blading.
Impulse Blading
The impulse blading principle is that the steam is directed at the blades and the impact of the
steam on the blades drives them round. The day to day examples of this principle is pelton
Page 38 of 250
wheel. In this type of turbine the whole of the stage pressure drop takes place in the fixed
blade (nozzle) and the steam jet acts on the moving blade by impinging on the blades.
z represents the blade speed , V r represents the relative velocity, V wa & V wb- represents the
tangential component of the absolute steam in and steam out velocities
The power developed per stage = Tangential force on blade x blade speed.
Power /stage= (V w a - V wb).z/1000 kW per kg/s of steam
Reaction Blading
The reaction blading principle depends on the blade diverting the steam flow and gaining
kinetic energy by the reaction. The Catherine wheel (firework) is an example of this
principle. For this turbine principle the steam pressure drop is divided between the fixed and
moving blades.
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z represents the blade speed , V r represents the relative velocity, V wa & V wb- represents the
tangential component of the absolute steam in and steam out velocities
The power developed per stage = Tangential force on blade x blade speed.
Power /stage= (V w a - V wb).z/1000 kW per kg/s of steam
The blade speed z is limited by the mechanical design and material constraints of the blades.
Rankine Cycle
The Rankine cycle is a steam cycle for a steam plant operating under the best theoretical
conditions for most efficient operation. This is an ideal imaginary cycle against which all
other real steam working cycles can be compared.
The theoretic cycle can be considered with reference to the figure below. There will no losses
of energy by radiation, leakage of steam, or frictional losses in the mechanical componets. The
condenser cooling will condense the steam to water with only sensible heat (saturated water).
The feed pump will add no energy to the water. The chimney gases would be at the same
pressure as the atmosphere.
Within the turbine the work done would be equal to the energy entering the turbine as steam
(h1) minus the energy leaving the turbine as steam after perfect expansion (h2) this being
isentropic (reversible adiabatic) i.e. (h1- h2). The energy supplied by the steam by heat
transfer from the combustion and flue gases in the furnace to the water and steam in the
boiler will be the difference in the enthalpy of the steam leaving the boiler and the water
entering the boiler = (h1 - h3).
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The ratio output work / Input by heat transfer is the thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle
and is expressed as
Although the theoretical best efficiency for any cycle is the Carnot Cycle the Rankine cycle
provides a more practical ideal cycle for the comparison of steam power cycles ( and similar
cycles ). The efficiencies of working steam plant are determined by use of the Rankine cycle
by use of the relative efficiency or efficiency ratio as below:
The various energy streams flowing in a simple steam turbine system as indicated in the
diagram below. It is clear that the working fluid is in a closed circuit apart from the free
surface of the hot well. Every time the working fluid flows at a uniform rate around the
circuit it experiences a series of processes making up a thermodynamic cycle.
The complete plant is enclosed in an outer boundary and the working fluid crosses inner
boundaries (control surfaces).. The inner boundary defines a flow process.
The various identifiers represent the various energy flows per unit mass flowing along the
steady-flow streams and crossing the boundaries. This allows energy equations to be
developed for the individual units and the whole plant.
When the turbine system is operating under steady state conditions the law of conservation of
energy dictates that the energy per unit mass of working agent ** entering any system
boundary must be equal to the rate of energy leaving the system boundary.
**It is acceptable to consider rates per unit mass or unit time whichever is most convenient
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F + A = G + h 1 - h d + hl b
Turbine
The energy streams entering and leaving the boiler unit are as follows:
h 1 = T + h 2 + hl t hence 0 = T - h 1 + h 2 + hl t
Condenser Unit
The energy streams entering and leaving the boiler unit are as follows:
W i + h 2 = W o + h w + hl c hence
W i = W o + h w - h 2 + hl c
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That is ..per unit mass the of working agent (water) the energy of the fuel (F) is equal to the
sum of
the mechanical energy available from the turbine less that used to drive the pumps (T (d e+ d f)
the energy leaving the exhaust [G - A] using the air temperature as the datum.
The overall thermal efficiency of a steam turbine plant can be represented by the ratio of the
net mechanical energy available to the energy within the fuel supplied as indicated in the
expressions below...
This cycle shows the stages of operation in a turbine plant. The enthalpy reduction in the
turbine is represented by A -> B . The reversible process for an ideal isentropic (reversible
adiabetic) is represented by A->B'. This enthalpy loss would be (h g1 - h 2 ) in the reversible
case this would be (h g1 - h 2s ).
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The heat loss by heat transfer in the condenser is shown as B->C and results in a loss of
enthalpy of (h 2- h f2) or in the idealised reversible process it is shown by B'-> C with a loss of
enthalpy of (h 2s- h f2).
The work done on the water in extracting it from the condenser and feeding it to the boiler
during adiabetic compression C-> D is (h d - h f2 ) = length M
The energy added to the working agent by heat transfer across the heat transfer surfaces in
the boiler is (h g1 - h d ) which is approx.( h g1 - h f2 )
The Rankine efficiency of the Rankine Cycle AB'CDEA is
Specification
Make
Machine no
Inlet pressure (at
ESV)
Exhaust pressure
Trip speed
2nd critical speed
BHEL,HYDERABAD
T-0468 & T-0469
0.12 kg/cm2 (abs)
7700 rpm
4505 rpm
Velocity coefficient
0.95
60 kg/cm2(abs)
No
load
steam
4.5 t/hr
quantity
Output (MCR)
19.95 MW
Number
of
02
extractions
Specification
Description
Type
C56/65-21
Service
Generator drive
Inlet temperature (at
480 *C
ESV)
Speed
7000 rpm
st
1 critical speed
1214 rpm
Number of stages
1+20+3
31.8X7.0 =222.6
Area of nozzle
m2
Wheel chamber press.
45 kg/cm2 (abs)
Output (MER)
19.25 MW
3000 rpm
Main oil pump-driven by AC motor that supplies oil to the governing system & the bearing.
Auxiliary oil pump-driven by AC motor supplies oil to the governing system & the bearings
when ever main oil pump is not working.
Emergency oil pump-DC driven supplies oil to the bearings after turbine trip during
coasting down & cooling period of the turbine, when all sources of oil fail.
Oil coolers -in which the heat absorbed in turbine oil system is dissipated to cooling water.
(Design code: ASME SEC.VIII DIV-1,1995 ADD.96,TEMA C 1988. Make: BHEL,
HYDERABAD).
Oil vapour extraction fan-to remove oil vapors from oil tank.
Over head oil tank-to cater required oil quantity to the bearings during coasting down time
in case all the pumps fail to supply the oil.(a permission to turbine start up interlock is
provided through level switch mounted on the O/H lube oil tank.)
Jacking oil pump-AC driven supplies oil at high pressure into the bottom shell of the journal
bearings to prevent metal to metal contact between journal & bearing shell of the journal
bearing.
Surface Condenser
Steam entering in to the turbine is condensed to water inside condenser. Vacuum is
maintained inside condenser. After being condensed condensate is stored in condenser
hotwell.
Condensate Extraction Pump
CEP removes condensate from condenser hotwell to condensate storage tank for reuse.
Steam Jet Air Ejector:
Ejector is used to create vacuum inside condenser.
Gland Steam Condenser:
It is a condenser in which condensate absorbs heat of collected gland steam before going to
feed water tank. This is done to increase the overall efficiency of the plant.
Generator
The generator is 19.25 MW synchronous generator.. Generation voltage is 11 KV. Speed3000rpm.It has brushless excitation system.
Generator Protection: Generator has the following protections.
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Differential protection
Definite time over current protection
Voltage controlled over current protection
Over voltage protection
Generator under voltage protection
Loss of excitation protection under reactance function
Reverse power protection
Low forward power protection
Under frequency protection
Negative phase sequence protection - Definite time NPS
(alarm)
Negative phase sequence protection Inverse time NPS (trip)
Generator transformer over flux protection
Under Impedance protection: REG-backup impedance
protection)
Pole slip protection :REG
100 % stator earth fault relay (RAGEK)
Rotor earth protection (RXNB4)
Generator transformer restricted earth fault protection
Generator transformer stand by earth fault protection
Over all differential protection
Synchronisation :
After turbine reaches full speed, excitation is made on . Generation voltage is raised to 11 KV.
This voltage is stepped up to 33 KV through 31.5 MVA generator transformer.After matching
voltage, frequency and phase generator breaker is switched on. Switching on of generator
breaker connects the generator with grid. This is called synchronization of the generator.
Machine is loaded depending upon the availability of steam.
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Page 48 of 250
Auto mode: In this mode compressor shall be started by AUTO START PRESSURE SWITCH
PS5A if air pressure in the receiver drops bellow the set pressure of this pressure switch. Once
the compressor is started it will run in continuous run auto load/unload regulation by pressure
switches PS6A/B/C solenoid valves SOL1A/B/C & SOL2A/B/C with 2-step capacity control.
The compressor can be stopped either by the push buttons provided on the control panels or
automatically by timer AT3/BT3/CT3 when it runs in unload condition for set time of this
timer.
Starting Sequence: Once the start command is given it will energies contactor A/B/CR10
and this will give open command to the motor of motorized gate valve in the water line to
compressor to open & once water flow is established in the water line it will be sensed by flow
switch in the water circuit. This will give start command to compressor motor starter & the
compressor is started. Once water line valve is fully opened valve motor will be stopped
automatically.
Continuous run auto load/unload regulation with 3-step capacity control: This
regulation will work only in manual mode. In this 3-step control system it will be running
always in either of three conditions; 0% loaded (i.e. unload), 50% loaded, or 100% loaded by
the pressure switches depending on the receiver pressure. In the reverse compressor will start
unloading to 50% first from fully load condition & then to 0% depending upon the receiver
pressure & the process continues.
Continuous run auto load/unload regulation with 2-step capacity control: This
regulation work only in auto mode .The compressor will always be running either of two
conditions 0% loaded (i.e. unload) or 100% loaded by the pressure switches depending upon air
receiver pressure. The provision is made in this control circuit to delay energization of solenoid
valves at the time of starting the compressor by timer A/B/C T1, so as to allow the starting of
compressor in unloaded condition.
Make:
Type
Steam
inlet condition
Steam consumption
Specific steam consumption
Vacuum
Speed range
Power
Governor
Air Blower
Axial Blower
Air inlet
Flow
Suction volume
Delivery pressure
Delivery temp
Speed
Output at coupling
Type AV - 63 15
70% RH, 40 degC
1,95,000 Nm3/ hr
2,35,692 m3/hr
3.95 ata
209 degc
5000 rpm
12,969 kw
Auxillaries
1. Lube oil system:
2. Condensate system:
Condenser type surface condenser, two pass
CEP (two nos) capacity 88.9 m3/hr, motor capacity 37 kw
Ejector type Steam jet air ejector
3. Gland steam system:
GSEF (two nos) capacity 150 m3/hr , motor capacity 2.2 kw
Gland steam condenser
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Motor
Make:
SAVIGLIANO
Output (MCR):
11.8 MW
Speed:
1500 rpm
Rated current
820
Rated voltage
10 kV + 5%
Excitation voltage
100 V
Excitation current
450 A
Frequency
50 Hz
Weight
38,000 kg
33 kV switchgear
16 MVA transformer
10 kV switchgear
AVR system
Air Blower
Make:
GHH BORSIG
Suction volume:
195000 m3/hr
Delivery pressure:
3.55 bara
Delivery temp:
1950c
Speed
4125 rpm
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Auxillaries
1. Lube oil system:
2.
3. Other equipments include
Ensure that all the auxiliary supplies (A.C & D.C) for Excitation Panel, Control Desk,
Relay Panel, MCC Feeders for AOP-1 , AOP-2, Discharge Valve, Delivery Valve and
Blow off bypass valve are ON. Incoming supply for Excitation Transformer is ON from
415 V ACDB.
2.
3.
Check operation of Auxiliary Oil Pump-1, AOP-2 both from Local control Station and
Control Desk. Put the selector switch to REMOTE at local control station. Manually
start both the AOPs from Control Desk.
4.
Ensure that the three breakers ( Incoming Breaker, Bypass Breaker & short link
Breaker) in 10 KV switchgear
5.
6.
Ensure that the main oil tank level is > 35 cm and Emergency oil tank level is > 60 cm.
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7.
Ensure that the ETB Discharge and Delivery Valve are in fully closed condition. Blow
Off valve is in Open condition, Bypass valve of Anti surge is in closed condition and
Inlet suction Damper is at minimum. ( approx.10% open) .
8.
Ensure that the Motor Auto/Manual switch is at Manual and Release Emergency Stop
Push Button.
9.
Reset all the alarm and trip annunciation at control desk. All the annunciation should
get reset now.
10.
Check if Blower Motor Ready to start indication lamp is glowing in the Control Desk.
This checks for :-
11.
Check that Motor voltage voltmeter on the desk is showing 10 KV, If it is less, then
change the tap by OLTC of 16 MVA Transformer to get 10 KV. Now the Motor is ready
to start. Put the Motor Auto/Manual Switch to Auto. Press Blower Motor Start Push
Button. The Motor will start rotating.
12.
After nearly 45 seconds Field Breaker will be closed in Excitation panel and Motor will
be synchronized.
13.
After the Motor is Synchronized Switch OFF AOP 1 & 2. Put selection switches of AOPs
to Auto mode.
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14.
After the Blower Motor Loadable indication comes in Control Desk, open inlet suction
damper to Maximum position.
15.
During this condition air will be vented through Blow Off line .
16.
After getting clearance from Blast Furnace l for their readiness to accept Cold Blast at
their end, open the Delivery valve.
17.
Flow can be changed by changing the % opening of Inlet Guide Vane & pressure can be changed by
opening or closing of blow off valves/ antis urge valve.
Turbine shaft speed: 5100 rpm, Generator shaft speed: 3000 rpm, Base Load
:23590 KW
Air: 300C, Altitude: 60m above MSL, Compressor stages: 17, Power turbine
stages: 2
Both axial flow Compressor and Gas turbine mounted on single shaft.
Inlet end of rotor shaft: - coupled to accessories like, hydraulic pump, and lube pump
through gear and pinion assembly.
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GT unit is enclosed in compartments, which are which are built all weather
condition, They are provided with thermal and acoustical insulation.
Page 55 of 250
Air inlet
Compressor
Variable Inlet Guide Vane (IGV) System
Gas Turbine Hydraulic Oil System
Ratcheting System
Combustion system
Fuel Gas System
Liquid fuel system
Cooling water system
N2 purging system
Exhaust temperature control system
Air Inlet
The first part of the air inlet system is the Air Filter House, which consists of a no of
cylindrical filter elements. They are arranged in two levels-one set above another.
The filtered air after Filter House goes to the duct which has first a expansion joint, then
acoustical silencers, then a trash screen and then to the inlet of compressor. The inlet of
compressor is sometimes called Inlet Plenum.
GT Compressor
GT Compressor is an axial flow rotating device with 17 rows (stages) of stationary and moving
blades for compressing air.
Compressor serves five functions:
It supplies compressed air for combustion
It supplies air for atomization (through atomizing compressor)
It supplies air to various air actuated instruments
It supplies cooling air for turbine blades (wheelspace)
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For surge protection Bleed Extraction has been provided from compressor 10th stage. There
are 4 bleed points discharged through two bleed valves.
Same 10th stage extraction air has been used for turbine blades (wheelspace) cooling. Air is
introduced into the top & bottom of the turbine casing and is routed to 2nd stage nozzle hollow
partition, then to hollow diaphragm segments and then to downstream face of 1st stage wheel
and then it diverts through deflector and moves through Interstage seals to the 2nd stage
upstream wheelspace.
Turbine shell cooling has been given from 4th stage extraction. After shell cooling air is
discharged at the downstream face 2nd stage turbine wheel for cooling that face _ First stage
nozzles are cooled by compressor discharge air bled from combustion chamber transition
space.
Bearing Sealing Air is also given from 10th stage extraction.
For airflow control one variable Inlet Guide Vane has been provided at the compressor Inlet.
After a scheduled running of Compressor, it is washed with detergent and DM water to revive
its performance which gets reduced by dust accumulation on compressor blades. This washing
with detergent is done after taking shutdown of compressor and is called Off-line Washing.
There is also provision for Online Washing which is done with DM water only. It is imperative
that online is not as effective as Off-line washing
Air from discharge of compressor initially flows into the annular spaces between outer
combustion casing and combustion liners (this flow is reverse) and then enters the inside of
combustion liners and then mixes with fuel in the combustion zone.
Variable Inlet Guide Vane (IGV) System
It serves mainly two functions:
1. Controls compressor surge during startup/shutdown
2. Controls Exhaust temperature during normal running hours
For IGV a minimum angle is defined corresponding to FSNL which allows minimum safe flow.
During a normal startup IGV is held at full closed position. Then a proper speed (actually
temp corrected speed, discussed later) which is approximately 40%, IGV starts opening from
full closed position to minimum angle corresponding to FSNL. When compressor/turbine speed
reaches operating speed bleed valve closes. As GT load increases exhaust temperature
increases and when exhaust temperature reaches the set point IGV will begin to open further
to hold the exhaust temperature at set point. Please note that in the control schematics there
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will be IGV temp control ON/OFF button and it should be ON for IGV to control the exhaust
temp. During such control when IGV goes to full open, it is fuel control who takes over to hold
the exhaust temp set point. During trip or normal shutdown at 95% speed bleed valves will
open And as speed drops further IGV ramps down to the full closed position following the
reverse path IGV is hydraulically actuated and should be on AUTO during normal operation.
Manual control of IGV is also possible between FSNL minimum angle to full open position,
however, this manual control is used for calibration of IGV during shutdown condition. Even if
somebody puts IGV on manual during normal operation, IGV could not be lowered to a value
than that is demanded by AUTO control. IGV hydraulic actuating system is equipped with
fault detection system and in case of discrepancy between demand and actual position, GT will
trip. As told, IGV modulates between full closed to minimum angle corresponding to FSNL.
This variation is not based on only speed rather speed corrected by compressor inlet temp (as
air quantity depends on temp). This takes care to avoid negative pressure at 5th stage
extraction point (air used for bearing seals)
Gas Turbine Hydraulic Oil System
For lube oil there are two pumps-AOP (motor driven), MOP (Accessory Gear driven). EOP is
for supplying lube oil only in case of failure of above two pumps_ Oil taken from AOP & MOP
discharge header through 5 mic filter is used as Trip Oil. The hydraulic oil used for control
purpose is supplied by Hydraulic pump (pr around 80-85 bar). There are two hydraulic pumpsone Auxiliary & other Main driven by accessory gear. Oil is taken from lube oil header. The
oil for ratchet pump & starting clutch engagement is also taken from lube oil header, the
discharge pr of ratchet pump is approx 9.5 bar. Aux Hyd oil pump runs till 14 HS speed
(about 97%) is reached, thereafter main hydraulic pump takes over. In case of low hyd oil pr,
Aux hyd pump starts. After pr becomes normal it has to be stopped manually. Oil throttle in
the Oil vapor extraction fan to be operated to maintain 0 to -50 mmwc in turbine base oil
chamber
Trip Oil:
Primary protection interface between the turbine control & protection system. In our dual fuel
machine, trip oil is selectively drained to shut-off fuel system not required. Overspeed bolt
operates a device, which drains trip oil to close both fuel systems. Manual trip also operates
the same device to drain trip oil. Overspeed device once operated to be reset manually by
pulling the reset rod. The dump valve in the trip oil system is solenoid operated springreturned spool valve energize to build trip oil pr. An orifice located in the line from lube oil
header to trip oil system. Orifice is so sized it allows sufficient oil flow to the trip oil system,
yet prevents starvation of lube oil header during a machine trip. Note: trip solenoid drains trip
oil which operates the dump valve to drain the hydraulic oil from respective hydraulically
actuated devices
Ratcheting:
Purpose1: to turn turbine rotor during cooldown to prevent rotor bowing.
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Purpose2: to breakaway turbine from standstill during startup. During startup ratchet
operates continuously rotating turbine at approximately at 1 rpm. After turbines breaks away
ratchet pump is switched off. Ratchet Pump is a DC motor driven positive displacement pump.
Jog Motor (43HR), located in the gauge cabinet may be used to ratchet the turbine from local
for inspection purpose. Ratchet pump takes oil from lube oil system through a 40mic filter
Ratchet Sequence: energisation of Clutch Solenoid and engagement of oneway (springreturned) clutch->Forward stroke rotating the shaft by 45 deg- >Reverse stroke for next cycle>deenergisation of clutch solenoid
Combustor: 10 number of combustor concentrically oriented along the periphery of the gas
turbine gas inlet side. Heat is added here to the compressed gas by means burning fuel i.e.
LDO/ Compressed COG.
Fuel Gas System:
For our GT Fuel Gas(COG) path will be as follows:
Raw COG Gas Cleaning Plant COG Compressor COG Cooler Gas Filtration Skid
Flow Orifice with isolation valves & bypass Pneumatic Shut-Off Valve LP N2 Purge
Connection Vent Connection Solenoid Operated Isolation Valve Strainer Fuel Gas
Stop Valve (Hydraulically operated) Vent Connection for purging with Pneumatic Valve
Stop/Speed ratio valve Another Vent Connection for purging with Pneumatic Valve
Connection from HP N2 system for purge Fuel Gas Control Valve Fuel Gas Manifold
Fuel Gas Nozzle Combustion Chamber.
In addition to the above:
Three Interstage Pr Transmitters between Stop/speed ratio valve & Control Valve
drawing. There are 3 pr gauges-one upstream of stop/ratio valve, one downstream of it and
third after gas control valve
Dual Fuel operation:
In normal operation desired fuel is selected at startup (our case: LDO). For mix operation
minimum load should be 40%. Changeover to COG fuel is done by selecting COG fuel selector
membrane switch and the EXECUTE membrane switch. Changeover to COG starts after
necessary auto purging of COG line through Mark V control. Gradually more COG will be
taken and LDO will be reduced keeping FSR constant. Mix operation can be done by selecting
MIXTURE membrane switch when desired proportion has been obtained. During
changeover from COG to LDO, first oil lines are purged with air, then filled with oil then
changeover begins. The mix fuel operation is prohibited with one fuel system operating at a
very low proportion. At any Mix operation minimum COG should be 30% and minimum LDO
should be 10%. When operating on Gas, in case of low COG pressure (actuated by a pressure
switch), an automatic transfer to LDO starts. In case COG pressure becomes normal
afterwards, changeover to COG has to be done manually by selecting DISTILLATE(LDO)
first and then GAS fuel selector switch. During COG operation some atomizing air is
diverted to purge LDO nozzles to avoid chocking. For transferring from one fuel to other there
is 30 sec delay before transfer begins. For COG to LDO transfer delay allows for purging of
liquid fuel lines. For LDO to COG transfer the delay allows stop/ratio valve to adjust COG
pressure.
Liquid Fuel Oil System
For our GT LDO will be the main liquid fuel. As can be seen in the picture, LDO path from
LDO tank is LDO Strainer LDO forwarding pump LDO heater Accumulator Pr
Control valve Primary (LP) Fuel Oil Filter (with reusable filter elements) Primary (LP)
Fuel Oil Filter(with disposable filter elements) Mass flow meter Strainer Fuel Oil
Stop Valve (Trip Valve) Fuel Injection Pump Fuel Pump Bypass Assembly Fuel Pump
Pr Relief Valve Secondary (HP) Fuel Oil Filter Flow Divider Selector Valve/Pr Gauge
Assembly Fuel line Check Valve Fuel Nozzle Combustion Chamber.
In addition to the above there is one False Start Drain Valve from the combustion chamber,
which can be treated as part of liquid fuel system.
The fuel flow control in GT is through Bypass Valve Assembly-means when more fuel is
required bypass valve is closed and when fuel flow is to be reduced bypass valve is opened.
This bypass valve is hydraulically operated and will be directly under control of Starting
system during startup and Governor system during normal running. Bypass valve bypasses
the fuel back to Fuel injection
pump inlet.
Flow Divider is a single shaft driven gear pumps (10 pumps in series) to distribute LDO
equally to 10 combustion chambers as all gears run in samespeed. Its rotation is sustained by
LDO flow itself. Interesting to note that in GTLDO fuel flow will be measured indirectly by
measuring the speed of flow divider.
Selector Valve/Pr Gauge Assembly is provided to monitor locally the LDOpressures to
each fuel nozzle inlet
Fuel Line Check Valve does two things
a) when Fuel Injection Pump is running,Stop valve is open or passing and bypass valve is full
open it restricts fuel toenter combustion chamber. In other words only when bypass valve
starts closingand builds sufficient LDO pressure then only fuel can enter combustion chamber.
b) The second function of check valve is it restricts the back flow of hot gaseswhen LDO is not
being used and GT is running on COG.
FSR (Fuel stroke reference) is GE terminology for the electrical signal thatdetermines the
amount of fuel to be injected.
False Start Drain Valve is spring loaded valve is normally open. During an unsuccessful
start (failure to ignite) it drains fuel oil from combustion chamber. On successful start during
acceleration it is closed by increased compressor discharge pressure. Here one thing to be
noted that closing of valve is mechanically interlinked not through software logic. There are
many more such example in GT.
Gas Turbine Cooling Water System
There are five systems in GT which needs Cooling water
Last one is cooled by CCW water. CCW water is closed cooling water system with DM water,
driven by pump (1w+1s). This water in turn is cooled by ACW water itself.
Page 61 of 250
The atomizing air temp and lube oil temp control valve operates sensing temperature directly
from lube oil header and atomizing cooler outlet air temp respectively. There is no
software/control loop for actuation of the control action of the valve. Basically when temp
starts increasing the vapor in the sensing tubes expands which at the control valve end exerts
pressure on diaphragm and valve is operated to allow more cooling water flow through coolers
Nitrogen Purging System
For GT the N2 requirement is solely for safety aspect during firing with COG.
Fire protection System when actuated will
Release CO2
Set an audible alarm
Trip Turbine
Close the Ventilation opening in all compartments
Actuate the damper in the turbine shell cooling discharge
Page 62 of 250
CO Gas Compressor
The Coke Oven Gas has to be fed to the GT at a higher pressure as per the design criteria of
GT so that proper distribution or atomization and mixing of fuel can be achieved. At the inlet
of the combustor due to pressure of COG and shape of the distributor a swirling motion
imparted to the COG, which helps in proper combustion.For this purpose a CO Gas
Compressor is also employed in our system.It is a five stage compressor driven by a 3.75 MW
induction motor.
Function of the unit
It is one of the major equipment in the coke oven gas path to GT. CO Gas coming out from the
Low Pressure Scrubber enters Ist stage compression through Dry Catch Pot.
The CO gas coming out of the 4th stage and again enters again inside the high Pressure
Scrubber where, max amount of Naphthalene is removed. Then it enters the 5 th stage of COG
Compressor.
The coke oven gas booster compressor consists of 3 machines, comprising of five compression
phases. The final discharge pressure of 19.3 ata is obtained by passing the gas through these
phases. The 1st and 2nd phases are accommodated in one casing(2BCL508 LP),THE 3rd and
4th phases are arranged in the second machine(2BCL508 IP),while the 5th phase is housed in
the third machine(BCL509 HP).Four gas coolers together with moist separator are employed
to cool the gas between these phases.1st & 2nd phase consists of 4 stage( impeller & diffuser
assembly) each. Like wise 3rd & 4th phase also consists of 4 stage each and 5th phase consists
of 9 stages. So it is a total 25-stage machine.
The train is driven by an induction motor through a speed increasing gear box and dry flexible
type couplings. The compressor runs at speed of 9400 rpm with a suction pressure of 1.033 ata
giving a final discharge pressure of 19.3 ata .
Lube Oil System
Each end of compressor section is fitted with gas seals. So there are 6 gas seals
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Each seal comprises 3 seal rings. Filtered N2 is injected between seal rings next to the
gas at 0.5 kg/cm2 higher than the gas upstream of seals. The vent from 2nd & 3rd seal
rings is routed to flare with an orifice to generate required back pr at the seal cavity.
The gas pr upstream of all gas seals are maintained at 1.05 ata for LP & IP and 1.2 ate
for HP compressor by connecting leakages from labyrinth seals to the 1st suction
There is CV in the main N2 supply line to maintain required N2 pr and there are six
individual valve to adjust required DP to each seals
Low Pressure Scrubber: The naphthalene from CO Gas is reduced by two stage solar oil
circulation.
Wet Electrostatic Precipitators: CO Gas coming out of LP scrubber passes through two
wet electrostatic precipitators. where tar & dust is reduced from the gas. After ESP, gas
streams goes to a tank called Dry catch put to separate any condensate present. From
dry catch pat gas goes to 1st stage suction of Compressor.
High Pressure scrubber: After 4th stage of compressor the gas is cooled and flows
through the High Pressure Scrubber where Naphthalene is reduced further due to high
pressure, and then the gas is sent to a Coalscer filter to remove residual solar oil, water
and tar droplets and then Gas goes for the last stage compression.
& dent removed. The gas enters the shell & flow downwards. At bottom gas enters vertical to
less where tar & dust is caught by electrostatic field. After two ESP, the two gas streams are
gathered towards the Dry catch put B1. From dry catch pat gas is piped to compressor 1st
stage suction. Tar & dust collected in tank T3 is filled up with condensates by pumps P5/B or
with solar oil by pump P3 is emptied by pump P4A/B to tank T2 A/B. periodically one of two
ESP is cleaned by recirculation with large flow of condensates or tank T3. During cleaning of
ESP. the cleaning ESP has to be isolated electrically & gas flow has to be stopped. Coke oven
gas coming from stage 4 cooler & separator is fed to the bottom of HP scrubber S2. There gas
flows through 6 bubbles caps tray. Fresh solar oil pumped by P1A/B to the top of the scrubber
washes gas in a counter current flow. Solar oil level of the scrubber is controlled control valve.
Gas coming out of HP scrubber passes through coalescent filter F2A/B or B small drops of
solar oil, water, tar, dust etc. collected by filter media & all there condensate transferred to S2
bottom by gravity. The treated gas then sent to last stage of compressor. Naphthalene content
in coke oven gas out let of HP scrubber is 09mg/nm3 solar oil collected at bottom of Hp
scrubber S2 sent to oil water separator tank (B3) under pressure where oil & water are
separated. The solar then sent to LP scrubber 2nd stage & water sent to through tank B2.
Inlet Gas Condition to LP Scrubber:
Attemperator.
Expansion joints.
Steel chimney.
HRSG use exhaust from GT as heat source, hence no need for firing.
Page 66 of 250
SINTER PLANT
Page 67 of 250
Introduction
A large quantity of fines is generated in the mines which cannot be charged directly into the
Blast furnace. Moreover many metallurgical wastes are generated in the steel industry itself,
disposal of which is very difficult. In order to consume this otherwise waste fine material, they
are mixed with Iron ore fines and agglomerated into lumps by a process known as
SINTERING. Sintering is the process for agglomeration of fine mineral particles into a Porous
and lumpy mass by incipient fusion caused by heat produced by combustion of solid fuel
within the mass itself.
