Smoke Control

Technology
Dr. John H. Klote, PE
john@SmokeControlExpert.com

April 29, 2015

ICB Conference
Austin, TX

Contents
Introduction

References

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Basics of Smoke Control

Analysis of Systems

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Fire & Smoke Dampers

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Stairwell Pressurization

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Elevator Pressurization

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Zoned Smoke Control

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Atrium Smoke Control

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Commissioning & Periodic Testing

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Design Fires & Smoke Production

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Appendix A Example Testing Matrix

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A1

4/8/2015

Copyright Materials

Smoke Control
Technology
Dr. John H. Klote, PE

This workshop is protected by U.S. and

International copyright laws. Reproduction,
distribution, display, and use of the
educational activity without written
permission of the presenter is prohibited.

john@SmokeControlExpert.com
April 29, 2015

ICB Conference
Austin, TX

2015 John H. Klote

Smoke is Major Killer

Sprinklers Not Total Answer

Smoke Major Killer about 70% of Fire

Fatalities due to Smoke Inhalation

Sprinklers Important for Life Safety Not

Total Answer
Sprinkler Failure Rate about 10% - Data of
National Fire Incident Reporting System

Berl, W.C., and B.M. Halpin. Human Fatalities from

Unwanted Fires. Johns Hopkins APL, 1980.
Harland, W.A., and W.D. Woolley, W.D. Fire Fatality
Study. BRE, Univ. Glasgow, 1979.

Smoke Migrates Far From Fire Floor Threatens Life at Remote Locations
Smoke control provides significant
protection from the threat of smoke.

Koffels Study, 2005

Halls Studies, 2006 & 2011

Even in fully sprinklered buildings, smoke

control provides protection from the threat
of smoke

References

REFERENCES

International Building Code (IBC), ICC 2015

NFPA 5000 Building Construction and
Safety Code, NFPA 2015
NFPA 92 Standard for Smoke Control
Systems, NFPA 2015.
A Guide to Smoke Control in the 2006 IBC,
ICC, 2007.
Handbook of Smoke Control Engineering,
ASHRAE 2012

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New Edition Every

3 Years (2000,
2009, 2012, 2015).
Used Throughout
U.S.
Smoke Control
Section 909.

New Edition Every 3

Years
IBC states that
atrium smoke control
systems (exhaust
method) shall be
designed in
accordance with
NFPA 92.

New Edition Every 3

Years
Not Used Much in
U.S.
Used in Mid-East
Smoke Control
Section 909.

By Klote & Evans

For 2006 IBC
Many Provisions
Unchanged
Provides Code
Interpretations

By Klote, Milke,
Turnbull, Kashef &
Ferreira
In this presentation,
when a chapter or
figure is referred to,
it is in this
handbook unless
otherwise noted.

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Purposes of Smoke Control

BASICS OF SMOKE
CONTROL

Smoke Control Systems

Pressurization Systems
Stairwell Pressurization