Raw materials used in Sinter Plant
1.
2.
Limestone fines
3.
Dolomite fines
4.
5.
BF Sludge
6.
River Sand
7.
Flue Dust
8.
The scheme for preparation of charge first envisages blending of raw materials in raw
materials yard to obtain consistency in the chemical composition and size fraction of raw
materials. After this, raw materials are received in raw feed proportioning bins. Normally raw
materials proportioned are Iron ore fines, River Sand, Flue dust, Limestone fines, Dolomite
fines, Coke Breeze fines and Return sinter fines as Re-circulating load (BF return & in plant
sinter return). It can be seen that sinter plant can make adequate use of almost all the
valuable metallurgical wastes arising in an integrated steel plant, thus paving the way for
valuable conservation of minerals and techno-economic benefits.
Following approximate charge proportion has been done to make one ton of sinter
in 2010-11 (Wet basis) :1) Iron ore fines
820 kg
5) Coke fines
74 kg
2) Limestone fines
86 kg
6) BF Sludge
12 kg
3) Dolomite fines
83 kg
7) River Sand
06 kg
41 %
8) Flue Dust
04 kg
9) BF return +
In-plant sinter return)
Page 68 of 250
Sintering Process
SINTER MAKING
Sintering of fines by the under grate suction method consists of the mixing of fines with finely
crushed coke as fuel and loading the mixture on the pallet grates. Ignition of the fuel proceeds
on the surface of charge by a special ignition arrangement, called ignition furnace (where
gaseous fuel is burnt to produce high temperature to ignite the fuel in sinter mix). The gases
used in ignition furnace are mainly coke oven gas and mixed gas. Mixed gas is combination of
coke oven gas and blast furnace gas. Further the combustion is continued due to suction of air
through the layers of the charge by means of Exhauster.
Due to this, the process of combustion of fuel gradually moves downwards up to the grates.
From the scheme obtained in a few minutes after ignition, it is observed that the sintering
process can be divided into six distinct zones:
In all the zones except the zone of combustion, the reactions taking place are purely thermal
where as in the zone of combustion reactions are thermal and chemical. The maximum
temperature attained in the zone of combustion will be 1300-1350 degree Celsius. The vertical
speed of movement of the zones depends on the vertical speed of sintering.
Heat from the zone of ready sinter is intensively transmitted to the sucked air. In the zone of
combustion of fuel hot air and preheated charge comes into contact with each other which with
the burning fuel will result in the formation of high temperature. Maximum temperature will
be developed in this zone and all the physical-chemical process takes place resulting in the
formation of Sinter. In the zone of pre-heating the charge is intensively heated up due to
transfer of heat from the sucked product of combustion. In the zone of re-condensation of
moisture, the exhaust gases during cooling transfer excess moisture to the charge.
Temperature of this zone sharply decreases and will not increase till all the moisture is driven
off.
As the fuel in the zone of combustion is burnt away, Sinter, the height of which increases
towards the grates, is formed above this zone from the red hot semi-fluid mass, forcing out
subsequent zones. Disappearance of the zone of combustion means the end of sintering
process.
Page 70 of 250
The sinter cake is then broken, cooled, screened and dispatched to Blast furnace. The ideal
size of sinter required in blast furnace is in between 5mm to 50mm. The lower sizes are
screened & returned back to sinter return bunkers.
ZONE OF COLD
SINTER
10001350
DEG C
ZONE OF HOT
SINTER
7001000
DEG C
ZONE OF
CUMBUSTION
60-700
DEG C
ZONE OF
HEATING
30-60
DEG C
ZONE OF
PRE-HEATING
TEMP
RANGE
ZONE OF
RECONDENSATION
OF MOISTURE
Z
O
N
E
S
1001000
DEG C
60-100
DEG
C
C+O2
--CO2 + C
3Fe2O3+ CO ---Fe3O4 + CO ----
c. Quality of Coke
: -3mm fraction should be 90% minimum (Crushing index of coke)
: -0.5 mm fraction should be 30% Max
: +5mm fraction should be nil
: Increase in 5mm fraction decreases the productivity
2. Moisture:
Moisture in the form of water is added in the base mix in MND. Water acts as binder of base
mix. Addition of water in base mix plays an important role in sinter bed permeability. Ideally
6 to 7% of total base mix of water is used. Higher % of water results in low permeability & less
sintering speed. Less % of water results in less nodulising, hence less permeability, resulting
in low productivity.
3. Ignition furnace temperature:
Ignition of sinter mix is carried out through ignition hearth where a temperature of 1150 to
1350 degree Celsius is maintained by burning gaseous fuel by the help optimum air/gas
ratio.40% of CO gas & 60% of BF gas is used to maintain calorific value 2000kcal/m3. Higher
hearth temperature results in fusing of sinter at top layer. This reduces the bed permeability,
hence low productivity. Low heat temperature results in improper ignition, sintering process
will not be completed, hence 5mm fraction will increase and re-circulating load will increase.
4. Coke rate :
Coke acts as a solid fuel in base mix in the sintering process. It is normally 4% to 4.5% of total
charge. Higher coke rate will fuse the top layer, thereby decreases the bed permeability.
Sticker formation will increase. Low coke rate will result in incomplete sintering.
5. Machine speed:
Speed of sinter machine can be varied as per the condition of sintering process. BTP (Burn
Through Point) temperature decides the completion of sintering process. It should be observed
in second last wind box from discharge end side of sinter machine where the temperature
reaches 350 to 400 degree Celsius (approximately). Higher machine speed, lower BTP causes
more5mm generation, hence lower productivity. Lower m/c speed, higher BTP temperature
causes low productivity
Note: BTP: Exhaust gas temperature which indicates the completion of sintering process is
called BTP. It is approximately 350 to 400 degree centigrade.
Breaking, Cooling & Screening of sinter
The finished sinter cake is then broken to the size of 150 mm by using Hot Sinter Breaker.
Cooling of finished crushed sinter is then done on coolers by means of 3 nos. of air blowers, so
Page 72 of 250
that cooler discharge end temperature is less than 80 degree centigrade. For effective cooling,
bigger size of sinter should be on bottom portion & smaller size should be on top.
Finally various fractions of sinter are screened out.-5 mm fraction of sinter returns back to
bunkers. 15 to 25mm fraction is also screened out to be used as hearth layer. Rest sizes goes to
blast furnace, after screening +10mm fraction should be 65%minimum and 5mm fraction
should be 5% maximum as per requirement of blast furnace.
Chemical composition
Physical Properties
1.
T Fe %
58 + 0.5
Sinter size
5mm to 50mm
2.
FeO %
9.0 to 10.0
Mean size
18mm to 21mm
3.
MgO %
2.0 to 2.5
TI
70% MIN
4.
SiO2 %
4.75 to 5.25
AI
5% MAX
5.
Al2O3 / SiO2
< 0.6
+50 mm
10 % max.
6.
Basicity
1.35 to 1.45
- 5 mm
5 % max.
Page 73 of 250
MND
RMHS
Sintering
Exhauster
Breaking
3 nos. of Blowers
Cooling
Screening
Blast Furnace
Main Areas
Raw Feed Proportioning
Bldg.
MND
Sinter Machine Bldg
and Circular cooler
Equipments
Belt Weigh feeders
Conveyors
Bunkers
Drum
Sinter pallets
Ignition Furnace
Hot Sinter Breaker
Cooler
Functions
For adjusting feeding
Transport charge mix.
Store raw materials
To mix & Nodulise
Sintering takes place on
it
Ignites Base Mix
Breaks sinter cake
Cools sinter
Page 74 of 250
Screening Building
Exhauster & Gas
Cleaning Plant
Air Cleaning Plant
Screens
Conveyors
High capacity fan
ESP
ESP
Techno Economics
1.
Specific productivity
2.
3.
4.
5.
In order to produce sinter at less cost, specific productivity of sinter should be as high as
possible & all other four parameters should be as low as possible keeping quality parameters
under consideration.
Page 75 of 250
BLAST
FURNACE
Page 76 of 250
INTRODUCTION
BF is a counter current heat and mass exchanger, in which solid raw materials are charged
from the top of the furnace and hot blast, is sent through the bottom via tuyeres. The heat is
transferred from the gas to the burden and oxygen from the burden to the gas. Gas ascends up
the furnace while burden and coke descend down through the furnace. The counter current
nature of the reactions makes the overall process an extremely efficient one in reducing
atmosphere. The real growth of blast furnace technology came with the production of high
strength coke which enabled the construction of large size blast furnaces.
Raw materials and their quality
In India steel is being produced largely through the blast furnace/ B O F route. Iron ore, sinter
and coke are the major raw materials for blast furnace smelting.
RAW MATERIALS USED FOR BF
The following raw materials used for the production of pig iron: Iron ore: Iron bearing materials; provides iron to the hot metal. Iron ores is available in the
form of oxides, sulphides, and carbonate, the oxide form known as hematite (red in colour) is
mostly used in NINL plant. It is the principal mineral in blast furnace for extraction of pig
iron, generally rich in iron content varying from 62% to 66% associated often with naturally
occurring fines(-10MM) to the extent of 20%. Although relatively free from impurities like
phosphorous, sulphur and copper, they have high alumina content, high alumina/ silica ratio
of about 2 or more. The high alumina content makes the slag highly viscous and creates
problems for stable furnace operation.
Limestone: It acts as flux. Helps in reducing the melting point of gangue present in the iron
bearing material and combines effectively with acidic impurities to form slag in iron
making.
Quartzite: It acts as an additive .Quartzite is a mineral of SiO2 (silica) and under normal
circumstances contains about 96-97% of SiO2 rest being impurities. Quartzite plays its role in
counteracting the bad effects of high alumina in slag.
Manganese ore: It acts as additive for the supply of Mn in the hot metal. Mn ore is available
in the form of combined oxides of Mn and Fe and usual content of Mn is about 31-32% for steel
plant use.
Coke: It acts as a reductant and fuel, supports the burden and helps in maintaining
permeable bed. Coke (metallurgical) used in blast furnace both as fuel & reducing agent.
NINL purchase imported coal and converts into coke with ash 12.00% max and moisture 0.8 %
max in coke oven.
Page 77 of 250
Sinter: It is iron bearing material. Fines that are generated in the plant/mines are effectively
utilized by converting them to sinter. It provides the extra lime required for the iron ore and
coke ash that is charged in the blast furnace. Sintering is the process of agglomeration of fines
(steel plant waste and iron ore fines) by incipient fusion caused by heat available from the
coke contained in the charge. The lumpy porous mass thus obtained is known as sinter.
Coal dust Injection: It acts as an auxiliary fuel, reduces coke consumption in the BF.
Thecoal is injected through the tuyeres.
Coal tar Injection: It acts as an auxiliary fuel, reduces coke consumption in the BF. The tar
is injected through the tuyeres.
QUALITY OF RAW MATERIALS
Material
Iron Ore
(Lumps)
Sinter
Coke
Limestone
Dolomite
Mn ore
CDI coal
Chemical
Fe
Analysis
64.0 % +/- 0.5
SiO2
P
Al2O3
SiO2
Fe
FeO
SiO2
Al2O3
CaO
MgO
Ash
VM
Moisture
S
C
CaO
SiO2
MgO
CaO
MgO
SiO2
Mn
SiO2
Al2O3
P
0.7 to 1.5 %
0.10 % max.
0.9 to 1.5 %
58% +/- 0.5
10%
5%
3% max
6.5-7.5 %
2-2.5%
11-12 %
0.3-0.4 %
1 % max
0.5-0.6 %
>86 %
42% min.
5 +/- 1 %
8.5 0.5 %
30 %
20 %
4%
30 % min.
30 % max.
5 % max.
0.30 % max.
Ash
9 11 %
Specification
10-40 mm
25 -80 mm
RDI: 23 -25
RI:66 Min
Softening Melting range:
1330 1600 oc
CRI: 19-23 max.
CSR: 64 min.
M40: > 82 %
M10: 6% max
10-40 mm
10-40 mm
10-40 mm
80%
90microns
Page 78 of 250
Quartzite
VM
Moisture
FSI
Sio2
Al2O3
25-32%
1.80%
2-3 Max
96 % min.
1.5 % max.
10 -40 mm
Winch house:
For taking charged materials to the furnace top, two-way skip hoist with 2 skips are provided.
The winch house operates the skip that is driven by two motors. Flow of material to charging
skip is
Bunkers
vibro feeder
screens
weighing
hopper
skip car.
Raw materials including coke are transported and collected into stock house bunkers placed
near the furnaces and then properly screened and weighed. Weighing is done by load cell.
These batched proportions of the raw materials are conveyed to the top of the blast furnace via
skip car and are charged in the blast furnace. The distribution is maintained in such a fashion
that alternate layers of coke and iron containing burden (sinter and iron ore and fluxes) are
formed inside the blast furnace.
Page 79 of 250
BF Complex in a Nutshell
BF Proper
The entire furnace is lined with suitable refractory and in addition to refractory lining, there
are water coolers, designed to enhance the life of the furnaces. The raw material at the top
will be charged either through 'bell less system'. In the hearth, there is a tap hole of suitable
dimension and length for the purpose of tapping the hot metal.
Since blast furnace is basically a counter current apparatus the descending stream of raw
materials extract heat from the ascending stream of gas generated from the burning of coke at
the tuyere level. The ascending stream of gas contains CO (carbon monoxide) nitrogen and
hydrogen and in the events of its coming in contact with the iron ore, reduction (this reduction
Page 80 of 250
is called indirect reduction) of iron ore takes place at the upper part of the stack (temp. greater
than 9000c). Coke in the form of C also takes part in the reduction. The number of tap holes,
notches, their positioning and dimension will depend upon the capacity of the furnace. Many
modern furnaces are having 2-4 tap holes without slag notches. 2 tap holes 105O apart
without slag notches is there in NINL BF.
The furnaces are equipped with tuyeres (water cooled copper construction for admission of hot
blast of air) through which preheated air blast at a temperature of about 8500c - 11000c is
introduced for burning of coke. Before preheating, the blast of cold air supplied by power and
blowing station is introduced into hot blast stoves at up to 2.5 kg/cm2 (gauge pressure)
wherein the air is pre-heated. The air blast then passes from the bustle pipe through
gooseneck and then tuyere stocks/blow-pipes into tuyeres. The pressure of the blast and its
flow rate is dependent upon the capacity of the furnaces and raw material quality.
As the stream of the material descends down through different temperature zones
and get two products:
bf gas from top of the furnace. it generally comprises of 22-24% co; 17-19% co2, 54% of
n2, h2 4.4%, o2 0.1%. temp. of top gases are in the range of 100-300 oc
After cleaning, BF gas is used in blast furnace stove heating, coke oven heating, and as a
mixture with co gas it is used in refractory materials plant, sintering plant, steel making shop
and reheating furnace of rolling mills as a fuel.
Liquid iron collected in the hearth is taken out by opening the tap hole with power driven drill
and oxygen lancing after regular interval into a train of ladles kept below the runner of the
cast house. Slag that comes along with the metal is skimmed off with the help of skimmer
plate towards slag runner. Metal ladles are either sent to SMS or Pig Casting Machine
depending upon the requirement.
Page 81 of 250
Refractory:
Blast furnace is a vertical shaft furnace, enclosed in a welded shell, lined with fire-clay bricks
of high alumina content. The hearth bottom, hearth, bosh, belly and the shaft are cooled by
means of coolers of various designs. Steel refractory lined plates protect the walls of the
furnace top the bigger furnaces are lined with carbon blocks in the hearth and in the
periphery of the hearth bottom. High alumina or Si-Carbide refractory are used in bosh and
lower shaft.
Top charging equipment:
The burden material which reaches to the top of the furnace by skip car is to be distributed
into the furnace. For this paul-wurth bell less top (BLT) charging system is provided, in which
bells are replaced with upper material gate, upper sealing valve, lower material gate , lower
sealing valve and charging chute. This system also has a gearbox to operate a rotating chute.
It distributes the material inside the furnace peripherally in different rings or sector charging,
point charging etc. This facilitates better burden distribution inside the furnace. as per the
Charging Cyclogram or Pattern desired by the furnace operator for continuous efficient
operation of the furnace Double Bell BLT systems
Page 82 of 250
Charging sequence: To facilitate smooth working of furnaces, the coke and the non-coke
material is to be distributed in a particular fashion in the whole circumference of the blast
furnace. in accordance to the Charging Cyclogram/ Pattern as determined by the furnace
operator. For those different charging sequences is followed. A typical charging sequence is
given below:
Sequence 1: CO
Page 83 of 250
Raceway
Combustion of CDI/CTI
Falling/drop of Metal and Slag bring heat down into the Hearth.
Hearth
The liquid products hot metal and slag settle in the hearth. These two products are removed
periodically from the blast furnace. The process is called tapping the blast furnace.
The golden rule of blast furnace operation is that the furnace conditions should not be
disturbed. If for one reason or the other, the quality of charging materials fluctuates, the
furnace will be affected. The moisture of coke should be continuously measured and corrective
action taken. Once the tapping is opened and liquid level begins to fall, the blast pressures
drops correspondingly. During the tapping itself, burden descent is fast and irregular. The rise
and fall of blast pressure will cause raceway distortions. Similarly, the bosh gas distribution is
affected when the burden descent rate increased or decreased. As stock line is not maintained
many a time unprepared burden enters the melting zone and increases the thermal
requirements. The effect of all these is the disruption of the configuration of the cohesive zone,
increase in coke rate and decrease in productivity. Continuous monitoring of the top gas
analysis will give an indication about the furnace efficiency.
Common difficulties in operation:
Furnace performance is linked with the smooth operation of the furnace which gets disturbed
very often due to various kinds of fluctuations taking place in operating parameters.
Irregularities:
Channelling
Scaffolding
Hanging
Slipping
Choking of Hearth
Chilling of Hearth
Burning of Tuyeres
any point of time one or two stoves are kept on blast and two stoves are on gasand the cycle
is repeated continuously. Heated stove kept isolated, as ready for on blast cycle.
The hot blast reacts with coke and injectants, forming a cavity, called raceway in front of
the tuyeres. A snort valve is located on the cold blast main, regulates the volume of blast.
The steam is injected for the humidification of the blast before pre-heating in the stove.
Oxygen enrichment is also done whenever necessary through the blast itself. A mixer valve
regulates the hot blast temperature.
Drill machine : - Hydro-pneumatic drilling machines are used for opening the tapping
Page 86 of 250
Mud gun : - Hydraulic mudgun machines are used for closing the tapping with
anhydrous tap hole mass
cast house crane : - for material handling during cast house preparation
rocking runner : - to divert the metal into a different metal ladle
pusher car : - used for local placement of the metal ladle
SiO2
Al2O3
slag
32-33 %
19-22 %
CaO
31-33 %
bf gas
CO 22-24 %
CO2 17 -19
%
N2
55-57 %
MgO
9-11 %
H2
MnO
basicity:
CaO/SiO2
<1%
0.98-1.05
P
C
0.05 %
max.
0.20%
max
4-5%
2-4 %
Auxiliary Sections:
The auxiliary section of blast furnace consists of following sections:
1. Ladle repair shop
2. Pig casting machine
3. Cold pig yard
4. Slag dump post
Ladle repair shop: Ladle repair shops provided for relining, repairing and cleaning of the
iron ladles. Shop contains an e.o.t. cranes for speeding up the job. Here, refractory mass
required for blast furnace complex is made and stored e.g. tap hole frame mass and runner
mass for PCM.
Pig casting machine: These are double strand pig casting machines. Each machine contains
no. of moulds in one belt with lime coating arrangement underneath the machine. Moulds are
filled with the hot metal from the ladle at the spout, cooled by water sprays on the bed while
on movement and the pigs are separated from mould chain by knockout arrangement.
Page 87 of 250
Equipments Of PCM
Two stands (frames) to hold the ladle firmly, with the paws attached in both the sides of
the ladle.
Runner to receive the liquid metal and to pour into the moulds through spouts.
Lime spray units to make a thick coating of lime on the moulds to avoid sticking of cold
metal with the moulds.
Individually operated steel belt conveyors to receive the liquid metal and to dispose
after pigs are made.
Chutes to receive the cold pigs and to drop the same into NPC wagons.
Cold pig yard: Cold pigs from PCM come here. These are stacked according to their quality,
and loaded in box wagons for dispatch to stack yards of customers.
Auxiliary Fuel Injection
In the present competitive environment, there is a lot of pressure on BF operators to lower the
operating costs and maximize productivity. One way to achieve this is by injecting auxiliary
fuel into the blast furnace. The fuels used for this purpose are coal dust, and coal tar.
Economic and operational benefits achieved by using coal dust injection (CDI) include:
Lower consumption of expensive coking coals. replacing coke with cheaper soft coking or
thermal coals reduces reluctant costs;
Extended coke oven life since less coke is required to be produced. this is important as
many coke ovens are reaching the end of their useful life and significant investment is
required to replace or maintain them;
higher BF productivity, that is, the amount of hot metal produced per day (in
conjunction with other operational changes);
Greater flexibility in bf operation. for instance, CDI allows the flame temperature to be
adjusted, and the thermal condition in the furnace can be changed much faster than
would be possible by adjusting the burden charge at the top of the furnace;
Improved consistency in the quality of the hot metal and its silicon content;
Reduced overall emissions, in particular, lower emissions from coke making due to
decreased coke requirements.
The challenge now is to achieve high CDI rates with cheaper, lower quality raw
materials, without losing hot metal quality, productivity or bf availability.
Page 88 of 250
Page 89 of 250
TECHNO-ECONOMICS:
Productivity: the amount of hot metal produced per cubic meter of the furnace volume in a
day, tonnes/m3/day (either on working volume or useful volume basis)
Fuel rate: the amount of fuel required to produce one ton of hot metal, kg/thm. (Includes coke
rate + aux. fuel rate + nut coke rate (added in sinter). (Carbon rate is more appropriate
measure as carbon content of the fuel varies from time to time) 1% reduction in coke ash
reduces the coke rate by 12-15 kg/thm reduction of coke rate gives an overall saving of 0.5% of
the total energy consumption of steel plant. 1%reduction in gangue of iron ore results in coke
saving of 1.5% 100 c increase in HBT results in coke saving of 2-3 %
Energy consumption for an iron making:energy consumption
Coke making
Iron making & sinter making
Steel making
Page 90 of 250
STEEL MAKING
Page 91 of 250
INTRODUCTION
The Hot Metal which is produced by Blast Furnaces consists of various impurities. Main
impurity present is Carbon and other impurities like phosphorus, sulphur, silicon, non
metallic inclusions etc are also present. Steel making is the process of purification of this Hot
Metal. Steel such produced is the pure form of metal. Hot Metal contains around 4% of Carbon
which is reduced below 0.10% as per the requirement. Other impurities like sulphur,
phosphorus are removed and alloying elements such as manganese, nickel, chromium and
vanadium are added to produce the exact steel required. The schematic view and various
processes involved in steel making are as follows.
HM
from
BF
M
I
X
E
R
OH
/
H
M
D
S
HMDS
BOF
ARS
LF
CCS/CCP
TH
B
O
F
-
S
T
E
E
L
Secondary
refining
(ARS, LF,
RH, VAD,
VOD)
CCS
INGOT
Casting
Blooms
Billets
Slabs
INGOTS
The Hot Metal from Blast furnace comes in Hot metal ladles to Steel Melting Shop by rail. It
is poured into a vessel called Mixer. Mixer has a Charging hole from where Hot metal is being
charged into with the help of heavy cranes and a sprout to take out hot metal by tilting the
mixer. Main functions of mixer are storage and homogenization. Mixed gas is supplied
through side burners in order to maintain temperature in Mixers. Once it is taken out it can
go to Hot metal desulphurisation unit and then to either of the process of steel making i.e.
Open/Twin Hearth furnace or Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF).
Hot Metal Desulphurisation
Sulphur is mainly present in the iron ore and in the coal. Reducing the sulphur content to less
than 0.020% in the blast furnace is difficult from an economical standpoint. As the steel
quality often requires a sulphur content of 0.010%, the hot metal must be desulphurized in
another way. In desulphurization methods alone lime, or magnesium reagent ,and calcium
carbide may be used in proper proportion. They are injected into the metal with a special
designed lances under a gaseous stream. In this way, the sulphur content can be reduced to
levels below 0.005 %. Hot metal in a ladle bring to Desulphurization unit by EOT cranes or
rail. After proper positioning of the ladle, injection lance is lowered deep into the metal. Then
start injection of the said material through the lance and is continued for 5 to 10 minutes
Page 92 of 250
depending on sulphur content in hot metal. Ladle is then taken to slag racking machine to
remove the slag formed during the injection process. Hot metal is then sent to converter.
OPEN /TWIN HEARTH FURNACES
One of the oldest established process of steel making, most open hearth furnaces were closed
by early 1990s, because of their fuel inefficiency, low productivity and cumbersome operation.
Basic oxygen steel making (BOF) or LD process replaced open hearth furnaces. In NINL
modified form of Open hearth furnace is still in operation called Twin Hearth Furnace.
Twin hearth furnace consists of two hearths separated by a bridge wall with a common roof.
Twin hearth furnace works on synchronization between the two hearths, there by both the
hearths are engaged in different operations. While one is in solid period the other will be in
liquid period.
The fundamental principle of Twin Hearth Furnace is physical and chemical heat generated
during blowing in one hearth is utilized in the adjoining hearth for preheating the charge,
making the process faster. The tap to tap time of THF is cut by half since the furnace is
tapped from both the hearth alternatively at an interval of one half of the heat duration in one
hearth. Operational efficiency of the furnace is based on the equal duration of the both cold
and hot period i.e. in one hearth when melting starts the other hearth must be tapped.
Activities in the furnace can basically be divided into two parts. Activities during cold period
and activities during hot period, which run parallel at the same time for one of the two
hearths in such a way that if one hearth is in cold period other will be in hot period. Cold
period includes the time given to the furnace for tapping, fettling, charging and heating of the
cold charge up to the end of pouring of hot metal in the furnace. The activities taking place
during the hot period can be categorized into melting, refining and holding.
BOF is around 45-50 minutes. The name BOF is derived from the manner in which the
compositional adjustments are achieved. Oxygen is the reagent that is used to remove most of
the undesirable elements via a number of complex oxidation processes. Basic refers to the fact
that the reaction takes place in a Vessel called converter lined with basic refractory.
Inputs
The major input materials in BOF or LD converter are:
Metallic: Hot metal containing around 4% carbon is the main input in the BOF. Scrap is
also used as a coolant and is also used in the process.
Fluxes:
Fluxes such as lime, dolomite, iron ore etc are used in the process for slag
making.
Oxygen: One of the important inputs comes mainly from captive Oxygen plants in
addition to the Purchased liquid oxygen. Oxygen Purity should be more than
99.0%.
Nitrogen: It is not directly taking part in the process but used for purging and ceiling
purpose. It is also used for slag splashing.
Ferro-Alloys: while tapping the steel Ferro-alloy such as Fe-Si, Si-Mn, Fe-Mn etc are being
added to make the desired grade of steel.
Process
Mixer and Desulphurization: The process start with mixer in steel melting shop. Metal is
stored in Mixers and it is taken out as and when needed. Before charging it into BOF, external
desulphurization is done as per requirement to reduce Sulphur content in Hot metal. Calcium
carbide, lime powder, magnesium compound are injected into hot metal through a lance with
Nitrogen pressure. After compound injection is over slag racking is done to remove the slag
which is necessary to avoid reversal of sulphur.
Converter blowing: The process of blowing means reaction of Oxygen with hot metal and
fluxes in LD converter. The hot metal along with scrap is charged into converter with the help
of EOT cranes by tilting the converter. A typical composition of Hot metal is C- 4.0%, Si 0.60
%, Mn 0.10 %, P- 0.15%, S- 0.050% and temperature is around 1300C After charging
converter is kept vertical and lance is lowered in the converter through which oxygen is blown
at a pressure of around 14 kg/cm2. During the blowing process fluxes such lime, Calcined
dolomite, iron ore etc are added to make slag. The most important flux is lime. The slag is
basic in nature. Main impurities carbon reacts with oxygen and is removed in the gaseous
form. Impurities like Si, P, S and other non metallic impurities are removed in the form of
slag, which is lighter than metal so it floats on metal surface. The blowing process usually
takes 17 mins. When the blowing is complete converter is tilted to take out the slag in a slag
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pot. Sample and temperature is also taken manually. At the end of the blow the temperature
is generally in the range of
1650C - 1690C and a typical bath analysis is C 0.07 %, Mn 0.08 %, P 0.020 %, S- 0.030
%. When the desired composition and temperature is achieved the steel is tapped.
Tapping: tapping means discharging the liquid steel into ladle through the tap hole present
in the converter by tilting it. As per the grade of steel the Ferro-alloys are also added into
ladle during tapping. As soon as the steel finishes the converter is lifted and tapping is
complete.
Nitrogen Slashing: After tapping, the residual slag in the converter is splashed with the
help of nitrogen. Converter is kept vertical and lance is lowered. Through the same lance
nitrogen is blown which splashes the basic residual slag in the converter and gives a coating
on the refractory bricks. Main advantage of nitrogen splashing is to increase the lining life of
the converter.
Chemical Reactions: There are a lot of complex chemical reactions taking place in the BOF
during blowing. Main reactions in simplified form are given below
Fe + O = FeO
C + O = CO/CO2
Si + 2O = SiO2
Mn + O = MnO
2P + 5O =P2O5
These reactions are exothermic in nature. Lot of heat is evolved. Scrap as a coolant is used to
maintain the thermal balance. Due to addition of fluxes the chemical reaction with CaO from
Lime and Dolomite and Si, Mn etc from hot metal takes place to make complex compounds
which are basic in nature thus helping in making a basic slag which facilitates
dephosphorusition.
Slag Composition: The slag formed during the BOF process is basic in nature. It is a
complex oxide compound of Ca along with Si, P and other non metallic inclusions. A typical
slag analysis at the end of the blowing is as follows:
CaO= 45-50%,
MgO= 9-11%,
FeO= 15-20%
Basicity= CaO/SiO2 3.0
Refractories: Refractory plays a very important role in BOF shop. As liquid metal is handled
in BOF Shop so all vessels like mixer, converter, ladles etc are lined with refractory bricks. It
protects the shell of vessel and retains the metal temperature. Different types of refractory as
per their usage are given below:
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Converter Vessel: The bricks used here are basic in nature. Dolomite bricks or magnesia
carbon bricks are commonly used in converter. In recent times magnesia carbon bricks have
replaced dolomite bricks. Number of heats made in a converter from one new lining to next
lining is known as the lining life of the converter. Now a days all plants are trying to achieve
higher lining life. The tap hole in the converter is also made up of refractory, which wears
with number of heats tapped. It is changed from time to time.
Mixer: The bricks used here are normally high alumina and magnesite bricks are used.
Ladles: The small vessel which carry Hot Metal for charging the converter are called hot
metal ladle. They are lined with high alumina bricks. The steel is tapped in steel ladles. This
ladle carries steel to secondary refining and finally for casting. The bricks used are again high
alumina and magnesia carbon.
Equipments:
Major equipments in BOF shop are:
Converter: A converter is an open pear shaped vessel made of steel and lined from inside
with basic refractory bricks. It can be rotated through 3600. Charging and deslagging is done
through mouth where as tapping of steel is done through a hole called tap hole.
Lance: It is made of three concentric steel tubes to circulate water around the center tube and
pass oxygen through the innermost tube. Its tip is made of copper. Always a stand by lance is
provided in a converter.
Gas Cleaning Plant: A huge quantity of waste gases with high temperature and containing
dust particles, generated during the process is passed through the GCP. Primarily water is
sprayed over the gases to separate the solid particles and to cool them. Cleaned gases are
either collected in a gas holder or burnt in the atmosphere to control air pollution.
A large water cooled hood sits above converter. The vast quantity of waste gas produced
during steel making pass through hood and then collected and cleaned. An ID fan is present
which draws the gases up into hood. A movable skirt is attached to bottom of hood which
closes the gap and sits on the converter mouth thus controlling the level of air ingress during
the blow.
Safety Aspects
As we deal with liquid metal in the Shop personal as well as equipment safety is of large
concern. We should strictly follow the safety norms.
Before charging, it should be ensured that no liquid slag is left in the converter. It
should be dried by adding lime.
Do not allow any one to stand in front of Converter during charging.
There should not be any water in the slag pot in which the slag is dumped.
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Persons working in the steel melting shop should use personal protective equipment i.e.
gloves, blue glass, fire retarding jackets.
Blowing should not be done if there is any water leakage in the lance.
In case of excessive water logging below the converter blowing should be stopped
immediately till the water is cleared.
In case of charging and tapping of converter lot of care has to be taken to avoid any
metal splashes.
Quality Requirements
Now a day as the quality norms are quite stringent and customers specification are becoming
very strict so at all stages quality has to be seen. In BOF the slag decides the quality of steel.
A good slag leads to good steel. Slag carry over to the steel ladles while tapping should be
minimum. Slag arresters are used to minimize slag carry over.
Waste and environment management:
In BOF during the steel making process lot of wastes are generated. Some of them are as
follows:
During the blowing process lot of waste gases are generated along with dust. CO gas
evolved during blowing process is collected in a gas holder and it is further used as a
fuel in different units. The dust is also collected and then disposed as slurry.
Slag generated during the steel making operation is also recycled. It is dumped and
cooled then it is used by Blast Furnaces and sometimes Steel Melting Shop.
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Metallurgical Principles
( ) means in slag. [ ] means in steel.
Deoxidation
As steel making process is an oxidation refining process, tap steel from primary furnace
contains significant amount of oxygen(400-1000 ppm).The solubility of O2 in liquid steel is
0.16% but in solid steel it is only 0.003%.Excess oxygen causes defects like blow holes and nonmetallic inclusions. Oxygen is lowered by deoxidisers like Mn, Si, Al etc. Through vacuum
treatment oxygen is removed as CO.
Decarburisation
Reaction of c and o removal is given by
[C] + [O] = CO
[C] +1/2O2 = CO
[C] +(FeO) = CO +Fe
C removal is controlled by vacuum level, Argon flow rate, initial level of C, bath O, O
injected. Control is required during tapping, LF & VAD operation for avoiding recarburisation.
Some other sources of recarburisation are ferro-alloys, graphite electrodes during arcing.
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Desulphuristion
Removal of sulphur depends on
Removal of H2 & N2
Hydrogen removal reaction is 2[H] = H2
[H] = k*H2
i) H content varies with p H2
ii) To get very low H , vacuum level must be low and improved stirring.
So H removal is controlled by vacuum level, Ar flow rate, initial level of H
Nitrogen removal Reaction is 2[N] = N2
To get very low N vacuum level must be very low. Compared to H, nitrogen removal rate is low
due to low defusibility.
Quality
Application
Hot rolled plates (e. g. DDQ, EDDQ) Automobile plates, micro-alloyed (e. g. IF) Silicon steel (e.
g. electrical sheets) Low carbon structural steel (e. g. case hardening, heavy plates) Medium
carbon structural steel (e. g. forging) High carbon structural steel (e. g. bearings) High alloyed
steel (e. g. hot work tools) Stainless steel (e. g. austenitic and ferritic)
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Safety
Secondary steel unit pose certain safety hazards to personels working:
1 During argon purging metal splases can cause burn injury.
2 In ladle furnace,there is danger of metal splaces and electrocution from very high current.
3 In VAD, VOD & RH vacuum present inside treatment area can pose serious danger of
suction. B Body parts may get sucked inside if isolating plate collapse. Also fumes
CASTING
In modern steel plants everywhere there is a demand for more and more quality finished
products. For rolling to very thinner products, continuous casting products are the best
compared to teeming of the steel to make ingots and then to roll the ingots to produce slabs or
billets or blooms. Continuous casting not only meets the higher production within same time
frame but the quality of such products is quite lucrative and hence demanding. Before going
into the details of CCM a brief description of the caster is given below:
<BOF> => Raw/Crude Steel from converter => <SRU> => Refining crude steel i.e.
killing, Homogeneous Temperature and Composition => <Caster> Turret, Ladle
S/Gate, Shroud => Tundish => Mould
Liquid steel comes from the ladle into the tundish. Tundish is a device where it collects,
accumulates liquid steel from the ladle and feeds to two or more moulds through SEN
depending on the m/c and process. The basic design of the caster is to solidify liquid steel to its
solid products uninterruptedly/continuously. For that the steel to be cast must be killed. Steel
from which oxygen (dissolved in steel during steel making in BOF) is removed at SRU using
highly deoxygenating elements like Al (Aluminum) Si (silicon) etc is called KILLED STEEL.
Oxygen in steel is measured using Celox Temp and expressed in ppm. Steel that is to be cast
should not have high ppm of O2 otherwise casting cannot be done because O2 of steel will form
unwanted oxides viz CaO, SiO2, MgO and will be deposited over the entry nozzle and thus will
restrict the flow of steel into the mould.
Before start of the casting:
1. Steel that is to be cast is treated well at SRU for smooth casting.
2. Tundish through which casting will be done is to be prepared.
Tundish is a device through which continuity of the casting is maintained. There are two types
of casting practices are in use namely cold tundish and hot tundish practices. Liquid steel
comes from the ladle into the tundish and in turn the tundish feeds the liquid steel into the
mould through different outlet at the bottom of the tundish. Tundish is made of steel and
inside of which is lined with refractory bricks or castable. After that tundish boards are fixed
over the refractory lined. Submerged entry nozzle (SEN) are fixed by clamping device in each
of the tundish outlet.
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GENERAL
MECHANICAL
MAINTENANCE
INTRODUCTION
Maintenance can be defined as those activities which are required to keep a facility in asbuilt
condition, so that it continues to have its original Productive Capacity. The responsibility of
the Maintenance function is to ensure that production plant and equipment is available for
productive use at minimum cost for the scheduled hours, operating at agreed standard.
Among the process industries, Steel is recognized as a Core Sector. The operations in
Integrated Steel Plants like ours are characterized by their continuous nature of operations.
Various Production departments are interdependent and any disruption in one Unit is likely
to affect other production units too. Considering the magnitude of our organization, such
interruptions and stoppages are very costly and there should be methods to avoid them.
Equipments installed in Steel Plants are subjected to harsh working conditions characterized
by fluctuating loads, shock, dart, dust, fumes and poisonous gases. They are operated in
continuous duty cycle. The wear and tear is thus very intensive. This calls for an efficient
maintenance organization, flexible enough to match the production processes and also
contribute to the achievement of APP targets in terms of preset quality, quantity and
technical parameters. Therefore, the function of Maintenance Engineering of NINL are
entrusted with the maintenance of plants to care of a regular and thorough supervision of the
conditions and functions of all operational equipments in the right time so that effects of
deterioration can be spotted early enough, before major costly breakdowns and damages occur
to the equipments. Thus the justification for a Maintenance Organisation group lies in its use
to ensure availability of equipments and services for performance of their functions at
optimum return on investments whether this investment be in
Machinery, Material, Men and Money
Dependence of operating personnel on maintenance engineering is even increasing with the
complexity of equipments used in modern Steel Plants. The cost of maintenance has become a
greater part of the total cost of Production and the maintenance-engineering group, a major
unit of the organization. Regardless of this tremendous growth in importance, cost and
complexity of the maintenance function, it is important to remember that the function exists
because it is a necessary facet of the whole plant operation, not a self sufficient unit.
MAINTENANCE OBJECTIVES
Maintenance is an integral part of an Organization in its entirety and therefore, Maintenance
Objectives should be established within the framework of the whole so that overall
organizational or corporate objectives and needs are adequately fulfilled.
The Maintenance Objectives are to:
a) Ensure maximum equipment availability for meeting APP targets;
b) Maintain plant equipments and facilities at an economic level of repairs at all times
to conserve these and increase their life span:
c) Provide desired services to operating departments at optimum levels:
d) Ensure reliability and safety of equipments for uninterrupted production;
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Management of Men:
This includes men power planning, selection, training, evaluation and placement.
Additionally it aims at creating sufficient and capable staff groups like Design
Department, Maintenance Planning Department, Consumption Cell, Hydraulic and
Pneumatic & Lubrication groups, Repair shops etc. to meet day to day maintenance to
guide, control and evaluate activities of maintenance and services.
ii)
Management of Machines:
Maintaining inventory of equipments, elaboration and application and development of
short and long term equipment checking and servicing, planning of major and Capital
Repair Plans, Breakdown and Delay Investigation and Analysis, Standardization of
equipments come under this category.
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The maintenance manager has to use all his experience and expertise to super impose
refinements and improvements on manufacturers recommendations.
ESSENTIALS OF MAINTENANCE PROCESS
It basically consists of the following activities:
Inspection
Planning & Execution
Reporting & Documentation
Feed back & Actions for improvements
Investigation
Inspection:
Inspection is the most important ingredient. A sound inspection system forms a strong base
for a good maintenance system. It must be carried out by sincere and experienced hands so
that the right problem can be detected at the right time by the right people to take timely
corrective actions. One should also look for statutory violation and unsafe working conditions.
The frequencies of inspection can be finalized depending upon the severity of the working
condition and its importance in the production environment.
Planning and Execution:
Maintenance planning is essentially based on past experience, equipment condition and the
recommendations of the OEM. There can be both Long and Short term planning for executing
any repair. Men, Materials and supporting services have to be planned to carry out any
planned execution of equipments
Documentation:
Details of Maintenance activities and all related requirements with reference to men,
materials, services should be documented both before and after execution. This is required for
future references and building up of a sound maintenance history.
Feedback:
The behavior of machines / equipments should be recorded from time to time immediately
after the repair so as to note the improvements/ changes in performance if any which will go a
long way in improving and fine tuning of future Maintenance practices.
Investigation:
Sudden or gradual failure of equipments, repetitive failures must be thoroughly investigated
and the reasons identified. This will help in prevention of unscheduled equipment
breakdowns. Methods such as Root Cause Analysis (RCA) etc. are adopted to determine the
causes of failures and necessary actions are taken for non-recurrence of the
same in future.
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Predictive Maintenance:
This is a technique to determine the condition of in service equipments in order to predict
when maintenance should be performed. This approach offers cost saving over routine or timebased Preventive maintenance because tasks are performed only when warranted. Most
Predictive Maintenances are performed while the equipment is in service, there by minimizing
disruption of normal system operations. Adoption of Predictive Maintenance (PdM) in the
maintenance of equipments can result in substantial cost savings and higher system
reliability. Reliability Centered Maintenance or RCM emphasizes the use of predictive
maintenance (PdM) techniques in addition to traditional preventive measures
Technologies of Predictive Maintenance:
To evaluate equipment condition Predictive maintenance utilizes Non-destructive testing
technologies, such as infrared, acoustic (partial discharge and airborne ultrasonic), Vibration
analysis, Sound level measurements, Oil- analysis and other specific online tests.
Vibration analysis:
Every equipment in motion causes vibration and can be characterized by the frequency
amplitude and the phase of the wave. When a machine is operating normally, the pattern of
vibration is recorded as vibration signature. The deviations are registered on a vibration
analyzer and this lead to corrective action.
Ultrasonic:
The technique is useful to survey wall thickness of metallic vessels, piping etc to detect cracks
and to determine extent of Corrosion /Erosion at vulnerable areas.
Infrared Detection:
Use of infrared picture or thermograph is used for heated spot detection. This is particularly
useful when temperature are high and conditions cannot be known of happenings inside the
Furnaces, Vessels, Ladle walls and pipe lines including heat building up in Electrical cables
etc. .
Eddy Current:
This is useful in the inspection of defects of non-magnetic pipe tubes of heat exchangers or
other units.
Oil Analysis:
By analyzing the oil samples of the running equipments, information regarding deterioration
of components can be established. It is a long term programme but can be more predictive
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than any other technologies. The concentration of metallic particles shows the extent of wear
in the equipments and this calls for timely action before any break down takes place.
LATEST TRENDS OF MAINTENANCE
Condition Based Maintenance System (CBMS)
Condition Based Maintenance has been described as a process which requires technologies
and peoples skills that integrates all available equipment conditions, indicators (Diagnostic
and performance data, Operator logged data, maintenance history and design knowledge) to
make timely decisions about maintenance requirements of equipments . The goal of Condition
Based Maintenance is to optimize reliability and availability by determining the need for
maintenance activities based on equipments condition. Using Predictive techniques,
technologies, condition monitoring and observations, it can be used to project forward the most
probable time of failure and enhance the ability of the Plant to plan and act for prevention of
the same. Preventive maintenance jobs that are taken up are not only limited to time based
frequencies but based on conditions also. While regular inspection, monitoring of parameters
like pressure, temperature, current etc. detects many job requirements, maintenance
organizations are adopting modern methods of Condition Monitoring as detailed under
Predictive Maintenance (PdM).
LUBRICATION
Introduction
A common feature of mechanically engineered system is relative motion of some component
with respect to another. Friction results in energy dissipation. The most standard approach is
to use lubrication in the hydrodynamic range. The friction may then be considerably reduced.
The friction may be minimized by understanding the interaction between surfaces in any
relative motion. This must be reduced to acceptable level in order to achieve the required
system efficiency. The load is distributed over the area of contact. In the case of real bodies,
contact cannot occur uniformly over whole area of apparent contact. The surfaces are
inherently rough and contact occurs at the tips of highlands in rough surface. The load is
distributed over these localized regions of contact. This leads to formation of junctions of finite
areas. In these areas stresses are high resulting in plastic deformation. The sum of the areas
of the junctions is known as the real area of contact. Origin of friction is very basic in nature
and extreme care is required to reduce it to a low level. It is considered as a system property
with a pair of materials being specified. A few important thumb rules apply:
1. The friction force always acts in a direction opposite to that of the relative velocity of
the surfaces.
2. The friction force is independent of the apparent geometric area of contact.
3. Rolling friction is always much less than the sliding friction
Wear is progressive loss of substances from the operating surface of a body as a result of
relative motion at the surface. For dry metals in sliding contact it is important to note that:
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Type
The lubricant could be a solid, semi-solid, liquid or gas. The use of a particular type of
lubricant depends on the nature of application. Liquid lubricants find greater usage as
compared to other forms of lubricants.
Grease
A common example of a semi solid lubricant is grease which is widely used because of its
unique property to adhere to the contact surface.
Oil
Oil is defined as a liquid which is lighter than water and insoluble in it. (liquid at ordinary
temperature of a viscous consistence and characteristic unctuous feel, lighter than water and
insoluble in it.) Oils derived from vegetable sources are generally termed as fatty oils and oils
from animal sources as well. Today petroleum is the biggest economical source of lubricants
known as mineral oils. The normal working range for use of mineral oil is -200 C to 900C. For
every 100C rise over the maximum temperature limit maximum life is reduced by 50%.
Synthetic oils:
The requirement at high and low temperature operations and fighting fire hazards gave way
to development of synthetic lubricants.
Advantages:
1. Wide temperature range.
2. Prolonged life
3. Less oxidation
4. Minimum loss in consumption due to low volatility.
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Greases: Lubrication grease is defined as a solid to semi fluid product of a thickening agent in
a liquid lubricant. The liquid phase may be mineral or synthetic oil or a mixture of two. The
thickening agent sometime called a gelling agent may be a metallic soap, mixture of soaps.
Advantages of lubricating grease: 1. Less frequent application as it is easily retained in the system and leakage is
minimum due to less flow ability.
2. Better rust prevention characteristic compare to oil.
3. Lubrication of inaccessible parts.
4. Provides better sealing action by preventing lubricant loss and ingress of
contaminants.
5. Requires simplified housing design.
6. Simpler seals could also be very effective due to the physical property (flow ability)
of the grease.
Disadvantages:
1. Does not perform as a proper coolant.
2. Cannot flush away contaminants like liquids.
3. Requires high torque to its semi solid nature.
4. Heat generation is high due to high viscosity value
The majority of industrys needs are catered by petroleum oil greases. The most common
greases are made from metallic soaps. Among soap based greases calcium grease first
appeared, followed by sodium and sodium-calcium and then lithium based.
Temperature is an important factor in grease selection. Petroleum greases are inexpensive
and adequate for temperatures between 0C and 90C. Some costly greases may withstand a
temperature limit of 90C. beyond this non soap based greases in particular silicone grease is
recommended, for low temperature applications, synthetic grease have proved successful.
Applications
Gears:
These machine elements are subjected to combined sliding and rolling action. The lubrication
of gears is a complex phenomenon due to geometry. Normally oils are used for gear lubrication
although for slow-running large gears, grease may be used. For open gears high viscous oils
are recommended. For enclosed gears oils are used and method of supply is bath (splash)
lubrication up to a speed limit of 12mps. Beyond this spray lubrication is preferred. The
lubrication failure could result in scuffing and so higher viscosity grades are recommended.
However too viscous oils might create starting problem and generate high temperature. Worm
gears have very high tooth friction and they need special care with regard to lubrication.
Gears cannot be gas or air lubricated.
Bearings:
Rolling element bearings:
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Majority of these bearings are lubricated by grease. The grease could be used at much higher
speeds in rolling element bearings compared to that in plain bearings. The temperature
limitation for grease is usually upto120`C. at high loads or at high speeds applications, grease
is usually not recommended. As in the former situation, adequate film strength may not be
obtained and in latter condition temperature limit might exceed. Oils are preferred in
bearings at relatively high speeds. However problems such as foaming and high temperatures
are encountered in such situations. The methods of supply in such situations are circulating
or oil mist depending on the size of bearing.
Synthetic fluids are used in rolling element bearing institutions where temperature is
usually higher than mineral oil could withstand or at very low temperature. However their
use is limited to moderate loads and medium speeds.
Air or gas cannot be use for rolling element bearings but there are instances of using solid
lubrication at very high temperature applications such as in furnace. However load capacity
and speed range for such cases would have to be very low.
Plain bearings:
These are usually lubricated by oil or grease. The use of grease is restricted to a speed of 2mps
for reason of inadequate heat dissipation. It provides excellent protection against
environmental contamination. Mineral oils can be used for a wide range of load and speed
conditions as they carry away heat and offer lower friction. For low speed applications like in
machine tools hand oiling or drip lubrication is preferred. In this method oil os transferred to
journal by direct contact or through porous bearings.
Rollers:
Rollers have bearings and are driven by gear mechanisms. Thus, lubrication of rollers in roller
tables is accomplished by taking into consideration lubrication of bearings fitted in rollers and
gears attached to them for transfer of power in gear boxes.
Hydrodynamics Lubrication:
It signifies that such a lubrication mechanism is due to motion. The shape of two surfaces
being separated by the lubricant film and their relative motion is such that a pressure is
generated in the lubricant film which takes up the external load. Usually in hydrodynamic
lubrication thickness of lubricant film (film thickness) is significant and the pressure
generated is not adequate enough to deform the surfaces locally.
Hydrostatic Lubrication:
It signifies that the lubricant is supplied at such high pressures that it separates the surfaces
in relative motion, simultaneously taking up the external load and hydrodynamic action may
or may not be present.
BEARINGS
Bearings are designed to overcome friction to provide ease of rotation. One way to reduce
friction is by adding lubricant and other way is to utilize rolling elements. Friction is reduced
as things roll easier than they slide. Bearings are designed to support shafts and allow free
rotation on applied loads. There are three basic type of loads:
Plain bearings:
They are also referred to as journal or sleeve bearing. The plain bearing is cylindrical in shape
and designed to fit tightly in the housing and on the shaft. The advantages of plain
bearings include:
Smaller outside diameter (as opposed to rolling element bearings)
Quiet operation and absorption of shock loads.
Repetitive back and forth motion and low cost
Bronze, Babbitt, Teflon are various low coefficient materials used in plain bearing
construction.
Rolling element bearings: are far more complex than plain bearings. Its major components
are: outer ring, inner ring, and rolling elements. The cage is added to maintain even spacing
between each rolling element and to ensure equal distribution of load. Seals and shields keep
lubricants in and keep contaminants out. While increasing the size and quantity of rolling
elements increases the overall load carrying capacity. There are six basic types of rolling
elements: Ball, Spherical roller (symmetrical and asymmetrical), Cylindrical roller,
Needle roller, and Tapered roller. Representative of each rolling element type is its ability
to transmit loads through contact with inner and outer rings. Bearing seals are mostly found
on single and double row ball bearings. Bearing shields are made up of steel and are affixed to
the bearings outer ring, but unlike the seal, the shield does not make contact with the inner
ring.
Load capacities: while rings and rolling elements carry the bearing load, the type, size, and
number of the rolling elements directly influence the bearing` s overall load capacities.
Speed: the permissible operating temperature limits the speed at which rolling bearings can
be operated. Bearing types with low friction and correspondingly low heat generation are most
suitable for high speed operation. The highest speeds can be achieved with deep
groove ball bearings when loads are purely radial.
Quiet operation: in certain applications such as small electric motors for household
appliances or office machinery, the noise produced in operation is an important factor and can
influence bearing choice. Deep groove ball bearings are especially produced for this
application.
Fitting:
Mounting and dismounting of Bearings: A ball or roller bearing has extremely accurate component parts which fit together with very
close clearances. The inner ring bore and the outer ring outside diameter are manufactured
within close limit. To fit there respective supporting members the shaft and the housing, it
follows that the shaft and the housing must also be machined to similar close limits. Three
basic mounting methods are used, the choice depending on factors such as the number of
mountings, bearing type and size, magnitude of interferences and the possible available tools.
1) Cold mounting: Mounting of a bearing without heating it first is the most basic and direct mounting method.
A pressure force of sufficient magnitude is applied against the face of the ring having the
interference fit. This method is most suitable for cylindrical bore bearings up to about 70 mm
bore and for tapered bore bearings up to about 240 mm bore.
2) Temperature mounting: Temperature mounting is the technique of obtaining an interference fit by first introducing a
temperature differential between the parts to be fitted. The necessary temperature differential
can be obtained in one of the three ways: a) heating one part (most common)
b) Cooling one part
c) simultaneously heating one part and cooling the other.
Heating the bearing: - Heat mounting is suitable for all medium and large size straight bore
bearings with cylindrical seating arrangements. Normally a bearing temperature of 65C
above shaft temperature (not to exceed 120C) provides sufficient expansion for mounting. As
the bearing cools, it contracts and tightly grips the shaft. It is important to heat the bearing
uniformly and to regulate heat accurately, since excess heat destroys a bearings metallurgical
properties (softens the bearings). Never heat a bearing using an open flame such as a blow
torch. Heat mounting reduces the risk of bearing or shaft damage during installation because
the bearing can be slid easily on to the shaft. Appropriate electric heat-bearing mounting
devices include induction heater, ovens, hot plates and heating cones. Of these, induction
heaters and ovens are the most convenient and induction heaters are the fastest devices to
use.
Page 114 of 250
Hot oil baths have traditionally been used to heat bearings, but are no longer recommended
except when unavoidable. In addition to health and safety considerations, the environmental
issues about oil disposal are also involved. If hot oil bath is used, both the oil and the
container must be absolutely clean. Oil previously used for some other purpose should be
thoroughly filtered.. An insufficient quantity heats and cools too rapidly. Thus introducing the
risk of inadequately or unevenly heating the bearing. It is also difficult in such a case to
determine when the bearing has reached the same temperature as the oil. Sufficient time
should be allowed for the entire bearing to reach the correct temperature. The bath should
cover the bearing.
Precautions
Storage and handling: Bearings can be used in their original packages for years provided
there are not great fluctuations in the temperature. With sealed or shielded bearings, the
lubrication properties of the grease with which they are filled may deteriorate with time.
Large rolling bearings should only be stored lying down, preferably with the support for the
whole extent of the side faces of the rings. if kept in a standing position, the weight of the
rings and the rolling elements can give rise to permanent deformation because the rings are
relatively thin walled. For the same reason, if large and heavy bearings are moved or held in a
position using lifting tackle, they should not be suspended at a single point, rather a sling or
other suitable aid should be used. A spring between the hook of the lifting tackle and the sling
facilitates positioning the bearing when it is pushed onto a shaft. For ease of lifting, large
bearings often have threaded hole in the ring faces into which the eye bolts can be screwed. As
the hole size is limited by the ring thickness, it is only permissible to lift the bearing itself or
the individual ring by the bolts. When mounting a large housing over a bearing that is already
in position on a shaft, it is advisable to provide three point suspensions for the housing and for
the length of one sling to be adjustable. This enables the housing bore to be exactly aligned
with the bearing.
POWER TRANSMISSION AND POWER DRIVES
POWER is transmitted from the prime mover to a machine, from one machine to another, or
from one member of the machine to another, by means of intermediate mechanisms
called drives. These intermediate mechanisms are necessary instead of directly coupling the
machine to the prime mover, due to the following reasons:
1. The optimal speeds of the prime mover or that of the standard motors may be different
from the velocities required to operate the machines. The prime mover s usually have
higher angular velocities, which make the designs more compact and light, while the
operating members frequently require a large torque with relatively low velocities.
2. The velocity of the driven machine may have to be frequently changed or regulated,
whereas the speed of the prime mover should be kept constant for its use to the full
advantage.
3. In some cases, several machines may have to be operated from only one prime mover.
4. Sometimes the machines are not coupled directly to the prime mover shaft due to the
considerations of safety, convenience and maintenance.
Mechanical Drives:
Mode of power transmission:
a) Transmission by friction may be further classified as:
With direct contact, e.g. friction drive
With a flexible connection, e.g. belt drives
b) Transmission by mesh may further be classified as:
With direct contact, e.g. toothed and worm gears
With a flexible connection, e.g. chain drives
The velocity ratio in toothed wheel gearing is limited only by size of the drive and in belt drive,
by the minimum allowable arc of contact on the smaller pulley.
Comparatively:
Characteristics
Initial cost
Maintenance cost
lubrication
Shock absorption
Belt drives
Cheaper
Low
None
Better
Life
1-5 years
Loads
Gear drive
Costly
Considerable
Must
Not so good, depends upon gear
material
Depends upon materials.
Longest service life if properly
lubricated
Quite heavy loads can be
transmitted as gear size is
practically unlimited
Couplings
They are necessary to connect one shaft to another or to couple a drive shaft to a driven shaft.
Shaft couplings are used in machinery for several purposes:
To provide for the connection of shafts, of units that are manufactured separately,
such as a motor and a generator, and to provide for disconnection for repairs or
alterations.
Flexibility
There are two basic types of couplings, namely:
1. Rigid couplings do not accommodate misalignment and consequently should not be used
indiscriminately.
2. Flexible couplings allow slight angular deviations; also permit the axes of the shafts to
float or run slightly out of alignment, and in some cases to move end wise, whilst still
transmitting torque from one shaft to another shaft. Further, the use of a flexible coupling
enables to compensate slight inaccuracy of workmanship in aligning the two machine
elements. A typical example is a direct electric drive from an electric motor to a machine
tool, where we have, say: four bearings relatively close to each other.
Reporting time, inspection time, tool and man power arrangement, troubleshooting time,
logistics time, actual repair time, spares procurement time, test run time, handing over time
etc. So, downtime solely does not depend upon skill of workers or severity of defects.
Reliability stands for trust. It is the probability, that a machine when operated under a given
condition, will produce the desired output for given period of time.
Maintainability is basically the degree of ease in maintenance.
TQM IN MAINTENANCE ORGANIZATION
Doing business in todays Global market calls for reduction in production cost with
improvement on quality. Quality means Fitness for use or Conformation to standards,
which is the totality of features and characteristics of a product or service. With the ongoing
competition in the global scenario it has become imperative to produce quality. Quality of
Maintenance, like the quality of product must be designed and built into the system, process
or methods of maintenance. Total quality of maintenance depends upon well-designed plans,
systems and procedures, use of proper tools and test equipment, adoption of correct technical
practices and the creation of conducive environment for good maintenance.
Achievement of consistent quality output over a period of time should be the main objective of
the Maintenance function. Keeping this in mind, NINL adopted ISO-9001:2008, the Quality
Hallmark of International scenario into their maintenance organizations.
Safety
Whenever system trouble-shooting/maintenance is carried out; safety should be the foremost
consideration. So, it is better to have a systematic shutdown procedure like one given below1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Always balance load on either side of rope during rope changing in cranes.
HYDRAULICS
Introduction
Transmission & control of forces & movements by means of fluids is called hydraulics. Fluids
under pressure can be used for Power Transmission. Fluids means gases (air) and liquids (oil
or water etc). The system which uses air as working medium is called pneumatics and which
uses oil/water is called Hydraulic system.
Pressure
Force is the effort required to do the work. Pressure means force exerted per unit area,
generally measured in psi, or kg/sq cm, or bars*.
Atmospheric Pressure
At sea level the whole column of atmospheric air exerts a weight or force of 14.7 pounds for
every square inch i.e. a pressure of 14.7psi or 1.03kg/sqcm. This is called atmospheric
pressure. 1 Atmospheric Pressure = 1.03 Bar =14.7 psi
Flow & Pressure are inter-related. Flow is responsible for causing the motion of piston in a
cylinder. It is the movement of hydraulic fluid caused by a difference in pressure at two points.
When we open the kitchen tap the pressure difference (between the water tank at height and
tap) pushes the water out, or causes the water to flow. In a hydraulic system flow is usually
produced by the action of the hydraulic pump. If the pressure is not sufficient to take the load
on the cylinder, it will not move.
General Points
1.
Oil is most commonly used hydraulic fluid, because it acts as lubricant for all
moving parts of hydraulic system.
2. Generally the weight of hyd. Oil is around 55-58 pounds/cubic feet. One foot of oil
causes a pressure of 0.4 psi. A 10 m column of water causes a pressure of 1 kg/sq
cm.
3. There must be a pressure drop across an orifice/restriction to cause flow. If there is
no flow, there is no pressure drop and vice versa.
4. Force exerted by a cylinder is dependent on pressure of oil supplied & piston area
5. Speed of the cylinder is dependent on piston area and the rate of fluid flow into it.
6. Fluid velocity through a pipe varies inversely to the square of inside diameter.
7. Friction in pipes results in pressure drop
8. Air is compressible, where as oil is incompressible practically.
9. Pump only transfers the fluid. It is the resistance which develops pressure.
10. It is the atmospheric pressure which is responsible for pushing of oil from tank to
the suction chamber of the pump.
Pascals Law
Pressure applied on a confined fluid is
transmitted
undiminished
in
all
directions and acts with equal force on
equal areas and at right angles to them
(If a force F is applied on a piston of
area A, (over a confined fluid) then it
gives a pressure P = F/A. This pressure
will be uniform in the entire confined
fluid at rest.
Hydraulic Press (BRAMAH PRESS) Since
pressure in the confined fluid is uniform
throughout and by applying this pressure on large
areas large forces can be developed. This is the
starting point for development of Hydraulics (see
the fig below). If two cylindrical chambers which
are connected and fitted with pistons of area A1, A0
and if a Force F1 acts on piston of area A1, it
develops a pressure p in the confined fluid. This
pressure will be uniform in the entire fluid in double cylinder arrangement, and develops a
force F0= P x A0. Hence forces will be proportional to the area of the pistons. There is no
energy creation and work done will be same by both the pistons. The displacements (lengths of
travel of pistons d1, d0) will be inversely proportional to the areas of the pistons.
Bernoullis Principle
This is nothing but law of conservation of energy. If the flow rate is constant, the total energy
at any point of continuous path of flowing fluid is same as at any other point. (Sum of motion
energy, pressure energy, and potential energy is constant.).To know the pressure or flow
velocity at any point in the circuit, this principle is used widely.
Advantages Of Hydraulic Sytems
Due to limitations of other power transmission system such as electrical, electromechanical
and pneumatic etc. hydraulic power transmission is preferred. Large forces can be transmitted
to long distances with high pressure stability and quick response. There are multiple
application possibilities which is suitable for use where large forces with infinitely variable
speeds are to be applied in given directions. Hydraulic equipments give smooth operation for
longer period with very less maintenance cost. Normally oil contamination control and leakage
control may give long life to hydraulic components. Other advantages of hydraulic system are:
1.
Highly compact- Power to weight ratio is very high. A hydraulic motor weighs
about 1/7 th of an electric motor of same power
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2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Precise control- depending on different requirements we can get exact speed, force
and position of user,
Over load protection- in case there is over load in pipe line or user, there is
provision of relief valve set at a certain maximum pressure to take care of it,
Suspension of load for long period- by providing a pilot operated non-return
valve in pipeline, load may be suspended for a longer period,
Flexibility in design- As per needs of production, scheme of hydraulic circuit may
be changed easily only with addition of a few components,
Easy maintenance- its maintenance is easy. Only oil contamination control will
fulfill major portion of maintenance work. For this monitoring of set parameters and
inspections of pipe lines, religiously is necessary
Variable Speed Controls: - We can get infinitely variable speeds and positions as
per need of users.
Stalling of loads:- The loads can be stalled to zero speed without any damage to
the equipments
If air enters the pump, it will run with high noise and it will be damaged very soon. This is
called aeration. Even though sufficient oil is there, aeration can occur due to any loose pipe
joints in suction line. Pump is always followed by a relief valve (safety valve), pressure gauge,
check valve and shut off valve ( These are required for pressure setting and isolating).
Check Valve/Non-Return Valve: It is a valve which allows flow in one direction only.
Generally provided after the pump in most of the cases to take care of reverse rotation of
pump. It is also used in many places of the circuit as a bypass etc. Check valve and non-return
valve are same.
Pressure Gauge: It is provided to know the pressure and for setting of various valves,
pressure switches.
Safety Valve/ Relief Valve: Both are same and it is the most important component of
Hydraulic system. It limits the maximum pressure in the system so that elements, hoses,
cylinders, pipes etc does not burst due to high pressure. I t also protects the equipment and
system from over loading. When the system pressure increases beyond the set point, the safety
valve opens and relieves the excess oil to tank.
Accumulator: It is a reservoir of pressurized hydraulic fluid i.e. storage of energy by means
of spring or compressed nitrogen, dead weight. It is basically a pressure vessel. No welding is
allowed on this. 1. Bladder type (most commonly used) 2.Piston type 3.Dead weight type 4.
Direct gas loaded type. Nitrogen is generally used in accumulators but never use oxygen as it
may result in explosion. You should never open a pressure line with accumulator in line.
Always isolate/ preferably drain the accumulator before starting the job. Accumulator is used
(a) for smooth functioning of HS without pressure and flow fluctuations (b) as an emergency
power source for essential operations in case of power failure. (c) for holding pressure for long
times in a circuit (d) a big pump can be replaced by a small pump ( cost & energy saving) and
many other purposes.
Direction Control Valves: Distributor/Master valve / DC valve are all same. If a pump
supplies oil directly to a cylinder, it is not possible or convenient to control the load or to
change the direction of motion. Hence a dc valve is provided in between pump and the load
cylinder to stop/start /reverse the motion of the load. DC valve can be activated by a lever,
cam, solenoid, pedal, pneumatic/hydraulic pressure depending on the design and requirement.
Most commonly used are solenoid operated and they are having two/ three positions. If you are
using a two position valve you cannot stop the cylinder in between .There are many varieties
of dc valves.
Flow Control Valves: To control the speed of the actuator /load, the amount of oil flowing
into the cylinder is controlled by means of these valves. Generally these are provided before
the cylinder or in branch circuits where flow is to be controlled. Simple needle/globe valve can
also be used as flow control valve in some cases.
Sequence Valve: In a simple punching machine, the job is held in position by a clamping
cylinder at low pressure and then a hole is punched by another cylinder at a high pressure.
Page 125 of 250
Now these two cylinders are always to be operated in definite sequence only. This sequence
can be achieved by electrical/mechanical or by hydraulic means through a valve called
sequence valve. Hydraulic sequencing is most common and versatile. A dc valve supplies oil to
cylinder-1 and through a sequence valve to cylinder -2. (After cylinder -1 is operated
completely, pressure will buildup and then sequence valve gets opened and oil goes to the
cylinder -2 at a higher pressure. The sequence valve is tuned and set to achieve the sequence).
It is almost similar to a safety valve but not same.
Pressure Reducing Valve: In some HS many cylinders are working at different pressures
,but a few cylinders does not require full pressure and can work at a low pressure .Then all
these selected cylinders are supplied oil through a valve known as pressure reducing valve. In
pressure reducing valve, the output pressure cannot go beyond a particular limit. This setting
will be lower than the safety valve setting.
Filters: All hydraulic elements work under close tolerances and they are precision items with
mirror surface finish .Contaminants and dust are the single largest enemy of the HS as they
cause malfunctioning and jamming of valves and fast wear out of elements. The contaminants
are internally generated in the system and some are external to the system. Working medium
is to be regularly cleaned from these contaminants. Hence oil filters are used in suction line,
pressure line and return line and before an important precision valve/pump as per the need.
This will improve the performance of the system.
The coarse filter used in suction line of pump sometimes is called STRAINER .Hydraulic
systems are most reliable, if the contamination is kept under control, and breakdowns can be
minimized. In a filter the hydraulic oil is allowed to pass through a porous medium (like clay,
paper, wire mesh, synthetic fiber etc) so that the dust particles and other contaminants are
retained and only clean oil goes ahead into the system. Offline filtration (mostly portable)
systems are also used for up keeping the system depending on the criticality. Electrostatic
Liquid cleaners are also used nowadays. These are very simple to operate and cheap.
Pressure Switch: The hydraulic oil under pressure pushes a small plunger which in turn
makes/breaks an electrical contact. These are provided in the system for safety and efficient
operation or for achieving a particular logic sequence. Contact Manometer is a pressure gauge
with electrical contacts, which does almost the same job, but they are less reliable and less
robust.
Level Switches: Generally the reservoir is provided with low level and high level float
switches, so that they give alarm of low oil level/ high level and can be used for interlocking
purpose. Float switch operates due to buoyancy in oil. Generally the low level switch is
interlocked with the drive of pump, so that when there is no oil due to any reason, the pump
will trip or will not allow the pump to start.
Actuators: Generally the hydraulic cylinders and hydraulic motors are called actuators.
These actuators do the actual job of lifting/lowering/pushing/rotating /holding etc. Hydraulic
motor replaces many applications of electric motors due to many advantages like speed
control, over load protection etc. Hydraulic motors are almost similar to pumps. When these
are supplied oil at pressure, they will give rotary output. Generally gear/vane /piston motors
Page 126 of 250
are in use. Generally two types of Hydraulic cylinders are commonly used viz, a) Double acting
cylinders, which can be used for pulling and pushing ,consists of piston , piston rod, body ,
covers, seals and fasteners, eye . Basically a sealed piston with rod reciprocates inside a
cylindrical body under the pressure of oil. B) Single acting cylinder. These types can only
push/lift a load. The single acting cylinder cannot retract due to hydraulic force. It retracts
due to weight/spring/ load. Hydraulic jacks are generally single acting type.
]
Seals: The component which prevents the motion of the fluid in the undesired direction is
called seal/packing. Can also be defined as that component that separates two fluids. The
functions of the seal are a) to seal the hydraulic fluid in a closed chamber , b) Maintains
pressure , c)stops dirt/water/contamination from entering the system d) separates two fluids,
e) performs any combination of the above functions. In simple terms a seal stops internal or
external leakages. Cost of the seal is a small fraction, but determines the efficiency of the
system.
Problems associated with seals: Wastage of fluid leaked, fire hazards, slippery floor, makes
equipment and products dirty, environment pollution, depleting natural resources.
Leather, cork, ropes are the oldest seals, which are widely used in the earlier days. Then
natural rubbers, synthetic rubber (ELASTOMERS), PTFE, Polyurethane, POM etc are used
nowadays. Seals should be handled delicately, and sharp tools should not be used. PIPES,
FITTINGS, CLAMPS: Generally pickled, flushed seamless pipes are used in hydraulic
systems. For maintenance convenience and ease of laying, pipe joints are provided at suitable
places. For small pipes union joints are used and in bigger pipes flange joints are used. There
is large variety of pipe joints of different standards and designs are available. Care should be
taken that different fittings do not get mixed up. Also while doing maintenance on fittings
thread type/seat design/size etc should be matched. Otherwise lot of problems will result.
Pipes should be properly clamped and supported; otherwise the joints get loosened during
working due to vibrations. Pipe clamps are made of wood/ Aluminium/ synthetic materials.
Wooden clamps are to be avoided due to environment protection. Aluminium clamps are used
where high temperatures are there. Synthetic clamps are commonly used nowadays. While
laying hose pipes, the layout should be smooth, and they should not crisscross/twist/entangle
and rub each other.
Working Medium
Hydraulic power system may be operated with fluids produced from different base fluids:
1) Mineral oil
2) Vegetable oil
3) Synthetic oil
4) Water
Mineral oil - Most hydraulic systems use hydraulic fluid based on mineral oil. Since base oils
do not have all the characteristics which a high performance hydraulic fluid should have,
different types of additives are dissolved in base oil to improven the properties
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Vegetable oil - These fluids are biodegradable and so are being used more frequently in
installations that are subjected to strict antipollution regulations.
Synthetic oil -These fluids are most commonly used in systems where there are special
demands on hydraulic fluid such as fire hazardous zones (furnace area)
Water - Pure water is seldom used as the fluid in hydraulic system. It can be used as
emulsion adding oil in it or adding water to oil.
Following are the important properties which hydraulic oil should possess:
a) Oxidation Stability b) Protection from Corrosion c) Anti Wear d) Viscosity &Viscosity Index,
(viscosity index should be high so that viscosity variation with temperature will be less) ( e)
Demulsibility (ability to resist formation of emulsion when mixed with water) f) Anti Foaming
Characteristics, g) Thermal and high pressure stability, h) Good Lubricant, i) Compatible with
Seals and Hoses, and Metals, j) High Flash Point (the minimum temperature at which oil just
takes fire and do not burn continuously) & Fire points (the minimum temperature at which oil
catches fire and burns continuously). Fire point should be always slightly more than the flash
point.
Oil Contamination Control
Oil contamination is number one enemy of hydraulic system. Therefore, oil contamination
control is the first requirement of any hydraulic system to get a trouble free smooth service. It
enhances the life of different components. To keep oil clean is part of hydraulic system
maintenance. It is just not possible to keep oil free from contamination in any industry due to
various reasons. What we can do is to monitor oil contamination level regularly by cleanliness
determination methods and take corrective steps including changing of filters. If situation
does not improve, tank oil should also be changed as hydraulic valves especially proportional
and servo valves are very dirt sensitive.
Sources of oil contamination
Due to wear and tear of internal parts of components such as pump, control valves,
cylinders.
NAS 1638
2.
ISO 4406
To decide oil cleanliness class required for different applications, the table given under may be
used as guide lineSystem type/Range of application Needed Cleanliness Class
According to standards NAS 1638 ISO 4406 Heavy duty servo system, High pressure System
with
long service life 4-6 15/11
Proportional valve 7-8 16/13
Medium pressure system 7-9 18/14
Low pressure system 9-11 19/15
Oil Leakage Control
Oil is life blood of hydraulic system, hence leakages should be prevented. Major portion of
mineral oil to be used in our country is imported for which we have to pay heavy price.
Besides loss oil leakage may damage the soil and hence ground water and plant life.
Consequently it damages animal life and human life also. Leakage in fire hazardous zones
may result in fire which may damage property besides unnecessary production delay due to
burning and damage of especially electrical wires and equipments. It is therefore necessary to
control oil leakage to the extent possible. For this regular inspection followed by corrective
measures such as tightening of loose connections and pipe supports, changing of even partially
damaged oil-rings(o-rings), hoses and corroded steel pipes is necessary. Hydraulic hoses in fire
hazardous zones should be periodically changed even though these are not damaged.
User
Hydraulic Cylinders /
Hydraulic Motors
Pressure Control
Valves /
Distributors/
Controller
Direction Control
Valves
Pressure Relief Valve
Energy Source
Hydraulic Pump
these will be carried along with the flow and burst at some other point. This condition is
highly harmful to the pump and all hydraulic elements. Generally this is taken care of at
design stage that at any point of the hydraulics system the vapour pressure should not be so
low to cause cavitation. The pump gives very high sound when under cavitation and it should
be stopped immediately and eliminate the root cause. Reasons may be for example, many
bends were introduced/ lower size pipe was introduced in the suction line during the repairs.
Aeration
When air enters the suction line of the pump and passes through it, lot of sound will come,
which is similar to cavitation. This will also damage the pump and it should not be allowed to
run. If grease is applied on suction line joints, the sound of the running pump will be
suppressed immediately, confirming that particular joint is loose. That joint is to be tightened
and packing/seal to be changed if required. Excessive aeration will cause the fluid to appear
milky and the components will operate erratically. If the air bubbles generated in the tank or
air enters the pump due to low level of oil, the same problem will come.
Compressibility
The change in volume of unit volume of a fluid when it is subjected to a unit change in
pressure.
Decompression
The slow release of confined fluid under pressure to gradually reduce the pressure is called
decompression.
Hydraulic Hammering
In a hydraulic system, the sudden transition of Kinetic Energy into Potential Energy and vice
versa due to sudden opening/closing of valve, results in pressure surges and vibrations. This
may result in bursting of pipe lines etc.
Cracking Pressure
The lowest pressure at which pressure relief valve starts opening.
Pressure Override
The difference between the cracking pressure of a valve and the pressure reached when the
valve is passing the full flow.
Bypass
Maintenance
Practice
In
Hydraulics
Always follow the standard shut down procedure for starting any kind of repair work
in Hydraulic System.
2. Hydraulic System should be kept neat and clean so that no contamination enters the
system. The system should never be kept open unattended.
3. Some contamination is also generated within the system. Hence regular cleaning
/changing of filters or inspection of offline filtration systems to be done.
4. All flange joints/union joints, clamps foundation bolts etc should be regularly
tightened, so that pipes do not vibrate excessively.
5. Hoses should be replaced condition based or time based.
6. All cylinders, valves, pumps and hose connections should be sealed and/ or capped
until just prior to use.
7. Do not use Teflon tape or compound on pipe threads.
8. Never allow cooling water to enter the system and monitor the condition of heat
exchangers.
9. Timely replace all the seals/ packing so that oil leakages will be minimum. If not done
timely, fire accidents may take place or persons may fall down resulting in an
accident.
10. Pressure gauges should be in working condition.
11. Regular check the oil level in the tank and always maintain prescribed oil level in the
tanks.
Page 133 of 250
12. Ensure tank low level switch is interlocked with the pump motor and it is in working
condition.
13. Good maintenance procedures make it mandatory to keep the hydraulic fluid clean. A
daily/ weekly or monthly log should be kept on the hydraulic fluid condition.
14. Seals should be handled delicately while replacing/storing and kept in cool dry places.
15. Maintain the temperature of the system with in allowable limits
16. Always try to do unit replacement of valves, cylinders, pumps etc. Repair of these
items are to be done leisurely in workshop/ testing lab under good conditions.
17. Whenever valve/cylinder/pump is opened, try to change all the seals.
18. Always ensure that clogging indicators for filters are in place and in working
conditions for knowing the health of filters.
19. Oil topping should always be done by Porta - filters.
20. Accumulators gas pressure should be checked periodically and Pre charge pressure
must not be less than one quarter or preferably one third of the maximum working
pressure.
21. Most Important- Cleanliness. We can also use Electro Static Liquid Cleaners (ELC)
for critical applications.
DOs
Oil tank temperature should be kept within specified limit to maintain desired viscosity
and prevent damage of oil seals.
Keep fire extinguishers, sand, water nearby place of cutting-welding hydraulic pipes.
Keep away from repaired pipe line flanged joints at the time of testing.
Use gas mask/ other safety appliances while working on coke oven gas pipe line/valves.
DONTs
Never fill oxygen in place of Nitrogen in pressure vessels such as hydro gas
accumulators.
Page 134 of 250
Never use cotton waste in hydraulic component or pipe line repair job.
Never allow welder to do welding job with wet hand or with wet hand gloves
Never apply sand paper to clean spool of hydraulic valves. Lapping paste can be used to
clean rusts in spools.
Safety in Hydraulics
Whenever system trouble-shooting/maintenance is carried out, safety should be the foremost
consideration. So, it is better to have a systematic shutdown procedure like one given below:
GENERAL
ELECTRICAL
MAINTENANCE
Phase Angle
Both current and the voltage oscillate sinusoidally, with the same frequency, in an AC circuit,
but they are out of phase with each other.
The angle by which the sine curve of the voltage in a circuit leads or lags the sine curve of the
current in that circuit is called the phase angle . If is positive the voltage leads the
current.
Root mean square value(R.M.S):- The r.m.s value of an AC is given by that steady(D.C)
current which when flowing through a given circuit for a given time produces the same heat as
produced by the Ac when flowing through the same circuit for the same time.
E(R.M.S) = 0.707 E(max)
Voltage (or Potential Difference)
Voltage (or potential difference) is the difference of electrical potential between two points of
an electrical or electronic circuit. The unit of voltage is volt (V). Electrical potential difference
is the ability to move electrical charge through a resistance. Voltage is usually specified or
measured with respect to a stable and unchanging point in the circuit known as ground
(earth) or neutral.
Resistance
Resistance is defined as the property of a conductor to oppose or restrict the flow of
electricity (or electrons) through it. Metals, acid solutions and salt solutions are very good
conductors of electricity. Poor conductors of electricity like Bakelite, mica, glass, rubber,
paper, PVC and dry wood offer relatively greater resistance to the flow of electrons. Hence
they are used as insulators or insulating materials.
Ohms Law states that the ratio of potential difference or voltage (V) between two points on a
conductor to the current (I) flowing through the points is a constant.
This constant is the resistance (R) of the conductor. Ohms law can be stated by the following
equation:
V / I = R or, V = I x R. The unit of resistance is ohm ().
The resistance of a conductor is defined by following equation :
R = ( l/A) where, is the specific resistance value, l is the length and A is the cross
section area of the conductor.
Limitations of Ohms Law:It does not apply under following conditions
Electrolyte where enormous gases are produced on either electrode.
Non-linear resistors like vacuum radio valves, semi-conductors, gas filled tubes etc.
Metals which get heated due to flow of current through.
Application like metal rectifiers, crystal detectors etc in which operation depends on the
direction of current.
Power and Energy in electric circuits
The power (P) consumed by a circuit element (say a resistor R) through which a current I is
flowing is
P = V x I The unit of electrical power is watt (W).
Electrical Energy consumed over a period of time t is expressed as,
E=V x I x t or E= P x t The unit of electrical energy is watt-hour (Wh). The common unit of
consumption of electricity (i.e. energy) is kWh. Energy is measured by energy meters which
take the supply voltage (V) and line current (I) as input. In high voltage systems, voltage or
potential transformer output and current transformer output are used in the energy meter to
get the energy consumed.
Real, Apparent and Reactive Power, and Power factor
The equations discussed so far for power are valid for DC circuits. In AC circuits, the effective
value of a periodic current or voltage is considered. The effective value of a periodic current is
the DC current that delivers the same average power to a resistor as the periodic current. The
effective value of a periodic signal is its root mean square (rms) value, i.e.,
Irms = Imax / 2 and Vrms = Vmax / 2
Now let us consider, V (t) = Vmax cos (t + v) and I (t) = Imax cos (t + i), then the power in
terms of rms values can be expressed as
P = Vmax Imax cos (v i) or, P= Vrms Irms cos (v i) or, P= Vrms Irms cos where =(v
i) or the phase displacement between voltage and current.
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on it. Gradually a positive charge + Q is deposited on the positive plate of the capacitor with a
negative charge Q on its negative plate. A capacitor in an electrical circuit opposes any
change in voltage magnitude in the circuit.
Capacitance
Capacitance (C) is the property of the capacitor to store electric charge. It is defined as the
amount of charge required to create a unit potential difference between the plates.
C=Q/V
i,e., capacitance is the charge required per unit potential difference.
The unit of capacitance is Farad (F). A farad is however too large for practical purposes.
Capacitance is usually expressed in smaller units like microfarad (F=10-6 F), nanofarad
(nF=10-9 F), or picofarad (pF=10-12 F). The capacitance, C, is an inherent characteristic of the
capacitor and does not depend on Q and V. It depends on the physical dimensions of the
capacitor. For the parallel plate capacitor, the capacitance is
C = A / d
where, is the permittivity of the dielectric; A is the cross-sectional area; and d is the distance
between the plates. Like resistance in an electric circuit capacitance offers capacitive
reactance (Xc) in ohm,
Xc = 1/ c or, Xc= 1/2 fc
Types of Capacitors
Capacitors can be classified
depending on the type of construction as fixed or variable; or
depending on the dielectric material as polyester, mica, polystyrene, or electrolytic.
Inductor and Inductance
While capacitors store energy in their electric field, inductors store energy in their magnetic
fields. Inductors are used in power supplies, transformers, radios, TVs, radar, and electric
motors. Common applications for inductors are as coils or chokes. In power systems inductors
are used in relays, delay timers, sensing devices, etc. In telecommunications, they are used as
sensing heads, in telephone circuits, and loudspeakers. An inductor consists of a coil of
conducting wire. The voltage across an inductor is given by V = L di /dt where L is the
inductance.
Inductance is the property whereby an inductor exhibits opposition to the current flowing
through it. Inductance is expressed in henrys (H).
The inductance depends on the physical dimension and
construction of the inductor. For a solenoid
L = N2A / l
where N = number of turns; l = length; A = crosssectional
area, and = permeability of the core.
Like resistance in an electric circuit inductance offers inductive reactance (XL) in ohm,
XL = L or, XL = 2 fL
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Kirchhoffs Law:1st Law:- The sum of currents entering a junction is equal to the sum of the currents leaving
the junction.
2nd Law:- The sum of e.m.fs around any closed loop of a circuit equals the sum of the potential
drops in that loop.
Superposition theorem:- In any network containing more than one sources of e.m.f the
current in any branch is the algebraic sum of a number of individual fictitious currents, each
of which is due to the separate action of each source of e.m.f, taken in order, when the
remaining sources of e.m.f are replaced by conductors, the resistnces of which are equal to the
internal resistnces of the respective sources.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF TRANSFORMER
Primary / Secondary Windings
A transformer converts alternating voltage and current in one winding into alternating
voltage and current (at different values) in another winding by electromagnetic induction
(Figure-1). Current will flow through load when the switch in the secondary circuit is closed.
The frequency remains unaltered during transformation.
(Figure - 1)
The essential components in a transformer are a magnetic core of laminated iron and two
windings, the primary and the secondary windings placed around it. The cores are laminated
to reduce Hysterisis loss and Eddy current loss. The winding that is connected to the source is
known as the primary winding and the one connected to the load is the secondary winding.
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The alternating flux produced by the primary winding links with the secondary winding and
induces the alternating voltage in the secondary winding depending on the ratio of number of
turns in the two windings.
Turns Ratio and Taps
The voltage, current and power in the secondary circuit are found by the following relationship
Input Voltage (V1) = Number of turns on Primary Winding (N1) = K Output Voltage (V2)
Number of turns on Secondary Winding (N2) where K = Turn Ratio , V1 and V2 are phase
voltages.
Or, V1 / V2 = N1 / N2 =K
Similarly,
Input Current (I1) X Number of turns on Primary Winding (N1)
= Output Current (I2) X Number of turns on Secondary Winding (N2)
Or, I1 x N1 = I2 x N2 or, I1 / I2 = N2 / N1 = 1/K
Power Input = Power Output (ignoring the losses in the transformer)
Taps in Transformer Winding
Taps are brought out normally from high voltage windings to the tap changing switch. The tap
points are brought out from the middle of the windings to keep the magnetic balance and
usually correspond to 2.5% and 5.0%. Extra turns are inserted if the primary voltage is high
and few turns are shorted if the primary voltage is low. If the incoming voltage is abnormally
low for most of the time, it is advisable to go for -10% tapping. Tap changers are OFF-LOAD
type and ON-LOAD type. The former is operated after switching OFF the transformer and the
latter is changed without interruption of power supply.
Step-up, Step-down
Power Transformers are broadly classified as step up and step down transformers.
Accordingly they are used for raising or lowering the voltage. For example a generators
generating at 11 kV level supplies power to 33 kV load centre by the help of a step-up 11 / 33
kV transformer. On the other hand, a distribution transformer distributes power at 415V level
with the help of a step-down transformer of rating 11 kV / 415V.
There are other transformers used in steel plants namely three winding transformer (one
primary winding and two secondary windings having two different output voltages),
autotransformers where output is taken from tapping of the main winding, instrument
transformers (current transformer, voltage transformer), furnace transformers, etc.
Transformers are at the core of a power distribution network. They work at very high
efficiencies (95 to 99 per cent). A transformer is mostly used to step-up or step-down the
system voltage as required. They can be classified as follows:
a. Auto Transformers: In an autotransformer the secondary
voltage is derived from the tapped primary winding. It is used
for transfer of large amounts of power, where electrical
isolation is not required.
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b. Power Transformers: Used to step-down (EHV to HV) or step-up (HV to EHV) voltage for
bulk transfer of power at switchyards. They may have either one or two secondaries.
c. Distribution Transformers: Used to step-down HV to LV at sub-stations near loads.
d. Thyristor (Converter / Inverter) Transformers: Used for AC-to-DC (or vice versa)
conversion or in thyristorized control systems like VVVF drives.
e. Furnace Transformers: Used in arc furnaces where HV is stepped down to LV to
generate very high currents used for arcing, primarily for secondary steel-making. Voltage
variation is done by an On-Load Tap Changer (OLTC).
f. Instrument Transformers: CT or current transformer and PT or Potential transformer
fall in this category and are used for protection and metering.
g. Isolation Transformers: Their primary and secondary voltages are the same and they are
used to provide electrical isolation so that a downstream fault does not affect other
components of the system.
h. Impedance Matching Transformers: Used to match the load resistance to the source
resistance, for example to connect a loudspeaker to an audio power amplifier. The speakers
resistance is only a few ohms while the internal resistance of the amplifier is several thousand
ohms. For impedance matching, the required number of turns of the transformer is selected.
Insulating medium in transformers. Depending on
the insulating medium, transformers are also
classified as oil-filled, synthetic liquid-filled or dry
types. Power and furnace transformers are mineral
oil-filled, which acts as an insulating medium as well
as coolant. Oil-filled transformers require a lot of
maintenance there could be problems of oil leakage,
degradation of oil, or fire hazard. Degradation of oil in
these transformers requires oil-filtration or total oil
replacement, which may require a shutdown. There is
also the possibility of fire hazard. Hence these
transformers are located in large switchyards or inside
separate well-ventilated rooms. Distribution and
thyristor transformers have all three insulating
media. There are two types of dry type transformers
cast-resin and vacuum pressure impregnated. However absence of an external coolant /
insulating medium limits their capacity (up to 15 MVA). Synthetic liquid-filled transformers
have excellent insulating properties and do not degrade like mineral oil. However these
liquids (and their fumes) are harmful to human beings. Hence such liquids are banned
worldwide. However, we still have a large number of liquid-filled filled transformers installed
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during the late 1950s to mid- 1980s, which are gradually being phased out by dry-type
transformers.
Regulation of Transformer:Due to resistance of the windings and leakage reactances voltage drop takes place in a
transformer. Accordingly the voltage under load conditions is different from the output voltage
under no-load condition. Voltage regulation is defined as The change in secondary voltage
when rated load at a specified power is removed. It is specified as a percentage of the rated
secondary voltage.
% regulation(down) = V V X 100
V
% regulation(up) = V V X 100
V
V = Secondary terminal voltage at no load
V = Secondary terminal voltage on full load
The less this value, the better the transformer, because a good transformer should keep its
secondary terminal voltage as constant as possible under all conditions of load.
Transformer Losses:
Iron Losses ( or Core losses):- It includes hysteresis loss and eddy current loss.Since the
flux in a transformer core is alternating, power is required for continuous reversals of
the elementary magnets of which the iron is composed. This loss is known as hysteresis
loss.
The loss due to flow of eddy currents in the core. Thin laminations insulated from each
other to reduce the eddy current loss to small proportion.
Copper losses :- These losses are due to the ohmic resistance of the transformer
windings.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MOTOR
Motor principle
An electric motor is a machine which converts electric energy into mechanical energy. Its
action is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic
field, it experiences a mechanical force whose direction is given by Flemings Left-hand
Rule and whose magnitude is given by F=B I l Newton. Motors are classified into two groups
depending on the type of electrical energy used.
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1. DC Motor
2. AC Motor
DC Motor
The motors, practically used in industrial applications are multi pole D.C. Motor. When its
field magnets are excited and its armature conductors are supplied with current from the
supply mains, they experience a force tending to rotate the armature. Because all Dry Type
Transformer conductors experience a force which tends to rotate the armature, the forces
collectively produces a driving torque which sets the armature rotating. It has following parts:
Yoke:
The outer frame of the motor is called yoke that serves two purposes.
It provides mechanical support for the poles and act as a protecting cover for the whole
machine and
It carries the magnetic flux produced by the poles.
Pole cores and Pole shoes (Field):
The field magnets consists pole cores and pole shoes. The pole shoes serve two purposes
They spread out the flux in the air gap and also, being of larger cross section, reduce the
reluctance of the magnetic path
They support the exciting coils (or Field Coils).
The field coils or pole coils, which consists of copper wire or strip, are former-wound for correct
dimension. When current is passed through these coils, they magnetise the poles which
produce the necessary flux that is cut by revolving armature conductors.
Armature Core:
It houses the armature conductors or coils and causes them to rotate and hence cut the
magnetic flux of field magnets. In addition to this, its most important function is to provide a
path of very low reluctance to the flux through the armature from a North Pole to a South
Pole.
It is cylindrical or drum-shaped and is built up usually circular sheet steel discs or
laminations. The laminated core is made up of high silicon steel to reduce Hysteresis loss and
laminated design reduces Eddy Current loss in the armature.
Commutator and Brushes:
The function of commutator is to facilitate collection of current from the armature conductors.
The brushes, whose function is to collect current from commutator, are usually made of carbon
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and are of the shape of a rectangular block. These brushes are housed in brush holders which
hold down brushes on to the commutator by a spring. A flexible copper pigtail mounted at the
top of the brush conveys current from the brushes to the holder. There are 3 basic types of
D.C. Motors. They are compared in the table given below:
D.C. MOTOR
SHUNT WOUND
1) Field and armature
windings are in parallel.
2)
Medium
starting
torque.
3)
Good
speed
regulation.
4) Can be used from low
to rated loads.
COMPOUND WOUND
1) One field winding is in
series and other in parallel
with armature.
2) Performance optimized
to suit applications.
3) Better than series wound.
4) Can be used from low to
rated loads.
SERIES WOUND
1) Field and armature
windings are in series.
2) Highest starting torque.
3) Poor speed regulation.
4) Over-speeding if used at
no load or light load
Normally in Industries where speed variation and control are desired, a separately excited
type of DC motor is used where instead of connecting armature and field in parallel ( as in
case of a shunt motor),they are separately excited, meaning field and armature winding are
provided with supply from separate sources.
Lets see the basic equations of D.C. motor. The figure below indicates typical configuration of
a separately excited DC motor.
When current Ia flows through armature winding, it will also produce its own magnetic field
that will interact with field flux. The resultant magnetic field will develop torque on the
armature.
Rotation of armature in the magnetic field will induce back E.M.F (Eb) in the armature due
to generator action.
Considering the dynamic condition we can write the following equations.
VT =Eb +IaRa
Eb N x
(Torque) T Ia where again If Vf
(Speed of motor) N (Eb / )
Ia (Mechanical load on the motor)
(Power) P = VT x Ia ..input power to armature
= Eb x Ia..useful power
= 2 NTmechanical power.
Summary of Applications:
Type of Motor
Shunt
Characteristics
Approximately constant
speed
Adjustable speed
Medium Starting Torque
Series
Variable speed
Adjustable varying speed
High Starting toque
Cumulative
compound
Variable speed
Adjustable varying speed
High Starting toque
Applications
For driving constant speed
line shafting.
Lathes
Centrifugal pumps
Blowers and Fans
Reciprocating Pumps
For traction work i.e.
electric Locomotives
Rapid Transit systems
Trolley cars, conveyors
For intermittent high
starting torque loads
Shear and Punches
Elevators, Conveyors
AC Motor:
AC Motor uses electrical energy in AC form to convert it into mechanical energy
As regards to the principle of operation AC Motors are classified into following groups.
Synchronous motors
Asynchronous motors ( Induction Motor )
Squirrel cage
Slip-ring
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Induction Motor:
In DC motor, the electrical power is conducted directly to the armature (i.e. rotating part)
through brushes and commutator. Hence in this case DC motor can be called as conduction
motor.
However in AC motors, the rotor does not receive electric power by conduction but by
induction in exactly the same way as the secondary of a transformer receives its power from
primary. That is why such motors are called as Induction motors. The poly phase induction
motor is extensively used for various industrial applications. It has following advantages and
disadvantages.
Advantages:
It has very simple and extremely rugged construction (Especially squirrel cage Type).
Its cost is low and it is very reliable.
It has sufficiently high efficiency. In normal running condition, no brushes are needed,
hence frictional loses are reduced. It has a reasonably good power factor.
It requires minimum maintenance.
It starts up from rest and needs no extra starting motor and has not to be synchronized.
Its starting arrangement is simple especially for squirrel cage type motor.
Disadvantages:
Its speed cannot be varied without sacrificing some of its efficiency.
Just like a DC shunt motor, its speed decreases with increase in load.
Its starting torque is somewhat inferior to that of a DC shunt motor.
Construction:
An induction motor consists of two main parts:
1. Stator
2. Rotor
Stator
The stator of an induction motor is, in principle same as that of a synchronous motor. It is
made up of stampings, which are slotted to receive the windings. The stator carries a 3- phase
supply. It is wound for a definite number of poles, the exact number of poles being determined
by the requirements of speed. Greater the number of poles, lesser is the speed and vice versa.
The stator winding, when supplied with three phase current, produces a magnetic flux which
is of constant magnitude but which revolves (or rotates) at synchronous speed ( Ns = 120f / P ).
This revolving magnetic flux induces an e.m.f in the rotor by mutual induction.
Rotor
Squirrel cage Rotor:
Motors using this type of rotor are known as squirrel-cage induction motors. Almost 90 % of
induction motors are squirrel-cage type, because this type of rotor has the simplest and most
rugged construction imaginable and is almost indestructible. The rotor consists of a cylindrical
laminated core with parallel slots for carrying conductors which are not wires but consists of
heavy bars of copper, aluminum or alloys. The rotor bars are brazed or electrically welded or
bolted to two heavy and stout short-circuiting end rings. Therefore it is not possible to add
external resistance in series with the rotor circuit for starting for starting purpose. The rotor
slots are not quite parallel to the shafts but are purposely given a slight skew. This helps in
two ways:
it helps to make the motor run quietly by reducing the magnetic hum and
it helps in reducing the locking tendency of the rotor i.e. the tendency of rotor teeth to
remain under the stator teeth due to direct magnetic attraction between the two.
Phase Wound or Wound rotor:
This type of rotor is provided with 3-phase, double layer, distributed winding consisting of
coils. The rotor is wound for as many poles as the number of stator poles and is always wound
3-phase even when the stator is wound two-phase. The three phases are starred internally.
The three winding terminals are brought out and connected to three insulated slip-rings
mounted on the shaft with brushes resting on them. These three brushes are further
externally connected to a 3-phase star-connected rheostat. This makes possible the
introduction of additional resistance in the rotor circuit during the starting period for
increasing the starting torque and for changing its torque / current characteristics. When
running under normal conditions, the slip-rings are automatically short-circuited by means of
a metal collar which is pushed along the shaft and connects all the rings together. The brushes
are automatically lifted from the slip-rings to reduce frictional losses and the wear and tear.
Hence, it is seen that under normal running conditions, the wound rotor is short-circuited on
itself just like the squirrel-cage rotor.
Synchronous Motor
Synchronous Motors are three-phase AC motors which run at synchronous speed, without
slip. (In an induction motor the rotor must have some slip. The rotor speed must be less
than, or lag behind, that of the rotating stator flux in order for current to be induced into the
rotor. If an induction motor rotor were to achieve synchronous speed, no lines of force would
cut through the rotor, so no current would be induced in the rotor and no torque would be
developed.) Most synchronous motors are rated between 150kW and 15 MW and run at speeds
ranging from 150 to 1800 RPM. Some characteristic features of a synchronous motor are as
follows:
It runs either at synchronous speed or not at all i.e. while running, it maintains a
constant speed. The only way to change its speed is to vary the supply frequency
(because Ns =120f/P).
It is not inherently self-starting. It has to be run upto synchronous (or near
synchronous) speed by some means before it can be synchronized to supply.
Synchronous motors have the following characteristics:
o A three-phase stator similar to that of an induction motor. Medium voltage stators
are often used.
o A wound rotor (rotating field) which has the same number of poles as the stator, and
is supplied by an external source of direct current (DC). Both brush-type and brush
less exciters are used to supply the DC field current to the rotor. The rotor current
establishes a north/south magnetic pole relationship in the rotor poles enabling the
rotor to lock-instep with the rotating stator flux.
o Starts as an induction motor. The synchronous motor rotor also has a squirrel-cage
winding, known as an Amortisseur winding, which produces torque for motor
starting.
o Synchronous motors will run at synchronous speed in accordance with the formula:
120 x Frequency ( f )
or,
Synchronous RPM ( NS) = ----------------------------Number of Poles ( P )
NS = 120 f / P
Example: the speed of a 24 -Pole Synchronous Motor operating at 60 Hz would be: 120 x
60 / 24 = 7200 / 24 = 300 RPM
Synchronous Motor Operation
The squirrel-cage Amortisseur winding in the rotor produces Starting Torque and
Accelerating Torque to bring the synchronous motor up to speed.
When the motor speed reaches approximately 97% of nameplate RPM, the DC field
current is applied to the rotor producing Pull-in Torque and the rotor will pull-in -step
and 160 synchronize with the rotating flux field in the stator. The motor will run at
synchronous speed and produce Synchronous Torque.
After synchronization, the Pull-out Torque cannot be exceeded or the motor will pull
out-of-step. Occasionally, if the overload is momentary, the motor will slip-a-pole and
resynchronize. Pull-out protection must be provided otherwise the motor will run as an
induction motor drawing high current with the possibility of severe motor damage.
Advantages of Synchronous Motors
The initial cost of a synchronous motor is more than that of a conventional AC induction motor
due to the expense of the wound rotor and synchronizing circuitry. These initial costs are often
off-set by:
Precise speed regulation makes the synchronous motor an ideal choice for certain
industrial processes and as a prime mover for generators.
Synchronous motors have speed / torque characteristics which are ideally suited for
direct drive of large horsepower, low-rpm loads such as reciprocating compressors.
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CPPs in NINL is gas-based thermal power plants. In thermal power stations, mechanical
power is produced by a steam turbine, which transforms thermal energy, from combustion of a
fuel (LDO or by-product gases), into rotational energy. Pulverized coal is fed to the boiler,
where its combustion takes place, thereby producing thermal energy that heats the water
inside the boiler tubes. High pressure, high temperature steam then passes through the
turbine. The dynamic pressure generated by expanding steam turns the blades of a turbine. A
generator that produces electricity is connected to this turbine. To utilize the exhaust steam
from the turbine, condensers are used to convert the exhaust steam into condensate (water),
which is pumped back to the boiler. The excess steam is used in steel plants for certain
processes, like running of steam exhausters in coke ovens. Blast Furnace and Coke Oven
gases are also used as fuel in NINLs CPPs. Power is normally generated at 11 kV. The
generator is connected through a transformer to the grid, stepping-up the voltage of the
generated power to grid voltage. It is then distributed to various production shops through
step-down transformers at 33KV, 11 kV, 6.6 kV, 5 kV and 440 V.
Page 152 of 250
Precautions during paralleling: A majority of the equipments in a steel plant have both state
grids as well CPP supply. It is important that any paralleling operation at sub-stations is done
only after ensuring that the CPP supply is synchronized with the grid supply. If paralleling is
done between two supply sources not in synchronism, there is a danger of flashover due to
circulating currents caused by the difference in voltages of the two power sources.
Islanding: During system disturbances, the islanding of CPPs from the grid on Over / Underfrequency takes place to isolate the generators from grid disturbances, so that the critical
loads in the steel plant get uninterrupted power supply. During islanding of CPP generators,
they are out of synchronism with the grid supply. Hence, utmost care has to be taken to
prevent any paralleling of the two supply sources at downstream sub-stations.
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High resistance interruption:- In this method, the resistance of the arc is increased by
lengthing and cooling it to such an extent that the system voltage is no longer able to
maintain the arc and arc gets extinguished. It is used in air CB and dc CB.
Zero point interruption:- In this process the arc gets extinguished at neutral current
zero of the alternating current wave and is prevented from restriking again by rapid
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build up of dielectric strength of the contact space. This is employed in almost all ac
CB.
Withdraw able HV VCB with panels
VCBs are the preferred choice at HV; absence of air and
moisture in the arc-quenching medium (vacuum) results in
zero contact erosion. They offer better service than SF6CBs,
which suffer from problems of SF6 gas leakage. The vacuum
bottles used in VCBs are factory-sealed and have an
operating life of up to 30,000 to 1,00,000 operations. Surge
Arrestors are used with VCBs to suppress switching
surges. Vacuum Contactors, a variant of VCBs are used for
motors that are frequently switched on and off. ACBs,
Moulded Case CBs (or MCCBs), Miniature CBs (MCBs), AC
/ DC contactors, DOL starters, etc. at LV are also part of the switchgear family. They are
installed individually at equipment locations, e.g., near a motor or in combination with other
switchgear components as shown in the figure below.
Current chopping & motor switching
It occurs during opening
small inductive currents by
VCB or air blast CB.
When
interrupting
low
inductive currents such as
magnetizing currents of
transformer, shunt reactor,
the rapid deionization of
contact space and blast
effect may cause the current
to be interrupted before its
natural
zero.
This
phenomenon
is
called
current chopping. The energy stored in inductance for value of current i, is diverted to the
capacitance at the moment of current interruption.
1/2Li = Cv2
v = Sqrt L/C
The transient voltage having high RRRV appears across the contacts, unless the arc restrikes.
If it restrikes a further, chop may occur or several chops may occur before the current is
finally interrupted CB may fail to clear the current.
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A CB in which the dielectric strength of contact space grows at a slower rate, the problem of
current chopping disturbance is less severe because the gap breaks down and absorbs the
magnetic energy in successive restrikes.(Ex- oil CB)
RC surge suppressor having R= 100 ohms and C = 100 micro farad are connected between
phase and ground to reduce the switching over voltage occurring due to current chopping. In
addition to this ZnO arrestors are connected between phase and ground/neutral of each phase.
Restrike phenomenon & capacitor switching
During opening operation, if the dielectric strength of the contact gap is less than the recovery
voltage, the arc reappears. If the arc reappears after 5msec the phenomenon is called restrike.
During capacitor switching, the current is small and arc is quenched at first current zero. But
the voltage across the contact gap is sum of voltage across capacitor and the supply
voltage.The voltage reaches maximum value after about 10msec after first current zero. By
this time the contact gap should have recovered and the dielectric strength should be above
the recovery voltage.If not then restrike occurs. The arc is re-established and the energy in the
capacitor is violently discharged through the break to the supply side causing over voltage.
VCB & SF6 CB generally gives restrike free performance and preferred for capacitor
switching.
LV distribution / control panel Earthing Concept and Importance
Earthing in an electrical system is not only an important safety measure for all electrical
equipment associated with it but also an important safety measure to save human life who are
on the job in an electrical premises. Earthing means connecting the electrical equipment to
the general mass of earth of low resistance. The objective is to provide under and around the
electrical premises a surface of uniform potential - at near zero or absolute earth potential.
All electrical installations, whether a switchyard or a sub-station have an earth grid / mat.
The earthing system consists of numbers of vertically driven earth electrodes ( about 40mm
dia. and 3 mtr long ) into the earth in layers of salt & charcoal and connecting them to earth
grid formed by GI/MS flat or MS rod laid horizontally at a depth of 500 mm beneath the top
earth surface. Any electrical equipment shall be connected to the earth grid at two points
positively. In EHV system the earth grid resistance shall be not more than 0.5 ohm and in
other HV or LV system the earth resistance shall be not more than 1.0 ohm. An effective
earthing system aims at providing protection to human life and equipment against dangerous
potentials under fault conditions. It should pass maximum earth fault current to earth
thereby operating the earth fault relays located in the control panels for isolation of faulty
feeders. The earth mat also minimizes electro-magnetic interference between power and
control / communication systems.
Methods of earthing neutral point of Generator
Solid earthing
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Resistance earthing.
Reactance earthing.
Peterson coil
Voltage transformer earthing.
CABLES AND RELAYS
Cables
Though overhead lines are used for transfer of power at EHV and HV, bulk of the power in
steel plants is transferred through cables, either laid through cable tunnels or buried
underground. The cost of underground cables is invariably higher than that of overhead lines
with equivalent capacity. However the obvious advantages of an underground system are
safety, aesthetic value of localities, and stability of supply. All cables have stranded
conductors (copper or aluminum) at the core, around which are wrapped layers of insulation.
Conductor screens (shields) are employed to prevent excessive electrical stress in voids
between the conductor and the insulation. A semiconducting screen (or semi-conducting tapes)
on the conductor provide effective adhereness and remain in intimate contact with the
conductor and the insulation thereby practically eliminating all voids.
The desirable characteristics in any insulating material are
Classification of Cables. Depending on the type of insulation used, the cables are classified
as follows:
sheath also provides a ground path under fault conditions. PILC cables can be easily laid
through tunnels, buried underground and laid aerially. PILC cables are used in circuits with
stringent service requirements, viz., highest reliability, longest uninterrupted service life, and
greatest surge, impulse and AC dielectric strength.
They have high operating temperatures (90 C) under normal conditions.
PVC is the most widely used polymer as cable insulation. It is used at LV (power and control),
MV (up to 6.6 kV) and some specialist applications like telecommunications.
PVC cables have a number of advantages, such as:
Good electrical and insulation properties over a wide temperature range up to 80C
Can withstand thermal and thermo-mechanical stresses at continuous normal and
short circuit temperature condition
Inherent fire safety provided by a tough and resilient sheath of galvanized iron, which
is used for earthing purposes also.
Provide complete protection against electrolytic and chemical corrosion hence very
useful in polluted steel plant environment
A non-hygroscopic insulation almost unaffected by moisture
Excellent durability and long-life expectancy
Easy processing characteristics to achieve desired specification for end-products easy
to handle / strip
Not affected by vibration
Cost-effective
Armouring is done in all types of cables through steel tape or galvanized wire / strip or
aluminium wire / strip to prevent mechanical damage / stress. While laying or handling
cables, the minimum bending radius prescribed should be strictly followed to reduce
mechanical stress.
Marking on cables: Colour codes / tapes are used for identification of the three cores.
Standard marking is through colours (like Red, Yellow and Blue or RYB; Yellow, Green and
Red or YGR), or numbers (1, 2, 3). The marking or coding is vital when connecting/ jointing
two cables together, or when a new cable is being connected to an existing system, so that the
phasing is matched.
At the ends of a panel or equipment (motor or transformer), the end-terminations are to be
made with special care. For long lengths of cables, the pieces have to be joined by means of
straight-through joints, as the cables are normally available in lengths of 250 m or 500 m in
cable drums. The diagrams below show a typical end-termination (when viewed from the backside of an MV panel and a straight-through joint in the tunnel.
Grading of Cables:The process of achieving uniformity in dielectric stress is known as grading of cables.
Two methods of grading are:
Capacitance grading: In this method, the uniformity in dielectric stress is achieved
by using various layers of different dielectrics in such a manner that the permittivity of
any layer is inversely proportional to its radius or distance from centre.
Intersheath grading: A homogenous dielectric is used which is divided into various
layers, by suitably placing the metallic intersheaths.
Relays
Over Current and Earth Fault Relay:
These relays operate when the magnitude of the current in its circuit, supplied directly or
from current transformers, exceeds a preset value. The relays have a number of current
settings to make them suitable for wide range of application. Mostly two over current
elements for phase faults and one earth fault element for earth fault are provided for solidlyearthed system. Three numbers of phase fault relays are desirable on system earthed through
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high impedance or unearthed. They are also necessary on delta side of delta-star transformers
as the current in one phase may be twice that in the other two phases for a phase-to phase
fault on star side. Earth fault protection may be provided by using core balance current
transformers. Core balance protection consists of a ring-core current transformer which is
designed to pass over 3 core cables. The output from this current transformer is utilized to
enerzise a current operated relay. The arrangement provides very sensitive earth fault
protection.
Fault currents change in magnitude and phase while being transformed in delta star
transformers. An earth fault on star side produces a circulating zero sequence current in the
delta winding but no zero sequence current in the lines of the delta side of the transformer. An
earth fault relay on delta side will not, therefore, respond to an earth fault on the star side of
the transformers. For the purpose of gradation earth fault relays of the delta and star sides
thus become independent.
Over current and earth fault relays may have any one of the time- current characteristics:
Time-Delay
Instantaneous
Combination of both.
Time Delay characteristics may be IDMT (Inverse definite minimum time) or definite time
type. In IDMT relays, the time of operation of the relay is inversely proportional to the value
of current. However after a certain value of current, say 20 times, the curve remains constant
at a minimum time for operation of the relay. For definite time relays, the time remains
constant even if the current increases considerably above the set value of the current.
Instantaneous relay operates instantaneously when current increases above the set value.
Differential Relay
The principle of operation of differential relays is based on Merz-Price System. Fundamentally
the system of connection and operation is as follows. The current transformers are placed on
two ends of the protected zone(eg. winding of transformer / motor) and are connected in
opposition. So long as the current at two ends of the winding is equal, equal and opposite emfs
are induced in the two current transformers of that winding and there will be no current
through the relay. Whenever a fault develops in the winding, the current at the two ends of
that winding will not be equal and the relay will operate due to flow of differential current.
Motor Protection Relay
These relays protect the motor from five basic faults. The basic faults are:
SCADA
Full form of SCADA is Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition. The main functions of
SCADA are:
Collecting the analogue data like current, voltage, frequency, pf, MW, MVA, MVAR, etc
and digital status like CB ON/OFF, Fault Trip relay operation etc. and transferring
these data from Remote Terminal Units (RTUs) to Master Control Station for entire
network (analogue values and digital status) for further monitoring, control and
analysis. These data are called AI and DI data.
Switching ON/OFF different circuit breakers at unmanned substations at a remote
location, if required by generating digital output i.e. DO commands.
Facilitating load balancing and ensuring system stability when the CPP is islanded
from the grid with its full generation. The same is accomplished through a definitive
program running in the servers at the master control station.
ELECTRICAL INSULATION
Insulating Materials
Insulating materials offer high resistance to flow of current and are used in all electrical
equipments. It is the insulation part in any cable or machine that is most liable to fail. Apart
from electrical and mechanical stresses, heat plays the most important role in determining the
life and performance of the insulating materials, and as such the operating temperature of any
operating cable or machine must not be allowed to exceed the permissible temperature rise
limit. Moisture and dust also degrade the insulating materials. The insulating materials have
been classified according to their ability to withstand heat. The recognized classes of
insulating materials along with their assigned temperature as per IS 1271-1958 as below:
Class of
Insulation
Class Y or O
Class A
Class E
Class B
Class F
Class H
Class C
Material
Cotton Paper, Pressboard, Wood, Fibre
PVC, Vulcanised rubber
Epoxy Resins, Paper laminates
Fibreglass, Asbestos
Varnished Fibre Glass and Asbestos
Silicon Elastomer
Mica, Porcelain
Temperature
90C
105C
120C
130C
155C
180C
Above 180C
Application
Telephone Cables
LT Power Cables and Control Cables, LT Motor, Transformer LT
side(415V)
LT Power Cable, LT Motor, Transformer LT side(415V)
HT Power Cable, HT Motor, Transformer HT side(3.3 or 6.6 or 11 kV)
HT Power Cable, HT Motor, Transformer HT side (33KV,11KV), EHT
switchyard equipments (132 or 220 kV)
TESTING OF MOTORS
I.R. Measurement
Insulation resistance between winding and motor body is measured by a suitable I.R. tester.
Value of I.R. at 1 minute and value of I.R at 10 minutes are taken and the polarization index
is noted. A value more than 3.0 indicates a healthy motor.
Winding resistance
Winding resistance of a motor (per phase value) is taken in case of any problem in the motor.
These values should be equally balanced and tally with the manufacturers test report.
High Voltage Test
High Voltage test is done after rewinding the motor or if the motor is not in use for a long
time. I.R. test before and after the High Voltage test must be done to check any deterioration
in the value of insulation resistance after the HV test. A value of high voltage 1.5 times rated
voltage is preferred for a running motor.
ELECTRONICS
Electronic Devices
Introduction
Electronic devices are the backbone of the electronic industry.
Almost everything from children toys to life saving equipment depends upon these
components.
Billions of components are available in the market.
In a large process industry like ours, a wide variety of components are used in various
electronic systems.
Types
Passive components: Fixed and Variable Resistances, Fixed and Variable Capacitors,
Inductors etc.
Active Components:
Resistances
1. Definition: Resistor is the electronic device that resists the flow of current.
2. Unit of Measurement: Ohms ()
3. Specifications: The resistors are specified in terms of:
Value: Specified in Ohms
Tolerance: Allowable deviation from the specified value expressed in percentage
(1%/5%/10%/20%).
Power: Resistors are designed to handle a particular amount of power. Same value
resistors are available in different power ratings like quarter watt, Half watt, 1 watt
etc.
Type: Depending on the material used for fabrication, the resistors may be Carbon,
Metal Film, Wire wound type etc.
4. Symbol: or
5. Value Identification:
Values and Tolerance identified by Colour Coded Bands or printed on the body e.g. R33M =
0.33 20% and 4k7F=4700 1% Tolerance.
6. Applications:
Current Limiting Resistor
Loading Resistor
Timing Element
Bleeder etc
Capacitors
1. Definition: Capacitor is the electronic device that stores electrical charge and resists any
change in voltage at its terminals.
2. Unit of Measurement: Farads (F) but generally available in microfarads (F)
3. Specification: The capacitors are specified in terms of:
Capacity or Value: Expressed in Farads.
Polarity: Polar (DC Capacitors) or Non-Polar (AC-AC Capacitors)
Voltage: Max voltage which the capacitor can sustain without being damaged.
Tolerance: Allowable deviation from the specified value expressed in percentage.
Packaging: Axial Lead package, radial Lead package, Solder Type Terminals,
Screwable terminals etc.
Type: Depending on the dielectric used to fabricate the capacitor, they can be
Electrolytic, Ceramic Disc, Paper, Mica, Metal Polyester etc
4. Symbol:
5. Applications:
Capacitor is a very versatile component with widespread applications for example:
Spark suppression on thermostats, relays etc.;
Reservoir and Smoothing filters in power supplies;
Decoupling and Coupling in amplifiers;
Tuning elements for multi-vibrators, delay circuits etc;
Filters and waveform shaping and oscillators.
Inductors
1. Definition: An inductor is simply a coil of wire. An inductor can store energy in its
magnetic field, and tends to resist any change in the amount of current flowing through it.
2. Unit of Measurement: Henry (H).
3. Symbol:
4. Applications:
5. Materials: Almost invariably copper as coil material but core can be of different materials.
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Miscellaneous Components
In addition to the above, several other components are used in electronic circuits like Relays,
Switches, and Crystals etc.
Switches:
Definition: A switch is a device used to connect and disconnect a circuit at will. Switches cover
a wide range of types, from sub miniature up to industrial plant switching megawatts of power
on high voltage distribution lines.
Symbol: or
Types: Switches are classified on several bases. On the basis of number
of contacts in the switch, they can be Single or Double Pole and so on. If
a Switch has two positions in which it can be operated (say ON and
OFF), it is called Single Throw Switch. If it has three positions it is
called Double Throw.
Relays:
Definition: A relay is an electrical switch that opens and
closes under the control of another electrical circuit. In
the original form, the switch is operated by an electromagnet to
open or close one or many sets of contacts. It was invented by
Joseph Henry in 1835. Because a relay is able to control an
output circuit of higher power than the input circuit, it can be
considered to be, in a broad sense, a form of an electrical
amplifier.
Principle: When a current flows through the coil, the resulting magnetic field attracts an
armature that is mechanically linked to a moving contact. The movement either makes or
breaks a connection with a fixed contact. When the current to the coil is switched off, the
armature is returned by a force approximately half as strong as the magnetic force to its
relaxed position. Usually this is a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial
motor starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate quickly. In a low voltage application,
this is to reduce noise. In a high voltage or high current application, this is to reduce arcing.
Crystals:
Definition: A crystal oscillator is an electronic circuit that uses the mechanical
resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical
signal with a very precise frequency. This frequency is commonly used to keep track of
time (as in quartz wristwatches), to provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits,
and to stabilize frequencies for radio transmitters/receivers.
Principle: When a crystal of quartz is properly cut and mounted, it can be made to distort in
an electric field by applying a voltage to an electrode near or on the crystal. This property is
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known as piezoelectricity. When the field is removed, the quartz will generate an electric field
as it returns to its previous shape, and this can generate a voltage. The result is that a quartz
crystal behaves like a circuit composed of an inductor, capacitor and
resistor, with a precise resonant frequency.
History of Development of Semiconductors
Testing
The thyristor can be tested at site using a Battery Tester. The positive terminal of the battery
tester should be connected to the Anode of the Thyristor and the negative terminal at the
Cathode of the thyristor. The battery lamp shall not glow until the Gate of the thyristor is also
connected to the positive of the Battery Tester. Once the lamp starts glowing, it should
continue to glow even if the Gate is made open circuited because the thyristor has latched. It
shall stop glowing only when the Anode or Cathode wire is also removed. It should be kept in
mind that sometimes thyristor does not latch because the battery is not able to supply the
latching current. In this case, at least three batteries should be used in series and the
batteries should be changed if they are old. In laboratory the same test can be conducted using
two power supplies (one for Anode Cathode circuit and other for Gate Cathode circuit) and
suitable load resistance.
TESTING, MEASURING INSTRUMENTS AND TOOLS.
Use and handling of: Digital multi-meters:
A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a volt/ohm meter or VOM, is an electronic
measuring instrument that combines several functions in one unit. A standard multimeter
may include features such as the ability to measure voltage, current and resistance. There are
two categories of multimeters, analog multimeters and digital multimeters (often
abbreviated DMM.)
A multimeter can be a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field service work or
a bench instrument which can measure to a very high degree of accuracy. They can be used to
troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of industrial and household devices.
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Quantities measured:
Contemporary multimeters can measure many quantities. The common ones are:
Voltage in volts (Ranging from milli Volts upto 750V AC and DC).
Current in amperes (Ranging from milli Amps upto 20A AC and DC).
Resistance in ohms (Ranging from 1 Ohm upto 20M Ohm). Additionally, they also
include circuits for:
Continuity that beeps when a circuit conducts; useful for checking continuity ofwires.
Testing of Diodes Some Multimeters may also measure:
Capacitance in farads.
Frequency in hertz
Duty cycle as a percentage.
Temperature in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit.
Conductance in siemens.
Inductance in henrys
Audio signal levels in decibels.
Various sensors can be attached to multimeters to take measurements such as:
Light level
Acidity/Alkalinity(pH)
Wind speed
Relative humidity
DMM are specified by their resolution often specified in no of digits displayed on the readout
of the multimeter (3 digit or 4 digits etc). The half digit can display either a zero or one
and is the leftmost digit of the display. Thus a 3 digit multimeter can display signal levels
from 0 to 1999.
Megger:- Megger is an instrument which measures the insulation resistance of electrical
circuits relative to earth and one another.
It consists of an emf source and a voltmeter. The scale of the voltmeter is calibrated in ohms.
In measurements the emf of the self contained source must be equal to that of the source used
in calibration. The readings are independent of the speed of the self contained generator. The
moving system incorporates two coils, current coil and pressure coil mounted on the same
shaft and placed in the field of a permanent magnet 90deg apart. The generator energizes the
two coils over separate wires. Connected in series with one coil is a fixed resistance. A
unknown resistance is connected in series with other coils. The currents in the coils interact
with the magnetic field and produce opposing torques. The deflection of the moving system
depends on the ratio of the currents in the coils and is independent of the applied voltage. The
unknown resistance is read directly from the scale of the instrument.
(thus, the tension of a process load can also be controlled). The changes to the power supplied
to the motor depend on the logic in the regulator and the type of feedback from the motor.
Feedback devices, such as tachos or encoders, are sensors on the motor. A tachometer (tacho)
is a device that monitors the actual speed of the motor. A tacho can send a signal back to the
drive telling it how fast the motor is actually running. The drive regulator can compare that
signal to drive reference, and determine if more or less voltage is needed at the motor to get
the actual speed of the motor equal to the programmed speed. Because DC drives manipulate
the voltage supplied to the motor, they are deemed variable voltage control. A drive using
feedback sensors is said to have closed loop control.
In general, DC drives can control motor speed in two ways.
a. by controlling the voltage supplied to the armature to obtain speeds
below the base speed of the motor, or
b. by reducing the current supplied to the field to obtain speeds above
the motor's base speed.
What is a Thyristor or SCR?
The name thyristor defines a family of four-layer semiconductor device, consisting of
alternating P type and N type materials (PNPN).The most popular member of the thyristor
family is the Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) which is a three terminal device capable of
unidirectional conduction. The term Thyristor is often used in literature as a synonym
of the SCR.
A thyristor usually has three electrodes: an anode, a cathode, and a gate (control electrode).
When the anode is positive w.r.t. cathode (forward biased) and a pulse is applied to the gate,
the SCR begins to conduct, and continues to conduct until the voltage between the cathode
and anode is reversed or reduced below a certain threshold value. Sing this type of thyristor,
large amounts of power can be switched or controlled using a small triggering current or
voltage.
Generally the speed of a dc motor can be controlled up to base speed by Armature Voltage
control and above base speed it can be controlled by the field i.e. the field current.
Torque Control of DC Motor
In applications like Coiler, Uncoiler, Tension Reel, it requires direct control over the motor
torque rather than the speed, this can be accomplished by controlling the Armature Current
(amperes), which is proportional to the torque.
Open /Closed Loop Control
In general open loop control means that you send electrical signals to an actuator to perform a
certain action, like connecting a motor to a battery for example. In this scheme of control,
there is no any mean for your controller to make sure the task was performed correctly and it
often need human intervention to obtain accurate results. A very simple example of open loop
control, is the remote controller of a toy car; you - the human have to constantly check the
position and the velocity of the car to adapt to the situation and move the car to the desired
place.
But what if you could let the electronics handle a part, if not all of the tasks performed by a
human in an open loop controller, while obtaining more accurate results with extremely short
response time? This is what is called closed loop control. In order to be able to build a closed
loop controller, you need some mean of gaining information about the rotation of the shaft like
the number of revolutions executed per second, or even the precise angle of the shaft. This
source of information about the shaft of the motor is called "feed-back" because it sends back
information from the controlled actuator to the controller.
Above figure shows clearly the difference between the two control schemes. Both types have a
controller that gives orders to a driver, which is a power circuit that drives the motor in the
required direction. It is clear that the closed loop system is more complicated because it needs
a shaft encoder or tacho which is a device that will translate the rotation of the shaft into
electrical signals that can be communicated to the controller. In other words, a closed loop
controller will regulate the power delivered to the motor to reach the required velocity. If the
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motor is to turn faster than the required velocity, the controller will deliver less power to the
motor.
Thus Open loop control system can be called Manual Control and Closed loop control system
can be called Automatic Control. In a closed loop system the actual and desired or reference
states are continually compared and if the actual state is different from the reference state, an
error signal is generated which the controller uses to force a change in the controllable
parameters to drive the system towards the desired operating point.
Single Line Diagram of Thyristor Converter
As we know motor speed can be controlled by controlling armature voltage and field excitation
(current).This diagram shows motor speed control by controlling armature voltage of the
motor. A converter is a circuit that changes the incoming AC power (fixed voltage, fixed
frequency) into DC power. The converter can be either single phase or three phase. A thyristor
converter is a controlled rectifier which is used to convert AC into DC.
In above Diagram, M stands for Armature of DC Motor, REF stands for Reference (say speed
reference) from Operator. In the single line diagram above (Fig.6), REF (Reference) from
operator or from other system enters RAMP Generator and the signal is processed through
Speed Regulator, Current Regulator etc. The output of current regulator controls the pulses
position in firing circuit so that armature voltage can be controlled.
Ana log / Digital Drives
Analog Drive: An analog drive is a drive where the components used in regulation circuit
like the velocity/speed and current loops are analog components (such as op-amps). The gains
of the amplifiers are set using passive components (such as resistors, potentiometers, and
capacitors).
Digital Drive: In a digital drive, all the functions of the drive is performed by
microprocessor/microcomputer. In digital drive, unlike analog drive, all analog external
signals like current feedback, speed feedback are converted into digital form by Analog-toDigital converter. All the controlling blocks of analog Drive like Ramp function generator,
Speed controller, Current controller and firing sequence generation are realized in the
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microprocessor of the digital drive through programs/ parameters .Preferably a digital tacho
(pulse tacho/encoder) is used instead of analog tacho for better accuracy. Digital drives can
also provide powerful diagnostic aids for maintenance and fault finding. It can store event
history, fault history. Digital drive provides auto tuning of speed and current control
functions.
Comparison of Analog and Digital Drives:
The analog drive offers the benefit of lower cost and, in the case of a drive using tacho
feedback, very high performance. The digital drive, while more costly, is comparatively easy to
set up and adjustments can be quickly repeated across several units. Automatic self-tuning
can be a distinct advantage where the load parameters are unknown or difficult to measure.
The various adjustments needed to tune an analog drive are usually made with
potentiometers. With a little experience, this can usually be performed quite quickly, but in
some difficult applications it may take longer.
Protection and Trouble-Shooting:
Protections used in Thyristor Converter to protect motor and converter:
1. Protection from Over Current: Followings are the some protections from overcurrent
Instantaneous Overload Relay
Thermal Over Load Relay: In this type of relay thermal element (bimetallic strip) is
used.
In thyristor converters of higher voltage, over-current protection has been provided
relying on the gate control of thyristors, i.e., the gate shift or gate block.
2. Protection from Over Voltage: Over Voltage Relays used to protect system from overvoltage.
3. Fuses: Thyristor Converter uses semiconductor fuses for over-current protection of the
Thyristors.The carrying capacity of the semiconductor elements (Thyristors) is chosen to be
greater than the fusing current, so that when an overcurrent or a short circuit occurs, the
corresponding fuse or fuses are fused, interrupting the current, protecting the
semiconductor elements (Thyristors).
4. Protection from Surges: Surges are a sudden and temporary increase in electrical current or
voltage. ACSS (A.C.Surge Suppressors) and DCSS (D.C.Surge Suppressors ) are used in
Thyristor Converters to protect from surges.
5. Overspeed Relay: In some drives Centrifugal Switch/Relay is mounted on the shaft of
motor which is set to trip drive in case of Overspeed of the drive.
6. Breakers on AC side and DC side: High speed Circuit Breakers on AC and DC side are used
to isolate the system when a fault occurs in the system.
Trouble Shooting:
In general, there are two types of fault messages: Alarm and Fault. Alarm warns of some
malfunction. No protective function is tripped nor is the operation of the system interrupted.
Faults switch off the system and protect it against damage. To troubleshoot a drive, one
should have a clear idea of system. He should go through the drawings and manuals of the
system. In analog drives, some limited faults/alarms are displayed .Depending upon the type
of fault/alarm, one should proceed to rectify the problem. In modern digital system, if an alarm
or fault occurs, an error code is displayed. This error code is stored in the fault logger together
with the fault signal and event time. Previous alarm and fault occurrences can be read from
the fault logger and displayed even if the original fault indication has been reset. In
maintenance manual/troubleshooting manual, Alarm / Fault code and its meaning along with
possible error or corrective action is suggested.
Speed Control of AC Motors:
AC V/s DC Drive Comparison
AC and DC drives both continue to offer unique benefits and features that may make one
type or other better suited for certain applications.
AC Drives May Be Better Because. . .
They use conventional, low cost, 3-phase AC induction motors for most applications.
AC motors require virtually no maintenance and are preferred for applications where
the motor is mounted in an area not easily reached for servicing or replacement.
AC motors are smaller, lighter, more commonly available, and less expensive than DC
motors.
AC motors are better suited for high speed operation (over 2500 rpm) since there are no
brushes, and commutation is not a problem.
Whenever the operating environment is wet, corrosive or explosive and special motor
enclosures are required. Special AC motor enclosure types are more readily available at
lower prices.
Multiple motors
frequency/speed.
It is desirable to use an existing constant speed AC motor already mounted and wired
on a machine.
When the application load varies greatly and light loads may be encountered for
prolonged periods. DC motor commutators and brushes may wear rapidly under this
condition.
in
system
must
operate
simultaneously
at
common
DC drives are less complex with a single power conversion from AC to DC.
DC motors have a long tradition of use as adjustable speed machines and a wide range
of options have evolved for this purpose:
Cooling blowers and inlet air flanges provide cooling air for a wide speed range at
constant torque.
Accessory mounting flanges and kits for mounting feedback tachometers and encoders.
DC motors are capable of providing starting and accelerating torques in excess of 400%
of rated.
Some AC drives may produce audible motor noise, which is undesirable in some
applications.
The synchronous speed is the speed of the rotating electrical field, not the actual motor rotor
speed. The difference between the synchronous speed and the full-load motor speed is called
slip, which is normally expressed in percent. The percentage of slip is determined by the
design of the motor, primarily the rotor resistance. NEMA has assigned code letters (A, B, C,
D, etc.) to standardize motor characteristics including slip. The type most commonly used is
NEMA Design B with 3% slip at rated operating conditions. Figure 9 shows typical
speed/torque curves for NEMA Design Band D motors.
As the applied frequency is changed, the motor will run faster or slower as shown by Figure
10. The actual full-load motor slip (as a percent of the motor synchronous speed) varies in
inverse proportion to the frequency, where a 3% slip motor 60 Hz would have a 6% slip at 30
Hz or 1 1/2 % slip at 120 Hz. Motor speed is limited only by the maximum inverter output
frequency, load torque requirements, and the mechanical integrity of the motor.
AC CONTROLLER TYPES
A number of different types of AC motor controllers are currently in common use as general
purpose drives: Pulse Width Modulated (PWM), Current Source Input (CSI), and the Load
Commutated Inverter (LCI). Each type offers specific benefits and characteristics but the
PWM type is being popularly used.
1.12 TRACTION:- There are five alternatives of transport system
Direct Steam engine drive
Diesel-engine drive
Disel electric drive
With track electrification
Battery powered vehicles
In India, the following two supply has been used for railway
1500V DC for suburban railway un Mumbai
25KV 50Hz 1pg for main line service and suburban railway in Delhi and other places.
Demerits of electrical traction: High installation charges for power transmission and distribution system.
Maintenance of power stations, substations and trackside equipment.
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Various systems associated with electrical traction: Substation and feeding system.
Catenary and conducting trolley wire
Track system and return path via a track
Collector gear
Motor coach or locomotive on the rolling stock
Essential requirements of Traction motors: High starting torque.
Simple speed control
Series speed- torque characteristics
Rapid load fluctuation
Dynamic & regenerative braking
High temp withstand
Good commutator
Long life of commutators and brush gears
Types of motor preffered for traction duty: DC series motor
AC 1ph commutator motor
3ph slip ring induction motors. (1ph high voltage AC supply is converted to 3ph and
applied to induction motor)
1.13 Ventillation, Air-conditioning and Refrigeration:Function of thermostat- A thermostat is provided with the contactor starter. Thermostat has a
bimetal contacts which close at present temperature and open at present temperature. In turn
they close or open the control circuit in the contactor starter of the compressor motor.
Rating of Air-conditioner or refrigerator
It is the capacity of air-conditioner/ refrigerator equivalent to the latent heat requied for
melting 01Ton of ice in 24 hours.
Approximately 01Ton corresponds to 1.6KW
Typical ratings of Air-conditioning system:
Types of electric motors and starters used:1.Small air conditioning units:- 1ph 230V capacitor type single induction motor with direct
on line contactor starter.
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2.Medium installation upto 10KW:- High torque specially built 3ph 400V squired cage
induction motor with suitable direct on line or star-delta contactor starter.
3.Large installation upto 60KW:- 3ph slip ring induction motor with starting torque at 2.5
to 3 full load torque.
4.Very Large installation (150KW and above):- Induction start synchronous run motors.
Type of starter whether on-line or sar-delta depends upon permissible starting current and
strength of supply circuit.
Process the
Information
Rules and
Guidelines
The process of recognizing the state of the process at all times, process the Information
according to the set rules and guidelines and accordingly actuate the control elements is
referred to as process control.
In the control of processes, all these actions can be taken manually with human involvement
or in a semiautomatic or fully automatic manner.
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What is Automation?
Automation is basically the delegation of human control functions to technical equipment
aimed towards achieving higher productivity, superior quality of end product, efficient usage
of energy and raw materials, improved safety in working conditions.
History of Process Control and Automation
Manual Control
Hard Wired Logic Control
Electronic Control Using Logic Gates
Programmable Logic Controller
Manual Control
In this all the actions related to process control and automation are taken by the operators.
One of the major drawbacks of this method is likely human errors and consequently its effect
on quality of final product. The manual control has its own limitations with regard to mass
production techniques and hence this method cannot provide the consumer with quality goods
at an affordable price.
Hard Wired Logic Control
This was considered to be the first step towards automation. Here the contactor and relays
together with timers and counters were used in achieving the desired level of automation. It
had certain limitations as listed below:
The typical analog current input modules are 4-20 mA, 0-20 mA and analog voltage
input modules are 0 -50mV, 0-500mV and 0-10 V. The typical digital input modules are
24V DC, 115V AC and 230V AC. (A digital input typically is like a switch and depending on
the switchs open/closed status, the sensing device detects a voltage or no voltage condition,
which in turn generates a logical 0 or 1, on or off, or similarly defined state.An analog input
is a measurable electrical signal with a defined range that is generated by a sensor. The
analog input changes continuously in a definable manner in relation to the measured
property.)
Central Processing Unit
The Central Processing Unit or CPU consists of the following blocks:
Output Module
The output module acts as a link between the CPU and the output devices located in
the field.
The field output devices could be relays, contactors, lamps, actuators, solenoid valves,
etc. These devices actually control the process.
The output module converts the output signal delivered by CPU into an appropriate
voltage level suitable for the output field device. The voltage signal provided by CPU
could be 5V or 9V, but the output module converts this voltage level into say 24V DC, or
115V AC or 230V AC etc.
Thus the output module on receiving signal from the processor switches voltage to the
respective output terminals. This makes the actuators (i.e. contactors, relays etc.) or
indicating lights etc. connected to the terminal to come ON or OFF.
Like input module, an output module could be an analog or digital. Typical analog
output modules have the ratings of 4 - 20mA or 0 -10V and the digital output
modules have 24V DC, 115V AC, 230V AC or relay output. (A digital output typically
consists of a switch (either mechanical as in a relay, or electronic as in a transistor or
triac) that either opens or closes the circuit between two terminals depending on the
binary state of the output.An analog output is a measurable electrical signal with a
defined range that is generated by a controller and sent to a controlled device, such as a
variable speed drive or actuator.)
Power Supply:
The power supply module generates the voltage required by CPU and the system. Additional
Modules: In addition to the above listed modules, the other frequently used modules for
special functions are Interface Module, Communication Processor and Intelligent Periphery or
function Modules.
How PLC works?
1.
2.
3.
4.
Programming of PLC
The PLC, like computer, is a software-driven equipment. How the PLC should work or control
the machine or process is decided by the user through User Program or Application
Program. Depending upon the process control requirement the user prepares the program, i.e.
writes the instructions. These instructions are then stored in theUser Memory or Program
Memory of CPU in the form of machine code. The CPU sequentially reads these instructions
and operates the control elements taking into consideration the input status and the program
instructions. In this manner the PLC controls the process.
We can write the user program in any one of the following forms:
extremely long distances and transmit data at very high speeds. For example, in some LAN
systems, these links can transmit at relatively high speeds and span long distances before
requiring a repeater. When repeaters are used, virtually unlimited distances can be achieved.
To understand the PLC's communications versatility, let's define the terms used in describing
the various systems.
CPU. This stands for "central processing unit," which actually is that part of a computer,PLC,
or other intelligent device where arithmetic and logical operations are performed and
instructions are decoded and executed. I/O. This stands for "inputs and outputs," which are
modules that handle data to the PLC (inputs) or signals from the PLC (outputs) to an external
device. Kbps. This stands for "thousand bits per second," which is a rate of measure for
electronic data transfer.(Kilo bits per second) Mbps. This stands for "million bits per second."
(Mega bits per second) Node. This term is applied to any one of the positions or stations in a
network. Each node incorporates a device that can communicate with all other devices on the
network. Protocol. Network protocols define the way messages are arranged and coded for
transmission on the LAN(Local Area Network). The following are two common types.
Proprietary protocols are unique message arrangements and coding developed by a specific
vendor for use with that vendor's product only.
Open protocols are based on industry standards such as TCP/IP or ISO/OSI models and are
openly published. Many PLC vendors offer proprietary networking systems that are unique
and will not communicate with another make of PLC. This is because of the different
communications protocols, command sequences, error-checking schemes, and communications
media used by each manufacturer. RS232. This is an IEEE standard for serial
communications that describes specific wiring connections, voltage levels, and other operating
parameters for electronic data communication Serial. This is an electronic data transfer
scheme in which information is transmitted one bit at a time. Serial port. This the
communications access point on a device that is set up for serial communications.
Can PLCs be connected with other devices?
PLCs also can be connected with computers or other intelligent devices. In fact, most PLCs,
from the small to the very large, can be directly connected to a computer or part of a multi
drop host computer network via RS232C or RS422 ports. This combination of computer and
controller maximizes the capabilities of the PLC, for control and data acquisition, as well as
the computer, for data processing, documentation, and operator interface.
Messages / Data transmission in a PLC network : Data/Messages are exchanged between
PLCs over a network.A LAN's (Local Area Network) access method prevents the occurrence of
more than one message on the network at a time. There are two common access methods.
Collision detection is where the nodes "listen" to the network and transmit only if there
are no other messages on the network. If two nodes transmit simultaneously, the
collision is detected and both nodes retransmit until their messages get through
properly.
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Token passing allows each node to transmit only if it's in possession of a special
electronic message called a token. The token is passed from node to node, allowing each
an opportunity to transmit without interference. Tokens usually have a time limit to
prevent a single node from tying up the token for a long period of time.
inputs and outputs. DCS is also used where high level of redundancy / security / fault
diagnostic features are needed.
UNINTERRUPTED POWER SUPPLY (UPS)
Introduction
Most of the industrial and even domestic processes being electricity dependent for the
operations, electricity has assumed immense important in our life. Among the industrial
activities there are many which require not only the continuous power but also very good
quality electrical power. These are listed as following:
Telecommunication systems.
Data processing equipment and systems
Process controls
Drives in continuous production processes
Life support systems in hospitals
Air Traffic control systems
Safety systems in power stations and many others
Sources of Power
We normally get electrical power from the public grid set up by the government agencies like
State Electricity Boards. These grids are generally powered by HYDEL power plants, Thermal
power plants, Nuclear power plants etc. The quality of power has following considerations:
The shape of the voltage waveform should be pure sinusoidal.
It should not contain any harmonics.
It should be continuously available without any interruptions or undesired fluctuations in the
magnitude and frequency.
Unfortunately there are many problems associated with power and they include:
Spikes Spikes are high magnitude split second events. They are mostly caused by
lightening, which strike on or near power line or even miles away causing spikes in power
system. Other cause of spikes include switching large electrical current on or off., mains
switching and static discharge
Effects: the most disastrous effect spikes can be actual hardware damage. High voltage
impulses can actually blow holes in delicate microchips. Less catastrophic effects include
corrupted data, printer or terminal error and data processing error.
Surges - surges are over voltages that last longer than one cycle. Surges can be caused when
device on the line that was drawing large amount of power suddenly stops or is shut off.
Surges can also be caused when utilities switch large load off the line.
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Effects: Surges are most dangerous because of their duration rather than their magnitude.
Long and frequent surges can damage sensitive electronic equipments.
Sags- Sags are under voltages that last longer than cycle. Sags are, in fact opposite of surges.
Earth faults, undersized power systems and starts-ups of large electrical loads are causes of
voltage sags. Lightning is also a major cause of sags.
Effects: Sags can cause the computers to lock up. Sags can also slow the speed of disk drives,
causing read errors or disk crashes.
Noise- Noise is collective term for various kinds of frequency impulses that ride on the normal
sine-wave. Noise is caused when high frequency signals that travel on electrical wires. High
frequency noise is referred as Radio frequency (RF) noise, which can be generated by
lightning, radio transmission and power supply.
Effects: Noise can create erratic behavior in any electronic circuit. Noise can cause computer
processing errors, incorrect data transfer and printer or terminal errors.
Brownouts- Brownouts are long term under voltages , lasting minutes or even hours. They
are often instituted by utilities when peak demand exceeds generating capacity.
Effects: Brownouts can cause computer malfunctions and hardware damage the same way
that sags do.
Blackouts: Blackouts are extended zero volt conditions, lasting for minutes, hours or even
days. Blackout can be caused by faults generation, transmission and distribution network,
earth faults, accidents, lightning strikes or other acts of nature.
Effects: Blackouts can cause damage of system components and disk drives. They can also
cause the data loss.
Harmonic distortion: Harmonic are distortion of normal sine-wave. They appear in the
form of changed shape of sine-wave. Harmonics are transmitted-back in to the mains by
nonlinear loads.
Effects: Harmonics can cause communication error and hardware damage. Harmonics can
also cause overheating of transformers and conductors generating excessive heat leading to
fire hazards.
ELECTRICAL SAFETY
Key Principles
Electrical hazards, specifically shock, arc flash, and arc blast, can result in serious injury or
death to electrical personnel. There also is a general tendency to by-pass standard shutdown
procedures or safety interlocks to save time. This is more so during breakdowns, with the
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entire focus on restoration of power supply to the affected equipment. This can lead to
potentially hazardous situations. Hence all electrical hazards at the workplace must be
identified, so that action can be taken to prevent them. It is mandatory to display requisite
danger board near to live electrical equipment written in English, Hindi & local language.
Electrical hazards at the workplace
Some of the major hazards / unsafe situations and steps to prevent them are:
Movement of ladders, earthing rods, and discharge rods in the EHV switchyards Line
to ground clearance should be more than that prescribed by the I.E. Rules (2.75m for
11kV, 3.70m for 33kV, 4.60m for 132kV, 5.50m for 220 kV). Carry the items
horizontally not vertically.
Opening of wrong / charged HV panel back covers, transformer HV terminal boxes,
and isolator panel doors. Correct labeling of panel No. / Feeder Name etc. for power
supply feeder should be done on covers / boxes.
Back-feeding in LV outgoing feeders having an alternate source of power supply
Testing for absence of voltage by a twin-bulb test lamp to be done.
Working at heights in EHV switchyard and overhead lines Use of safety belts /
harness, and local earthing to prevent shock from line to ground capacitance to be done.
Work procedures, tools, and PPEs
An important electrical safety principle is to use safe work
procedures, tools, and personal protective equipments (PPEs). The
PPEs required while working on electrical equipment are
Insulated hand-gloves
High voltage indicator or twin-bulb test lamps to check for
absence of voltage before permitting work to be carried out
Insulated rubber mats
Insulated screw drivers and pliers
Planning for Safety
Electrical work must be planned before it is executed. All work procedures should be
reviewed, updated, and modified periodically as needed. The plan should include a standard
shutdown procedure which includes a general checklist. Safety instructions should be
given to personnel by the concerned executive / supervisor, explaining the potential hazards,
before starting work, even though it may sound too obvious or repetitive.
Designing for Safety
While designing electrical systems, safety is a key concern. Safety by design focuses on
Isolation of the circuit through off-load isolators or draw out type circuit breakers. For
working on MCCBs, that cannot be drawn out, and equipment connected to them, safety
instructions should be pasted on the panels and explained to personnel. If proper
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isolation is still required, then the upstream draw out-type circuit breaker feeding the
MCCB should be drawn out.
Introducing components or barriers that prevent accidental contact of live parts. during
routine maintenance and troubleshooting.
Ensuring standard phase-to-phase and phase-to-ground clearances as per the voltage
level of the equipment. In a steel plant, the level of pollution from chemical fumes, dust
or moisture, is high in certain locations. Hence additional clearances are specified as
per IPSS. For example, the phase-to-phase clearance in an 11 kV panel should be 127
mm, as against the standard clearance of 110 mm.
Using current-limiting over-current devices to decrease the incident energy and arc
flash hazards associated with arcing faults.
The healthiness of all protection systems should be continuously monitored through trip
circuit supervision relays and faults alarms. During shutdown of equipments, the protection
settings, along with the healthiness of instrument transformers and relays should be checked.
The key electrical safety principles focus on the protection of owners, employers, and
employees, as well as the equipments. To ensure a safer workplace, electrical professionals
must also change their existing cultures, beliefs and practices and follow electrical safety
standards and regulations.
The Inter-Plant Standards on Safety The Permit to Work System
The Permit to Work (PTW) system covers all types of shutdowns in an integrated steel plant.
The PTW system aims at the adoption of uniform shutdown permits for all types of jobs,
irrespective of the functional discipline. Furthermore, activities in steel plants and mines
invariably require a coordinated approach in which multiple agencies are involved. This
aspect assumes greater significance when the activity is either hazardous in nature or is
carried out in areas of hazardous ambience.
An Inter Plant Standard, namely IPSS:1-11-007-01 was prepared by the Standards
Committee on Appliances and Procedures with representatives of all member steel plants and
associated organizations. It has been adopted in June 2001, though not fully implemented by
all steel plants. It touches upon even those areas where presently no shutdown procedures
exist or where the ownership of equipments is not clear. The heads of department are required
to clarify on such grey areas and clearly fix responsibility.
In the PTW system there are two agencies releasing the shutdown the shutdown giving
authority and the shutdown issuing authority. The PTW system lays down comprehensive
guidelines for seeking, granting, and returning of the permit. It may be noted that the permit
is valid for the same date and for a limited period only. If the job exceeds the time frame
mentioned in the permit, a fresh permit has to be obtained.
Jobs where Permit to Work is required
Work on pipelines / equipments handling chemicals, acid gases, steam, water, oil etc, at
normal / below / above atmospheric pressure and temperature
Work on or in the vicinity of moving machines / equipments / gas prone areas / high
tension lines/ bare conductors
Work in confined spaces
Demolition and excavation
Connection and interfacing between new and old units
Work at height
Any other equipment / location / area which may be associated with hazards Procedure
for obtaining Permit to Work
1.
Only authorised representative of the executing department has to ask for shutdown in
the given format
2.
PTW form is in duplicate, one for the executing agency (white coloured) and other for
the issuing authority (yellow coloured)
3.
Before issuing the PTW, Issuing Authority / Owner department shall ensure that:
The equipment has been stopped.
CAUTION tags and MEN AT WORK boards have been displayed.
Red flags, barricades, stoppers, earthing bars, etc. have been placed at appropriate
locations
For air, gas, steam, hydraulic fluids, acid, chemical, water, etc., valves should be
closed and locked or blanks provided
Electrical fuses should be removed
Sample analysis of gas / air should be done
All agencies / concerned persons should be informed
viii.All persons working in vicinity should be informed
Hazards of location should be explained to person seeking the permit
10.
The I.E. Rules, 1956 is a highly exhaustive document. Some of the key provisions from it
are being dealt with here.
Voltage Classification
The I.E. Rules defines the following voltage classification in Chapter I, Section 2 [1(av)]
Low Voltage
Medium Voltage
High Voltage
Extra High Voltage
up to 250 V + 6% variation
up to 650 V + 6% variation
up to 33 kV + 6% variation
beyond 33 kV and above
Authorisation Rules
The rules for authorization of electrical personnel to work on equipment have been specified in
Chapter I, Section 3. Personnel authorised under rules 36(2), 51(1) and 64(1) of I.E. Rules. The
authorisation form specifies the equipment / apparatus / voltage level for which a person is
authorized. The authorising person should satisfy himself that person being authorised is
competent.
Competent Persons for Issuing / Receiving Shutdowns
Competent issuer of shutdowns should be at least Chargeman / Supersvior for LV /
MV, and Executive for HV / EHV
Competent receiver of shutdowns should be at least Chargeman / Supervisor / Switch
Board Attendant for LV / MV / HV, and Executive for EHV
Persons of lower rank can be declared competent if the authority is satisfied the
person is capable
As per I.E. Rules, the minimum qualification for Supervisory staff is Degree / Diploma in
Electrical. Persons with ITI in Electrical can assist the Supervisors. The I.E. Rules also specify
a minimum of 6 months training in a Central Electricity Authority (CEA)- approved institute
plus visits and in-plant training. Relaxation in minimum qualification or training duration /
nature of training can be done by the appropriate authority (state or
central government) on the owners request.
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A record of authorized persons has to be maintained by all establishments, which shall include
their name, designation, qualification, applicable rules, etc. in a register. Both the authorizing
and authorized persons should sign in the register, once a year. The records have to made
available for inspection to an appropriate inspecting authority within the establishment or by
the Electrical Inspector of the State / central government.
Reporting of Electrical Accidents
All electrical accidents should be reported as per Rule 44A. The report of accident should to be
sent to State / Central Electrical Inspector. Report of fatal accident has to be faxed within 24
hours. A detailed written report should be submitted within 48 hours to the Electrical
Inspector. All accidents should be reported in the prescribed forms specified in Annexure-XIII
of the I.E. Rules, 1956. Rule 108 (1) (b) (iii) specifies that any abnormal or dangerous
occurrence should also be reported to the Electrical Inspector.
Inspection of Electrical Premises
Chapter II of the I.E. Rules deals with Inspectors, while Chapter IV Rule 46 deals with
periodic inspection of all electrical premises. All new equipments / installations have to be
compulsorily inspected and tested by CEAs Electrical Inspector. The cost of inspection and
testing is also specified in the I.E. Rules and has to be paid to the CEA.
Safety Precautions for Maintenance / Testing
Power System Equipments
Operation, maintenance, and testing of power system equipments require elaborate
equipment-specific shutdown procedures for their safe isolation. No maintenance should be
carried out in live condition, except in certain cases (refer Working on Live Equipment below).
The equipment should be properly earthed to protect personnel and equipment from hazards
due to any accidental charging of supply. PPEs should be used while issuing shutdowns. A
cable or busbar should be tested for absence for voltage by a HV indicator, with the person
wearing hand gloves and standing on an insulated rubber mat. After absence of voltage is
established, it should be discharged and then finally earthed. Certain shutdowns may not
require earthing, depending on the type or location of work.
All MV and some LV circuit breakers have electrical spring charging provision of closing
mechanism. While inserting such breakers into SERVICE position, the control supply (AC/DC)
should be kept off, and the spring discharged to prevent any accidental closing of the circuit
breaker while in motion, which could result in a flashover if the breaker poles are very near
the charged bus.
Though testing is normally done at low voltages, earthing of all testing instruments should be
ensured, and they should be placed on rubber mats. Testing probes should be insulated.
During HV testing, the area where the equipment is being tested should be barricaded. After
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HV testing, the testing instrument as well as the tested equipment should be thoroughly
discharged.
Most electrical panels have low voltage 240 V AC or 110 V / 220 V DC for control and
protection circuits, which have to be kept on due to interlocks between different panels /
equipments and sub-stations. The working personnel should be aware of the control terminals
that are live. Since control and relay chamber is generally at a height, the personnel should
stand on wooden stools or benches while working. While measuring voltage across a device,
the voltmeter should be isolated from ground, and the maximum voltage capability of the
voltmeter should not be exceeded. Voltages above 230 V should be preferably measured by an
Avometer and not by a multi-meter, as their size is small and the components are placed quite
close to each other.
Working on Live Equipment
Not permitted for EHV / HV
Authorised persons, can work on MV / LV, after taking necessary precautions
Two authorised persons should work together - always
Rubber gloves mandatory for working on 230 V and 400 V
Personnel should be standing on rubber mats / dry wooden platforms
Bare hand working with insulated tools without body touching earth / metallic parts;
when necessary to work on a "live" circuit, one should work with one hand to prevent a
deadly hand-to-hand (through the chest) shock current path
Proper labeling of equipment likely to require inspection, or maintenance when live.
The labeling, should warn of the potential arc flash hazards and the requirement for
PPEs. The labeling should be in both English and the local language.
Electronic Card Handling:
I. Generally, a card containing ICs particularly CMOS ICs should not be touched without
using an earthing wrist band as this may damage these ICs due to static charges. Such cards
should be handled by touching only the edges of the PCB.
II. Also, generally, the cards should not be plugged in or out of the connectors while the power
is on. Although now a days, some manufactures allow this (Hot Swap Modules) but it is a safe
practice to switch off all the power to the cards before putting it in or out whenever possible.
III. While soldering or de-soldering a component, all the inputs including the power supply
should be switched off. Care should be taken to replace the faulty components only with exact
spares. Any deviations due to any reasons like nonavailability of the exact spares should be
well thought over by a competent person.
For example, if a particular resistance is burning out very often in a card, we should not
blindly put a resistor of higher wattage as this may result in failing of another (and probably
more critical) component.
IV. Spare cards should always be store in their original (mostly anti-static) packing. In case
this is not available, care should be taken to store them in moisture free and dustproof
environment. Rats excreta are very dangerous for the cards and it fatally damages them.
Using a Digital Multimeter:
Before Connecting the Multi-meter in the circuit under test:
Always ensure that the correct mode (Voltage: AC/DC, Current AC/DC or OHMs) is
selected on the meter as per the requirement. Note that the same socket is generally
provided on the meter for Voltage as well as Resistance Measurements. Ensure that
multi-meter resistance mode is not selected when it is being connected in Live circuits.
Remember that two different sockets are generally provided for Low and High Current
measurements. The low current socket has internal fuse protection but the high current
socket has no protection. Ensure that the maximum current being measured is not more
than the meter rating.
Select the correct range depending on the expected level of Voltage/Current being
measured. If unsure about the levels, start from highest range.
Ensure that the probes are in good condition and there are no joints/damage to
insulation.
Always use original/standard color coded probes. Black probe should always be in the
Common Terminal socket of the meter. Never use two probes of same color.
Never use probes without proper Banana Pins that fit in the multi-meter socket. The
pins of the probes should sit firmly in the sockets and there should be no loose
connections. Also the probes should have proper measuring prods in the front for
connecting to the circuit under test.
The probes should be free and not twisted, entangled or wrapped around the
multimeter.
During Measurements:
Always hold the two probes of the multi-meter in different hands. Either ask another
person to hold the meter or use the stand of the meter to firmly place it on a safe place.
Do not bend or turn your face away from the live circuit while measuring voltages to see
the reading. Keep your attention on the probes otherwise the prods may slip and cause
accidents. In case multimeter is to be used by one person, use proper alligator clips for
hooking to the circuit under measurements so that hands are free.
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Stand on rubber mats while making the measurements. Avoid use of digital
multimeters to measure voltages in a highly inductive circuit like Brake Magnets or
Motor Fields etc. as high voltage develops across the inductors when the current is
broken and this may damage the internal circuitry of the meter and cause injuries to
the personnel. In case such measurements are to be done, ensure that the probes are
removed from the circuit before current is cut-off.
Use of CROs
Preferably use Isolated (unearthed) supply for CRO. In any case, do not use the Earth
Terminal of 230V supply cord of CRO when taking measurements on Phase Voltages.
During such measurements, stand on an insulated surface and do not touch the body of
the CRO and handle the knobs for adjusting range carefully.
Some CRO probes have an exposed common terminal very close to the main terminal.
Use proper tape to insulate this before conducting measurements on 100volts or above
circuits.
Do not look at the CRO for observing waveforms while holding the probes. Keep your
attention on the probes and let another person do the settings.
MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
Maintenance of all equipments is a must to reduce the faults in installations under normal
and abnormal conditions. The role of maintenance is becoming more pronounced because
industries are expanding in size, and volumes of production are going up. The complexity /
inter-dependability of sub-units and functions is increasing, particularly in an integrated steel
plant, where the output of one production shop is the input of the next. The steel market, like
other industries is booming. Hence the production targets are higher than before. There is a
thrust on maximum utilization of existing assets, which in turn means less reserve capacity to
fall back upon. The consumers too are demanding uninterrupted power supply, which is
critical for a number of operations in the steel industry.
Types of Maintenance
Maintenance can be classified as
1) Preventive or Scheduled Maintenance,
2) Predictive or Condition-based, and
3) Breakdown Maintenance.
Preventive or Scheduled Maintenance is carried out as per a predetermined maintenance plan
or schedule. The frequency of maintenance of various equipments is based on
Page 197 of 250
connections should be tightened. All insulators should be inspected for cracks or tracking. In
the case of epoxy insulators, space heaters are provided with auxiliary AC supply to prevent
ingress of moisture. Space heater circuits should be checked for their healthiness. All entry
points for rats and lizards should be sealed with cotton waste / sheeting / foam / taphole mass
mud in MV and LV panels. To prevent ingress of dust into the panels, substation premises
should be pressurized through a good ventilation system.
Cables
Cables form the backbone of power distribution. They should be laid properly inside panels, in
cable racks and trenches. Handling of cables and their joints should be done with care so as to
prevent any physical damage to their insulation. Cable terminations in panels and at
equipments (motors or isolators or transformers) should ensure adequate clearance. Bending
radius of cables should be as per standards for the type and voltage rating of the cable.
Cable tunnels have a large number of cables laid side by side in racks. Tunnels should be
adequately ventilated through exhaust fans located at suitable intervals in ventilation shafts.
Dewatering pumps installed in the tunnels to remove any seepage water should be properly
maintained.
Constraints in Preventive Maintenance
Due to increased utilization of equipments, availability of shutdowns is lesser, resulting in
reduced equipment availability. At times, quality of repair also is compromised. Another
problem plaguing the maintenance function is the fast rate of technical obsolescence.
Maintenance personnel may not have the skills or training for proper maintenance of new
equipments. Technological obsolescence also creates the problem of non-availability of spares.
Furthermore, conventional fault diagnosis methods are time-consuming and inaccurate. Most
electrical faults are not visible to the naked eye. The cost of breakdowns is excessive, because
the fault is detected after considerable equipment damage or stoppage of production.
There is unnecessary dismantling of equipment in scheduled maintenance. The shutdown
hours may be unnecessary irrespective of equipment health. Outage of equipment also means
production loss. There is also a danger of over-maintenance.
Cost Ineffectiveness
Predictive (Condition-based) Maintenance
Merely attending defects / replacing damaged components during preventive maintenance
does not eliminate the problem. There have been instances of failure of equipments even after
maintenance. To overcome the problems mentioned above, the emphasis is shifting from timebased preventive maintenance to conditioned-based predictive maintenance. Through
condition-based maintenance, equipment availability as well as reliability can be enhanced.
Hence tools and techniques that predict internal faults in electrical equipments are gaining
popularity because the shutdown hours are logically reduced due to better advanced planning.
Thus over / under-maintenance is also avoided and cost of maintenance is optimized. One of
the simplest practice of condition-based maintenance is carrying out routine inspection of the
critical parameters of an equipment. For example for a transformer regular checking and
inspection of Load current, tap position, input & output voltages, oil temperature, winding
Page 199 of 250
temperature, Buccholtz relay gas accumulation, oil level, condition of breather, observation of
oil leakage etc. can be done.
Nowadays condition monitoring equipment / tools like temperature sensor, vibration sensor,
detection of partial discharge, dissolved gas analysis, residual life analysis etc. are in use with
proper diagnostics which has reduced surprise failures and helped in planning
maintenance / repair / replacement of equipment.
Breakdown Maintenance
Breakdown Maintenance is the most undesirable type of maintenance. As mentioned earlier,
conventional fault diagnosis method are time-consuming and inaccurate. Most electrical faults
are not visible to the naked eye. There is also a tendency of neglecting faults during operation
or by-passing controls / interlocks. Neglecting faults can lead to complete stoppage / total
breakdown of the equipment. Bypassing controls / interlocks give temporary solution but
create permanent deficiency in the system as minor defects become major ones. Unexpected
stoppage results in expensive capital investment and massive production loss, which in turn
leads to interruption in the integrated production chain. The opportunity loss particularly in
todays booming economic scenario is also substantial. Breakdowns also create unsafe
situation for equipment / personnel due to - flashovers, fires, physical damage, etc. Refer to the
section on Electrical Safety for more information on the nature of damage due to breakdowns.
Root Cause Failure Analysis or RCFA is the latest trend in maintenance management to
arrive at the main reason for the failure of equipment, so that they can be prevented in future.
Standard Operating Practices (SOPs) / Standard Maintenance Practices (SMPs)
SOPs and SMPs should be strictly followed for all electrical equipment. These are available in
the operation and maintenance manuals provided by manufacturers / suppliers of equipment.
SOPs / SMPs can be modified based on past experience and plant-specific conditions. Refer to
the section on Electrical Safety for more information on safe work practices. All maintenance
activities should be carried out using the correct materials and tools prescribed by the
manufacturer.
TECHNICAL
SERVICES
To follow the instructions of the shift in charge & other concerned staffs.
2.
To train and develop the helpers for operating & maintaining loco.
To maintain logbook.
3.
Conduct routine checks before starting the engine and before moving the locomotive.
4.
Observe general behavior and sound of locomotive in operation, report abnormalities and
act accordingly.
5.
Go through the previous shift logbook and also maintain his own logbook.
2.
To clean the locomotive at beginning of the shift. Also clean periodically if necessary.
3.
Do all the pre-starting checks and fill water, oil, sand etc. as per requirement.
4.
5.
6.
Watch the operator closely and be prepared to operate loco as & when required.
7.
Coupling/decoupling of ladles/wagons.
Inspect the loco visually for worn brake shoes, defective couplings buffers, cables and any
other damages.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Check lub oil level and top up if required. It should be close as possible as to the High
level and to be checked 15 minutes after engine is shut down.
9.
2.
3.
4.
Close CB2.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
After
1.
With engine running confirm that there are no oil or air leakages, unusual noises.
2.
3.
After air pressure is 3.5 Kg /cm2 apply horn and check for satisfactory working.
4.
5.
Move loco in one direction, brake and reverse the loco and again brake for satisfactory
braking.
6.
Lead Ammeter
The Lead Ammeter is a color band device to be used as a guide in correct locomotive operation.
Green Range: The green zone indicates the normal operation and operation time is
unrestricted.
Yellow range: -The yellow range indicates heavy load on traction motor and loco can be
operated for a short period.
Red Range : -The red range indicates very heavy load on traction motors and the loco should
be unloaded immediately.
In the meter there are graduations to show the time in minutes that the various loads may be
carried out.
Charging
Always ensure the proper charging of the batteries. The battery ammeter shows the amount of
current the battery is drawing. If it shows 0, then the battery is not being charged.
Safety Devices
1.
Ground relay: - During ground fault, loco will become idle with audio video alarm.
2.
Overload relay: - when traction motor current exceeds permissible limit loco will
become idle.
3.
Wheel slip relay: - when wheel slip takes place audio video alarm.
4.
Engine over speed switch: - When engine exceeds the permissible rpm it stops.
5.
Lub Oil Pressure Switch: - When lub oil pressure drops below 1 kg/cm2 engine stops.
6.
Engine Temp Switch: - When the coolant temperature reaches 90C engine stops.
7.
Low Water level Switch: - When the coolant level becomes low the engine stops.
TROUBLE SHOOTING FOR LOCO ENGINES
TROUBLE
POSSIBLE CAUSE
Inadequate fuel supply.
Fuel line broken or leaky.
Air in fuel lines.
Emergency fuel shutoff cock closed.
Dirty fuel or stopped-up nozzles.
Fuel filter choked.
Page 204 of 250
Excessive smoke
Engine overloaded.
Dirty injector cup spray holes.
Valves leaking.
Valve clearances too wide.
Injector adjustment set improperly.
Air cleaner choked.
Sticking or worn rings on piston.
Water in fuel.
Defective injector or fuel pumps.
Engine knocks
Overload.
Air in fuel line.
Loose bearings, piston pins, or flywheel, piston slap, broken
piston ring.
Improper injector adjustment causing bent push rod.
Loose mounting bolts.
Poor grade of fuel.
Defective injectors.
Lubricating-oil pressure
drops below normal
Leaks.
Wrong grade of lub oil.
Stuck piston rings.
Broken piston rings.
Scored cylinder liners.
Overload.
Engine overheating
Belt slipping.
Compressor head valve leaking slightly.
Loose fittings and leakages.
2.
3.
4.
5.
2.
Engine hunting
Governor not functioning properly.
Low governor oil level.
Air or dirt in governor oil.
Air or water in fuel.
Fuel pump controls sticking.
3.
4.
Caution
WDS 6 Locos
Fuel pressure should indicate 35-45 psi (2.5-3 kg/cm2) at all engine speeds.
Shut off engine immediately if engine oil pressure is less than 15 psi (1 kg/cm2) at idle
speed or less than 58 psi (4 kg/cm2) at top engine speed.
In case of failure of crankcase exhauster, stop engine immediately.
Method Of Use
Lubrication
RR-407 / RR-408
20W-40
MESH-680
LUB RX-220
Crater Compound
Prime 68
PERMANENT WAY
The railway track of permanent nature, which handles the normal commercial traffic
regularly, is called a Permanent Way. This term is used to distinguish the finished tracks
(permanent track) from a temporary track, which is laid for temporary works, i.e.,
transporting construction materials, earth etc, on the major construction sites. Literally
speaking, it is the backbone of the railway system.
A railway track consists of a pair of steel rails laid parallel to each other at a fixed distance
apart. The rails are connected end to and by means of fishplates and fish bolts or by welding.
The rail thus laid, rest on transverse members known as sleepers, which are bedded and
packed in granular material known as ballast. The ballast spread on the formation or sub
grade which may be constructed in embankment, cutting or at ground level according to the
topography of the area.
Requirement Of Good Track
The rail should have perfect cross-levels. In curves, the outer rail should have proper
cant to take into account the centrifugal force.
The alignment should be straight and free of kinks. In case of curves, proper transition
should be provided at tangent points.
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The gradient should be uniform and as gentle as possible. The change of gradient
should be followed by a proper vertical curve to give a smooth ride.
The track should be resilient and elastic in order to absorb shocks and vibrations of
running track.
The track should have good drainage so that the stability is not affected due to water
logging.
The rack should have good lateral strength so that it can maintain its stability due to
variation of temperature and other such factors.
There should be provision for easy replacement and renewal of various track
components.
The track should have such a structure that not only its initial cost is low but also its
maintenance cost is minimum.
All tracks in our plant are of Broad Gauge, which means the clear distance between running
or gauge faces of the two rails of the track is 1676 mm.
GAUGE
Broad Gauge (B.G.)
Meter Gauge (M.G.)
Narrow Gauge (N.G.)
CLEAR DISTANCE
1676 mm
1000 mm
762 mm or 610 mm
RAILS
The rolled steel sections laid end to end in two parallel lines over sleepers to form a railway
track are known as rails. They can be considered as steel girders carrying axle loads. They are
usually designed by their weight per metre length, i.e. Kg per metre in metric units.
Requirements of Rail
Page 210 of 250
Flat-footed rail or Vignole rail has been standardised because of its economical design, giving
greater strength and lateral stability for its cross sectional area compared to Bull headed and
Double headed rails. The rail sections, standardised for B.G. on Indian Railway, viz, 52Kg/m
and 60Kg/m are being used in our tracks.
Every rail rolled has a brand on its web, which is repeated at intervals of 1.5 to 3.0 m such as
IRS-52Kg-710-TISCO-V 1995
OB (as per IRS/ T-18-88)
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
52 Kg Rail Section
60 Kg Rail Section
Page 211 of 250
Area of
Section
WT/ metre
(Kg)
Rail Section
52 Kg 51.89 6615
60 Kg 60.34 7686
156
172
Dimensions in mm
B
C
D
E
136
150
67 15.5
74.3 16.5
51
51
29
31.5
Carbon (C)
Manganese
(Mn)
Silicon (Si)
Sulpher (S)
Phosphorus (P)
Ordinary rails
(High carbon
steel)
0.55 0.68 %
0.65 0.90%
(Medium carbon
steel)
0.50 0.60%
0.95 1.25%
0.05 0.30%
0.05% or below
0.05% or below
0.05 0.20%
0.06% or below
0.06% or below
Rail Wear
Due to the passage of moving loads and the friction between the rail and the wheel, the rail
head gets worn out in course of service. The impact due to moving loads, the forces caused due
to acceleration, deceleration, braking of wheels, the abrasion due to rail wheel interaction, the
effects due to weather conditions like temperature, sand, snow and rains, the standard of
maintenance of track and such allied factors cause considerable wear and tear on vertical and
lateral planes on the rail head. The lateral wear becomes more on curves, because of lateral
thrust exerted on the outer rail due to centrifugal force. Lot of metal as such gets worn out of
the rail head and there is loss of weight of the rail. This loss should not be such that
Page 212 of 250
permissible stresses become excessive and when this stage is reached, the rail renewal is
called for.
Another criteria for limiting wear would be that the wear on the railhead should not be to
such an extent that a worn flange of the wheel may hit the fishplate.
In India, the prescribed limit for wear is 5% of rail weight because all the wear takes place in
the head, which contains 35 to 40% of the metal in rail. Allowable wear of 25% of the section of
head is also adopted.
Tilting of Rails
As the pressure of the wheel is near the inner edge of the rail, there is heavy wear and tear of
the rail. Lateral bending stress as are also created due to eccentric loading of rails. Sleepers
are also likely to be damaged due to uneven loading on the sleepers. To reduce wear and tear
as well as the lateral stresses, the rails are tilted inward at a slope of 1 in 20, which is also the
slope of the wheel cone.
Rail Lubricators
Rail wear can be considerably reduced as much as 50% by providing rail lubricators, which
lubricate or oil the running face of the outer rail so that friction is reduced. As an alternative,
we adopt the practice of applying the mixture of grease and waste oil to our curves and
turnouts.
SLEEPERS
Sleepers are transverse ties on which the rails are supported and fixed to transfer the loads
from rails to the ballast and sub grade below.
Requirement of Sleepers
1. The sleepers to be used should be economical.
2. The fittings of the sleepers should be such that they can be easily adjusted during
maintenance operation.
3. The weight of the sleeper should be moderate.
4. The design of sleepers should be such that the gauge, alignment of track and levels of
the rails can be easily adjusted and maintained.
5. The bearing area of sleepers below the rail seat and over the ballast should be enough
to resist the crushing of the rail seat and crushing of ballast underneath the sleepers.
6. The sleeper design and spacing should be such as to facilitate easy removal and
replacement of ballast.
7. The sleepers should be capable of resisting shocks and vibrations.
8. The design of sleepers should be such that they are not damaged during packing
process.
9. Through sleepers, the insulation from rails should be possible for track circuiting if
required.
10. The design of sleepers should be such that they are not pushed out easily due to moving
trains.
Classification Of Sleepers
Wooden
Metal
- Cast Iron
- Steel
Concrete
- Reinforced concrete
- Pre-stressed concrete
Wooden Sleepers
Wooden sleepers are being used in sharp curves (where gauge widening and / or check railing
is required), level crossings and on track circuited areas. Wooden sleepers should be made of
torrow and sound and sea sawed wood, as far as possible from sapwood and should be free
from knots, stakes, cracks and other defects. Any wood that shows the signs of splitting or
warping should be rejected. They must be straight, sawn parallel to on the top and bottom
faces with ends cut square. They should be properly treated and preserved. Timber has
millions of minute cells, which contain juices. Removal of the juices and filling up the cells
with a preserving solution is known as Treatment of Sleepers. This helps in increasing the life
period of sleepers from 30% to 50%.
Types of Timber
1. Hard wood such as saal and teak
2. Soft wood such as chir and deodar
Important points for good performance
1. The best sleepers should be used on each side of rail joints.
2. The sleepers should be laid centrally, i.e., center of the sleeper should be on the
centerline of the track.
3. The sleepers should be at 900 to the rails except in turnouts, where an oblique layout is
permitted.
4. Boring in sleepers for spikes should be right through the sleepers to avoid splitting of
bottom of sleepers.
5. Correct size of augers should be used for boring holes.
Page 214 of 250
6. When respiking is done, spares holes are to be plugged with wooden spikes to avoid
entry of water.
7. Sleepers should not be packed at the central 900 mm to avoid center bound defects.
8. In stacking sleepers for storage, they should be kept such that enough ventilation and
air is available.
Steel Sleepers
Due to the growing scarcity of wooden sleepers, their high cost and short life, metal sleepers
are being widely adopted. Steel sleepers are advisable to be adopted because of their
advantages of longer life, gauge protection, good scrap value, free from decay and fire hazards
and lesser creep. However, certain limitations are there such that liability to corrosion,
unsuitability for track circuiting areas, suitability for particular rails only for which they are
manufactured.
The steel sleepers (trough) essentially consists of a rolled steel plate of about 12 mm thickness
and pressed to suitable trough shape and the rail seat canted to 1 to 20. The ends are
flattened out in the shape of a spade to retain the ballast.
The steel trough sleepers used in our plant railway tracks are of punched hole design unlike
pressed lug/jaw design.
5. In the double line section, keys should be driven in the direction of traffic.
Pre-stressed Concrete Sleepers
Concrete has been proved as an ideal material for the sleepers as it can be molded easily to
size and shape required by scientific investigation to withstand the stresses introduced by fast
and heavy traffic and it is made of a strong homogeneous material, impervious to effects of
moisture and is unaffected by the chemical attacks of atmospheric gases or sub soil salts.
They have wide application because of their advantages
i)
ii)
Longer life,
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
Creep prevention.
The sleepers which have been adopted in our plant, are of mono block pre-stressed concrete
sleepers (Pre- tensioned) PCS-12 sleeper for 52 Kg and PCS 14 sleepers for 60 Kg has been
standardised for B.G. tracks.
Sleeper Dencity
Sleeper density is the number of sleepers per rail length. It is specified as M + X, where M is
the length of rail in meters and X is the number varying according to the following factors: i)
ii)
iii)
Speed of train,
iv)
v)
vi)
vii)
viii)
Nature of formation.
If sleeper density is M+4 on a track and the length of rail is 13 meters, it means that 13 + 4 =
17 sleepers will be used per rail.
Depending upon the sleeper density, the spacing of sleeper is fixed. The spacing is kept
uniform through out the rail length but is made closer near the joints to avoid loosening of
ballast due to impact. The minimum space between sleepers is 305 to 335 mm (except at joins)
in India to facilitate packing of ballast. If the joints on the curves are staggered, one additional
sleeper is provided at each joint for making suspended joints.
Sl.
No.
1
2
3
4
SPACING
Between join sleepers (a)
Between joint sleepers and the
first shoulder sleeper (b)
Between first shoulder sleeper
and second shoulder sleepers (c)
Between intermediate sleepers
(d)
M+4
Woo Steel
den
300
380
610
610
M + 12
Woo Ste
den
el
300
300
350
350
700
720
500
500
840
830
550
550
The spacing for joint sleeper (a) and the 1s shoulder sleeper (b) should always remain the
same as given above for all length of rails and all sleeper densities. The spacing (d) should be
whole number of cm and spacing (c) should be between (b) and (d). The spacing given for
wooden sleepers is being followed for concrete sleepers.
F
Page 217 of 250
b) Suspended joint This is the most common type of joint being adopted on the railway
system in which the ends of the rails are suspended between the two sleepers and some
portion of the rail is cantilever as shown in figure.
c) Square or even joint In this the position of rail joint is the basis of its
nomenclature, the joints of one rail of track are directly opposite to the joints of other
rail. This is generally used on straight length of track.
d) Staggered or broken joints- In this also, the position of joints is the basis of
nomenclature, the joints of one rail are not directly opposite to the joint of the other rail.
These joints are generally provided on curves.
%
0.30 to 0.42 %
Not more than 0.8%
Not more than 0.15%
Not more than 0.06%
The fishplates are so designed that the fishing angles at the top and bottom surfaces coincide
with those of the rail section so as to have a perfect contact with the rail.
Fish Plate
Combination Fish Plates: - Combination or Junction fishplates are used for connecting the
rail length of two different rail sections (e.g. 52 Kg & 60 Kg sections in NINL). These are
designed so as to suit the two-rail sections at either end with an adequate thickening up of
section in the center where the rail section gets changed. Another design feature is the
elimination of expansion gap in order to give more strength to it. A common top table of the
two-rail sections is available with the help of these plates. These are designed as left in., left
out, right in and right out for the set of four plates of each join. For deciding the position of the
plates, the direction given in the figure has to be followed.
i) On straight track
2. Round spikes: - These are used for fixing the rails with wooden sleepers using anti creep
bearing plates ad for fixing assemblies of switches on wooden sleepers. It has a round section
of 18 mm diameter and the length depends upon is actual use.
3. Screw spikes: - These have been recently developed to obtain a better life from the wooden
sleepers. These have more than double the holding power of dog spikes and can also resist
lateral thrust in a better way as compared to dog spikes. The 18 mm dia screw spikes are
called PLATE SCREW and are to be used in the switch portion. The 22 mm dia screw spikes
are called RAIL SCREW and are to be used for direct fastening of rail with or without
bearing plates. They are also used on bridges and platform lines. These should be preferred to
round spikes and dog spikes to conserve the life of wooden sleepers.
Top Plan
Round Spike side elevation
Rail Screw
Plate Screw
(52 Kg)
Size of bolts in mm
(60 Kg)
Size of bolt in
mm
25 x 130
25 x 140
25 x 180
25 x 180
ii
25 x 220
25 x 230
Fish Plate
Check Block
Heel Block
25 x 260
25 x 250
ii
25 x 280
25 x 300
Right
Left
25 x 260 25 x 270
25 x 290 25 x 300
25 x 250
ii
25 x 280
iii
25 x 10
iv
25 x 330
25 x 330 25 x 350
25 x 370 25 x 390
25 x 370
25 x 420 25 x 510
18 x 90
18 x 70
18 x 90
18 x 70
18 x 75
18 x 75
Stop
18 x 65
18 x 65
25 x 80
25 x 310
25 x 330
25 x 240 (2 nos.)
25 x 300
25 x 310
25 x 390
25 x 510
25 x 520
25 x 350
25 x 360
25 x 80
25 x 310
25 x 320
25 x 240 (2 nos.)
25 x 310
25 x 320
25 x 420
25 x 520
25 x 540
25 x 370
25 x 380
Slide Chairs
Crossing Blocks
Throat
ii
Nose
iii
iv
v
vi
Bearing Plares
a) Mild steel canted beating plates: - There are used on wooden sleepers to give better
bearing area to the rails. These have got a cant of 1 in 20 and a groove in the center to
prevent rocking.
M.S.Bearing Plates
b)
c) M.S. Flat bearing plates: - These are used for the points and crossings in the lead
portion of the turnout. No cant is provided in these bearing plates.
Page 221 of 250
d) Cast Iron anti creep bearing plated: - These are provided with wooden sleepers at
locations where creep is likely to be developed. These bearing plates have got 1 in 20
cant and can be fixed with normal round spikes. Double key types of anti creep bearing
plates are being used in some of the areas of our plant, i.e., on approach tracks of weigh
bridges.
In the flat bearing plates, double bearing plates are also available, which are used in
level crossings and curves, where check rails are provided.
2. Two Way: - These keys are used universally with trough sleepers, pot-sleepers and
CST-9 sleepers. These are also used with anti creep bearing plates. A two way taper is
provided on both sides of the keys and as such the keys can be driven in cither direction.
These are manufactured from a special rolled section. A gauge variation of 3 mm can
be adjusted by altering the length of drive of these keys. The length of these keys is
about 190 mm for B.G. with a taper of 1 in 32.
Elastic Fastenings
1.
Pandrol clip (elastic rail clip): - Pandrol clip is a standard type of elastic fastening
which is a fit and forget type of fastening and very little attention is required to
maintain the same. This is made from silicon manganese spring steel bar of 20.6 mm
Page 222 of 250
diameter and heat-treated. It exerts a toe load, which is quite adequate to ensure that no
relative movement between rail and sleeper is possible. In order to ensure that the
correct toe load is exerted, the clip should be driven to such an extent that the outer leg of
the clip flushes with the outer face of the cast iron inserted. This can be fixed on wooden,
steel, cast iron or concrete sleepers.
2.
Pandrol clip
3.
Rubber pad
Composite liners: - Nylon insulating liners, which are mostly used are getting crushed
under the toe load exerted by pandrol clips. To eliminate such premodured failure glass
filled nylon liners (GFN 66) of 4mm thickness has been developed by RDSO for track
circuited areas and sections subjected to severe corrosion. In saline atmosphere of costal
belts and areas subjected to industrial fumes etc. Where corrosion is prominent, only
GFN-66 liners should be used. To avoid breakage of this liners, it is necessary that while
initial laying, proper precautions should be taken to ensure that rail surfaces are cleared
off rust etc. and the liners are made to sit evenly on the 1 in 6 slopping surface of the rail
flange.
A new design of GFN-66 liners having 6 mm thickness has recently been developed which
will possibly be more sturdy and give better service life.
GFN-66 Liner
Page 223 of 250
Ballast
Ballast is a layer of broken stone, gravel. Moorum or any other gritty material placed and
packed below and around sleepers for distributing the load from the sleepers to the formation
and for providing drainage as well as giving longitudinal and lateral stability to the tracks.
Requirements of Good Ballest
1. It should be able to withstand hard packing without disintegrating.
2. It should not make the track dusty or muddy due to power under dynamic wheel loads
but should be capable of being cleaned to provide good drainage.
3. It should allow for easy drainage with minimum soakage and the voids should be big
enough to prevent capillarity.
4. It should have resistance to abrasion and weathering.
5. It should retain its position laterally and longitudinally under all conditions of traffic
particularly on curves, where it should prevent transverse displacement of sleepers.
6. It should not have any chemical action on rail and metal sleepers.
7. The material should be easily workable by means of the implements in use.
8. The ballast should fulfill the requirements of quality, amount of traffic, life and
maintenance cost.
Different materials, which can be used as ballast, are: 1) Sand
2) Moorum
3) Coal Ash or cinder
4) Blast Furnace Slag
5) Gravel or River Pebbles or Shingle
6) Kankar
7) Brick Ballast
8) Selected Earth
9) Broken stone ballast
Broken Stone Ballast: This type of ballast is mostly used on Indian Railways and also in
our tracks. It is generally procured from hard stones like granite, quartzite and hard trap etc.
The quality of stone should be such that it is neither porous nor flakes off under vagaries of
weather. The stone ballast shall be hard, durable, resistant to impact and free from adherent
coatings. Materials likely to disintegrate, decompose or chemically reactive shall not to be
accepted. It shall not be inferior to the approved sample and shall not contain more than 10%
dust (ballast which passes through 10 mm sieve is dust). 50 mm size of ballast is to be adopted
universally for all types of sleepers. The best size of ballast is that which contains stones
varying in size from 19 mm to 51 mm with reasonable proportion of intermediate sizes. As far
as points and crossings are considered, these are subject to heavy blows of moving loads and
are to be maintained to a higher degree of precision. Smaller size ballast (25 mm), is therefore
preferable because of its fineness for smaller adjustments, better compaction and more
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frictional area of the ballast. For getting good quality of ballast, the following laboratory tests
should be carried out: 1) Impact Test
2) Absorption Test
3) Crushing Test
Minimum Depth of Ballast Cushion
Although the lines of equal pressure in ballast through wheel loads (strictly speaking) are in
the shape of a bulb, yet for simplicity purpose, the load dispersion can be assumed at 450 the
vertical. For uniform distribution of load on the formation, the depth of ballast should be such
that the dispersion lines do not overlap each other.
From simple geometry, sleeper spacing (S)= Width of sleeper (W) + [2 x
Depth of Ballast (Db)]
S= W + Db
or
ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT
The formation of a Environment Management Cell (EMC) was conceived, keeping in view the
enactment of environmental laws by the Government of India and up-gradation/
modernisation of NINL plant to the world standards through various technological
developments. The EMC has following objectives:
Maintaining a pollution free atmosphere around the steel works and mines
Providing education and massive awareness through publicity
Liaisoning with State & Central Regulatory agencies in environmental matters
concerning NINL
Adopting significant developments in other steel industries around the world for their
implementation and assimilation in NINL
Ensure co-operation and co-ordination with all Environmental Control Departments of
Plants.
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Responsibilities
Develop Data bank and expertise:
To continuously monitor the environmental impact of the NINL plant operation and
bring it within the acceptable limits.
Identify action plans for different units towards pollution abatement measures and
monitoring facilities both for short term and long term measures.
Environmental Clearance
For proposals requiring approval by NINL - scrutinising and clearing the same from
environmental angle.
For proposals requiring Government approval, scrutinising/checking the same from
environmental angle and submitting to the Government for clearance.
Follow up with the Central Environment authorities for obtaining environment
clearance from Government.
Co-ordinating and submitting various clarifications required by Central authorities in
(c) above for environment clearance.
Studies
Liaison between NINL and MoEF, State / Central Pollution Control Boards.
(Regulatory agencies)
Organising regular meetings of pollution control departments of plant.
Keeping in view the above responsibilities, the following activities are performed;
Pollution Control
Waste Management
Training/seminars/workshops
Celebration of World Environment Day.
Special environmental reporting initiatives.
COMPUTER
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER
Digital computer is an electronic device that works on the binary number system (base2 number system) that represents values using two digits, 0 and 1 (known as Binary
Digit or Bit). Owing to its straightforward implementation as two state devices in
electronic circuitry, the binary system is used internally by all digital computers.
One Byte consists of 8 bits. One byte is typically used to represent one character
Many components of computer are timed devices and use a clock. A clock is pulse train
of values 1 and 0 occurring at a specified frequency known as clock speed and measured
in cycles/ second or Hertz. Operations are carried out on each clock pulse. Typical clock
speed of a Personal Computer today is 3 Giga Hertz or more
Computers are able to support multimedia data consisting of text, picture and sound.
Laptop is a powerful portable Personal Computer
Definition of Computer
Computer is an electronic device that
Accepts data.
Server - A computer that has been optimized to provide special services to other
computers over a network. E.g., Database -Server, Application-Server, Proxy- Server,
http-Server, Mail-Server, File-Server etc
The main characteristics of a computer are its speed, accuracy, doing variety of tasks,
doing repetitive jobs and automatic program execution
Using the computer, one can do in-depth analysis of data and take decision about the
future course of action, in matter of seconds. We can plug the shortcomings in advance
with appropriate measures.
Electronic mail and web-browsing have spread rapidly to cover the whole globe. Now, a
few keys on the computer would bring instant connectivity with our business partners.
Computers help in Elimination of repetitive tasks and result in higher productivity and
benefit to our Organization.
Thousands of dedicated valves (vacuum tubes) were used to create First generation
computers. One example of First Generation Computer is ENIAC (Electronic
Numerical Integrator and Computer) built in USA around 1945. ENIAC publicly
validated the use of electronics for large-scale computing, which was crucial for the
development of modern computing
At the end of the fifties the vacuum tubes were replaced by the Transistors, giving rise
to the Second Generation computers. By using the transistors and improving the
machines and the programs, the computers got quicker and more economical. The
explosion in the use of computers began with 'Third Generation' computers. This was
the result of invention of the integrated circuit (or microchip). Computers built with
integrated circuits came to be known as with 'Third Generation' computers.
The invention of the microprocessor, by Intel company engineers led to the development
of 'Fourth Generation' computers, which are built on microprocessors. These small, lowcost computers are owned by individuals and businesses and are now dominant in most
market segments.
Level II consisting of supervisory monitoring and control, achieves process control and
optimisation
HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE CONCEPTS
Computer equipments including input devices, CPU, memory, output devices, auxiliary
storage is known as Computer Hardware. Hardware is what we can see and touch. It is
a set of physical components
The instructions fall into major types of input/ output instruction, arithmetic
instruction, logic instruction, branch instruction and character manipulation
instruction
Main Memory
Read Only Memory (ROM) is storage where data is permanently written during fabrication,
whose contents can be read but cannot be altered. Hence ROM is a nonvolatile memory, which
means that the memory contents are retained even when the computer is switched off. The
same contents are available when switched on.
Types of ROM
Random Access Memory (RAM) is a storage where data can be repeatedly written and
read. Hence RAM is a volatile memory which means that the memory contents are erased
when computer is switched off
Types of RAM
Static RAM (SRAM) stores binary bits in such a manner that the bits remain in RAM
as long as power to the chip is not interrupted
Dynamic RAM (DRAM) requires the stored data to be refreshed, or rewritten,
periodically to keep it from fading away. As a matter of fact, each bit in the DRAM must
be refreshed at least once every 2 milliseconds or the data dissipates
Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM) runs in synchronization with the memory bus. Most
Pentium or Celeron systems purchased in 1999 have SDRAM.
Double Data Rate RAM (DDR RAM) is a type of SDRAM, difference between SDRAM
and DDR RAM is that instead of doubling the clock rate it transfers data twice per clock
cycle which effectively doubles the data rate.
Main memory is required to store programs and the data processed by the programs. RAM is
used as main memory in computers
Secondary Storage
Computers load the program instructions from hard disk to main memory (RAM) and
then execute these instructions. Since RAM is volatile, the results of processing and
data needs to be stored in permanent secondary storage media like hard disk.
Hard disks are smooth metal plates coated on both sides with thin film of magnetic
material. A set of such plates is fixed to a spindle one below the other to form a disk
pack, which gets rotated. Magnetic heads do read / write operation on circular tracks.
Compact Disk Read Only Memory (CD-ROM) is a disc of special plastic with thin layer
aluminium applied to the surface. Information is created in the CD by creating pits on
the surface by laser. Any data file (for example sound, video, or text) can be stored in a
Compact disc. Many of the original Operating system and other system software are
now being distributed in CD-ROM. Normally CDs support about 700 Mega Bytes of
storage. CD-R is a write-once/ read-many media, CD-RW is a media where data can be
erased and rewritten.
Digital Video Disk (DVD) is a medium where a number of disks are bound together to
offer several layers of data. Information is created in the CD by creating pits on the
surface by laser. Each disk layer is accessed by the device for read or write by changing
the intensity of the laser to different levels. Here also we have read and read-write
versions available. The capacity of a DVD is roughly four times that of a CD-ROM. CD
drives that can handle CD read, write and DVD read is known as Combo Drive.
Magnetic tape drive consists of a spool where a magnetic tape is wound. Between 2
spools, a number of read/ write heads are mounted, for reading or storing information
on independent tracks.
Digital Data Storage (DDS) media like Digital Audio Tape (DAT) has been adopted for
general data storage, storing large volume of computer data. In appearance it is similar
to a compact audio cassette, using 4 mm magnetic tape enclosed in a protective shell,
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but is roughly half the size. For example DDS2 is around 40 GB, DDS-4 is around 72
GB etc
Pen Drives are flash memory data storage devices integrated with a USB (universal
serial bus) connector. They are typically small, lightweight, removable and rewritable.
Flash memory is non-volatile computer memory that can be electrically erased and
rewritten in large blocks. To read or write data, the pen drive must be connected to a
USB port and draw all necessary power from the supply provided by that connection.
Input Devices
Input devices are used to feed data into computer. Examples of input devices are Keyboard,
mouse, bar code reader, microphone for sound recording etc. Devices like hard disk, floppy
disk, CD-ROM, pen-drive, touch-screen monitor are used for input when they contain data.
With advanced wireless networking, it is possible to have a wireless handheld terminal with
limited functionality for use in locations like slab yard
Output Devices
Output devices are used to give data output from computer. Examples of output devices
are monitor, printer, speaker etc. Monitor for computer can be a CRT (Cathode Ray
Tube) or TFT (Thin Film Transistor technology). TFT monitor has tiny transistor for
each picture element on screen and has very fast re-drawing of display. Devices like
hard disk, floppy disk, CD-RW, pen-drive, touch-screen monitor are used for output
when data is to be stored in them or displayed on them. Other output devices are
various types of printers like Dot matrix, laser jet, Ink jet and line printers.
Any device that we connect to our PC needs to communicate and for this software
known as driver software is necessary to be installed in the PC. Driver software is
responsible for our PC handshaking with the device. For example, we may have a
special colour laser printer in our department network. If we have the driver for the
printer in our PC, we can print documents on network printer
Integer data like whole numbers are stored in blocks of 4 bytes or 8 bytes. The larger
storage is required for large numbers
Real or floating point is generally stored in 4 byte or 8 byte blocks which is split up into
mantissa and exponent portions
Optimization of coke oven operation for minimum energy use, maximum coke
production & coke quality
An Operating System (OS) is the software that manages the sharing of the resources of
a computer and provides an interface to access those resources. An operating system
works on system data and user input, and responds by allocating and managing tasks
and internal system resources. An operating system performs basic tasks such as
controlling and allocating memory, controlling input and output devices, scheduling the
processing of jobs, facilitating Computer networking and managing files.
Most of the Operating systems work in timesharing mode, where all the jobs to be done
are put in queue and CPU time gets shared among these jobs.
The applications that we execute using computer in steel industry are a mix of the
above types of jobs
Self-test
Identify boot-device ( normally hard disk ), System start, device configuration
Do first time jobs like setting computer-name, file consistency check and connecting
network interface
Bring up the system for user operation
Shutdown of Computer
A computer should be switched off only after doing a proper shutdown. Commands for
shutdown are available in every operating system. The shutdown procedure stops the
running jobs and closes the open files in a systematic manner such that there is no bad
data in computer. A sudden power off of any computer will lead to inconsistent disk
data and corruption of Operating System files.
COMPUTER LANGUAGE AND PROGRAMMING
Programming Concepts
Depending on the type of connection, telephone cable, co-axial cable, twisted pair cable (
e.g. UTP Unshielded Twisted Pair ) cable, fibre cable having glass as the
communication medium are used.
Ports for Network Connectivity like Serial, Parallel, Ethernet , USB ports
On a Personal Computer we can find the following communication ports
Serial Port: this is normally a 9-pin or 25-pin port which helps in communicating with
serial devices like weigh-bridge controllers, modems etc. The data in serial
communication flows in a serial fashion, one bit following the other.
Parallel Port: this is normally a 25-pin port on the PC for parallel devices like Dot
Matrix Printer using special cable. The other end of the cable is having special
connector and clip for printer. Here the communication flows parallel.
Ethernet Port: Most of the current PCs have a network interface card that has an
Ethernet-port having RJ-45 standard cable connection. Generally this cable is
connected to network switch
USB Port : A number of USB ( Universal Serial Bus ) ports are provided on the
Personal Computer for connection of devices like Printer, keyboard, mouse, camera,
pen-drive etc
INTRODUCTION TO WINDOWS
When PC is powered on, Windows operating system comes up after proper username,
password as a GUI (Graphical user Interface). We need mouse as well as keyboard to
operate. Windows desktop has icons displayed for disk access, program running etc
Several jobs like opening Word document, EXCEL document, web-access can be run
simultaneously. However we use only one screen at a time. Each of these programs is
visible at the bottom of the screen in the Task Bar. Switching over from one program to
another can be done by clicking on required task bar item
Folders are places in the file system that contains more folders and files. Files are the
storage place for data. Files can be created as new, deleted, copied, moved or renamed.
Data in two or more files can be cut / copied and pasted. File has specific format with
specific extension like .doc, .xls, .ppt depending on the type of data that is stored
Floppy disk can used to store data up to 1.44 Mega Byte by using copy command.
However this is very low capacity and is no longer useful
We can write data once in CD-R and several times in CD-RW media. For this we need to
have CD write drive in our PC. Generally for writing into CD ( known as burning ) we
use the product software provided like Nero Express for CD burning
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Generally pen-drives are automatically recognized by the operating system when they
are inserted into the USB drive and the file system is displayed. At this point, copy,
delete operations can be done. It is necessary to safely close the device by software
before physically taking out from USB port
Printers have their driver-software supplied in driver-CD and this software needs to be
installed in our PC. When we want to print from WORD, EXCEL etc the Operating
System uses the driver software to communicate with the printer
A file created by WORD program is known as a document and contains .doc file
extension. Word program is typically used to write note-sheet, Inter-Office-Memo etc
Command File New opens a new document, whereas File Open opens an existing
document. Document needs to be saved to retain the modifications
It is possible to give margins, insert table, align text, give text font, text colour, fill with
colours, draw shapes, insert picture, draw lines, give paragraph spacing, bullet /
numbering, do spelling check
Command File Exit makes us close and exit from Word program
MS Excel
A file created by EXCEL program is known as a Workbook and contains .xls file
extension. One Workbook can have a number of Worksheets. EXCEL program is
typically used to make analysis of data, do calculations using formula, create graph etc
Command File New opens a new Workbook, whereas File Open opens an existing
Workbook. Workbook needs to be saved to retain the modifications
Data in each Worksheet is filled in cells which have row (1, 2, 3 etc) and column (A, B,
C, D etc) addressing (A23, V56 etc). Each cell can take data like numerical, character,
function or formula. The results of formula get calculated automatically on change of
data
It is possible to draw graphs like X-Y, bar-graph, line-graph, pie-chart etc, sort data, do
matrix operation, do query on data
Command File Exit makes us close and exit from EXCEL program
MS Power Point
Command File New opens a new presentation, whereas File Open opens an existing
presentation. Presentation needs to be saved to retain the modifications
It is possible to choose layout, background for slide, insert or duplicate slide, insert
picture from file, setup slide-show with animation and auto or manual slide transition
PowerPoint has features to include notes as part of presentation to help the presenter
Command File Exit makes us close and exit from PowerPoint program
INTRANET AND INTERNET
The World Wide Web (www) is defined as the universe of network-accessible information,
accumulation of human knowledge, consisting of all the resources on the Internet
Web Based Search Engines and Web Surfing
E-mail: Electronic mail or e-mail is a store and forward method of composing, sending,
storing, and receiving messages over electronic communication systems like intranet or
internet. E-mail sometimes leads to unwanted messages ("spam"). E-mail contains
address of the sender and the address of the receiver. We can use internet e-mail
systems like yahoomail.com, rediff.com, gmail.com etc without extra expense. Our
SAIL/ plant-based e-mail systems also allow us to send to / receive mails from anyone in
the world
A web browser is a software application that enables a user to display and interact with
text, images, videos, music and other information located on a Web page at a website on
the World Wide Web or a local area network. One example of web browser is Internet
Explorer
A web based search engine is an information retrieval software system designed to help
find information stored in a computer system on World Wide Web. Example is
www.google.co.in, www.yahoo.com etc
A website is a location on the World Wide Web, which contains a home page, which is
the first document users see when they enter the site and multiple links. The site is
invoked by giving the location address on the browser software. Each site is owned and
managed by an individual or an organization
]
Examples of a few important websites
NINL: www.ninl.in
SAIL : www.sail.co.in
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Advantages of Web
Electronic payment
COMPUTER VIRUS AND ITS EFFECT
Computer viruses are small software programs that are designed to spread from one computer
to another and to interfere with computer operation
A virus might corrupt or delete data on our computer. Viruses are easily spread by
attachments in e-mail messages that is why it is essential that we never open e-mail
attachments unless we know who it's from and we are expecting it.
Anti Virus program
To help avoid viruses, it's essential that we keep load in our computer the latest antivirus
tools. We also have to follow a few basic rules when we surf the Internet, download files, and
open attachments. Some of the popular anti-virus programs available are Symantec, AVG,
NOTRON etc
Computer Hardware Maintenance
It is essential that we know about the parts of our computer system and also follow the
Standard Operating practices. However, the computer maintenance is normally carried out by
a maintenance contract operated globally in the plant. Hence as a user we have to register
compliant with the maintenance agency and get their assistance to rectify the problem.
Input power supply with proper earthing is very essential. It is recommended to check
and correct the voltage especially neutral wire to ground voltage (should be less than 5
volt) periodically
UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply) takes raw AC input power and gives output of
steady 230 V AC power supply. There is a battery in UPS which sustains power to PC
for about 20 minutes after power fail. This time is sufficient for us to save our work and
do normal shutdown. It is also possible to connect UPS port to a PC port and
automatically shutdown computer in case of power failure using a special program
When switching ON computer, first start the UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply),
then monitor and then the Computer. While switching OFF switch OFF CPU, monitor
and then UPS.
Use the Start Button on the Windows Taskbar to shutdown your computer. It is also
necessary to first save any files you were working with and close all applications
running in the taskbar. This is called a clean shutdown.
Connect and power on all peripherals (Printer, Monitor, Scanner and Modem) before
powering on the computer.
Keep keyboard, screen printer and other peripherals clean. Use plastic covers to protect
computers and peripherals when not in use. Keep media like floppy, CD in dust-free
cover.
Logoff the computer when you have finished or are leaving for an extended period of
time.
Use hard-to-guess password and do not keep password information in local hard disk.
Donts
Don't Switch external devices on and off several times hoping that this may be a cure.
Dont open emails or email attachments from senders you do not recognize.
MINING
INTRODUCTION
To develop a mines we have to understand the geology of the area. The formation of ore body
is important in this respect. An ore is considered to be an aggregation of minerals from which
a metal or metallic compound can be recovered economically on a commercial scale. When the
percentage of metal or valuable in the ore is too low for profitable recovery, the rock ceases to
be an ore.
A mineral may be regarded as a naturally occurring chemical compound having a definite
chemical composition and crystal structure. The physical properties of minerals play the most
important role in the economic processing of various ores.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
The physical properties of minerals can be determined without the use of chemical tests. They
depend upon the kinds and arrangement of atoms in their crystal structures. The various
physical properties of minerals include transparency, luster, colour, specific gravity, hardness,
cleavage, fracture, magnetic properties, electrical properties, radioactive and optical
properties.
Transparency
This term used to describe the case with which we can see through a mineral. Three terms for
transparency are in common use i.e. opaque, transparent & translucent. The opaque minerals
are those through which no light can be seen. Transparent minerals are those which can be
seen through clearly. Translucent minerals are those through which a little light can be seen.
Lustre
This may be defined as the amount and quality of the reflection of light from mineral surface.
The lustre of mineral refers to its surface appearance.
Colour
In most cases the colour of mineral is due to absorption of certain wavelength of light energy
by the atoms making up the crystal. The remaining wavelengths of the light that are not
absorbed give the sensation of colour to the eye.
Luminescence
This refers to the emission of light by a mineral which is not the direct result of incandescence.
Luminescence in most minerals is faint and can be seen only in the dark. Minerals which
luminance during exposure to ultraviolet light and x-rays, are called fluorescent.
Specific Gravity
Specific gravity of a particular mineral is practically constant, it may vary a little with the
presence of some impurities. The difference in specific gravity affords one of the surest means
of separating minerals from each other and has been put to practical use. Simple washing in
water affects an efficient separation of gold grains from quartz sand, whereas use of heavy
liquids affects the separation of lighter coal from heavier shale. Difference in specific gravities
forms the basis of a class of ore-dressing process known as gravity concentration method.
Hardness
This may be defined as the ability of a mineral to resist scratching. This is different from the
ease with which it can be broken. Diamond is one of the hardest material known, but it can be
shattered easily. Like other physical properties, the hardness is dependent on the kinds and
arrangements of atoms in mineral structures. The basis of the test is a set of minerals selected
by the Austrian mineralogist, F. Mohs in 1974 numbered 1to 10 in order of increasing order of
hardness.
Mohs scale of Hardness
1. Talc
2. Gypsum
3. Calcite
4 .Flourite
5. Apatite
6 .Oligoclage
7 .Quartz
8 .Topaz
9. Quarandum
10 .Diamond
Logging
The purpose of logging is to determine the thickness of ore body/coal seam and also to
ascertain the quality of the ore/coal. For this purpose a bore hole is driven down the hole
through core drilling and core is recovered which is placed in a core box with utmost care. The
geologist/mining engineer measure the core length of the earth crust carefully and a picture is
drawn on paper of the length and location of the ore body/coal seam. Simultaneously ore/coal
seam sent to laboratory for quality analysis. This provides the basic information for the
Geological and Assay database for any mining software like surpac, datamine to be used for
the Reserve estimation, establishing average quality , Ore modeling ,preparation of the mine
plan and finally the mine scheduling to produce targeted quantity of Ore with stipulated
quality..
following combinations are suitable and normally used as per the rocks/minerals to be
excavated.
Bucket wheel excavator is a large capacity continuous excavator which is used in soft
formations for directly excavating material from the mine faces and transporting to the
desired locations through the conveyors. It is also being used in some mines and the ore
handling plants at the steel plants for reclamation of the lumps/fines of the Iron ore. Dragline
is a giant excavator which can be used for directly side casting the overburden to large
distances .It can be effectively used also for temporary shifting of the overburden for mining
and backfilling the mined out area after extraction of the entire deposit where the thickness of
the deposit are not very thick..
Equipment
Equipments required for opencast mining:
Excavators: Electric/Rope shovel, Hydraulic shovel, Front end loader, Back hoe
Dumper: 35t capacity, 50t capacity, 85t capacity, 120t capacity etc.
Drill: Electric driven, Diesel driven
Dozer: D-155,D-355,D-510
Grader
Water sprinkler
Combination of equipment
Combination of equipment is dependent on the volume of production required with a targeted
quality. In all the Sail mines except the manual mines, excavator-dumper combination is used
for excavation and the transport of ore to the crushing and the screening plant Large dia drills
from 100mm to200mm are used for drilling. Dozers and the road graders are used for leveling
at the mines and the mines roads respectively. Big water sprinklers are used to suppress the
dust in the mines which are very essential because no other operation in the mine is possible
unless the dust is suppressed.
MINES OPERATION
Drilling/Placement of drill/Sub grade drilling
Ahead of the mine production faces in different benches, a drilling block should be maintained
of sufficient length and width in all the faces to manage quantity of material at least for one
week. This enables easy weekly blasting and prevents from frequent shifting of the machines.
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For good blasting efficiency effective drilling parameters should be followed. Drilling
parameters are dependent on the rock characteristics. Distance from the free face to the first
line of the holes is known as Burden, hole to hole distance in a row is called spacing and the
extra drilling more than the height of the bench is called the subgrade drilling. Drilling block
is properly leveled with the use of a dozer and prior to start of the drilling operations,
positions of the drill holes are physically marked on the ground as per the desired drilling
parameters. Drilling parameters can be fixed on the trial and error basis following the general
prescribed thumb rules. Harder rock requires smaller burden and spacing while the larger
spacing and burden can be given in the soft rocks where less energy is required for breaking of
the rocks.
The following thumb rule is in practice for determining the drilling parameters in the mine
The burden of drill holes can be 20 to 40 times the dia of the holes.
Spacing can be 1.5 times of burden.
Stemming is normally 1/3 of hole depth but not less than the burden
Sub-grade drilling should be approx 10%to11% of the bench height.
Marking of holes on the surface can be on a square pattern or the staggered pattern. When the
spacing of the holes in the second row are in line with the first row making a square, it is
called the square pattern and when the holes of the second row are placed between the two
holes of the first row forming a triangle are called staggered pattern. Sub grade drilling are
required to compensate the drilling loss after the drill is removed. For good blasting, length of
the hole should be at least equal to the height of the bench or otherwise toes will be formed at
the foot of the bench which restricts the digging efficiency of the excavator
Blasting
Blasting is done to provide fragmented rock mass for shoveling. Its the lifeline of a mines
operation because the efficiency of all other operations like excavation, loading of dumpers,
transportation and crushing and the screening are dependent on the blasting efficiency i.e the
fragmentation of the basted mass. Different types of explosives are used
for rock fragmentation.
Nonel tubes do not destroy the bubbles energy of explosives whereas in detonating fuse
the flames traveling is in contact with explosives destroying its bubble energy. In this
way by saving the explosive energy it leads to cost saving and better fragmentation.
More energy is utilized in breaking the rock instead it is wasted in the atmosphere
causing air blast and the blast vibrations.
Each hole gets blast at different timing thereby extra free face is created leading to
better fragmentation
Less throw and better muck pile
Less vibration
Safer in handling and blasting.
Large no. of holes can be blasted effectively in single shot providing large volume of the
blasted mass.
There are less chances of misfire as all the surface connections are charged before down
the hole non electric delays are initiated.
Operation schedule/deployment/monitoring
Operation schedule is a daily/weekly operation plan taking into consideration of quality
parameters &targeted production. It is synchronization between available bench wise blasted
material quality, quantity and available shovel combination. To get a desired result the bench
wise shovel operation must be monitored through out the shift.
Trans port /arrangement of transport
For transporting men and material arrangement of transport is vital in a mines operation.
Quality/monitoring
Its a desirable practice that winning of ore shall commence after blasting of ore body. Before
blasting all extraneous materials shall be removed. Bench wise quality excavation is
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monitored by scheduling deployment of shovels in a shift. The shift operation should follow the
plan for getting the desired quality.
Crushing plant
Transported ore from the quarry is fed to primary crusher. Primary crusher is normally a
gyratory crusher and sometimes Jaw crushers, which crush the ore upto a size of 300mm.The
crushed ore is then feed to a secondary cone crusher through conveyor belt to get a desired size
of 40mm and below. The mixture of sized lump &fines is stocked into a stock pile for feeding to
screening plant through conveyors.
Screening plant
The job of screening plant is to separate lump (-40mm to +10mm) & fines (-10mm) through
double deck screen and transport the material to Ore Handling Plant stockpiles through
conveyors. In wet screening the lump &fines are washed with waters in the double deck screen
for removing impurities during monsoon.
Ore Handling Plant
The job of ore handling plant is to feed the wagon loader from stock pile by a bucket wheel
excavator. From the bucket wheel excavator the lumps &fines are transported to wagon loader
for loading into wagons by conveyors.
Loading and dispatch
Managing loading and dispatch within the free time without incurring demurrages and
loading correct weight to avoid heavy penal freight is the prime requirement and the big
challenge. There are different systems of loading in different mines. Loading are done by
wagon loader, shovels or the pay loaders. No. of the loading equipments depend on its
capacity and the free time provided by the railways.
SAFETY /PPE/SAFETY OF MEN/MACHINE
The safety of persons employed in mines and also the equipment are the responsibility of the
supervisors/ Astt. Manager & other engineers working in the mine. There are hazards
associated with blasting, transportation of coal/ore, use of electrical energy. As a general rule
all persons working in mines must wear personal protective equipments, follow general
principal laid down in permission letters by the Directorate General of Mines Safety Official
as per MMR 1961/CMR1957.General condition of mines atmosphere shall be congenial,
airborne dust shall be suppressed at the place of formation by water sprinkling.
Heavy electrical &other drills and also shovels shall be kept at a safe distance during blasting
to avoid damage from flying fragments. Shovels shall be so placed and operated that shall not
be any undercuts and over hangs. Quarry lighting/mine lighting shall take care of glare also.
Mines shall be well lighted so that movement of men and machine are not disturbed. Separate
walkway for men shall be established. Traffic of dumpers/truck shall be controlled and a
separate haul road shall be established for light vehicles.
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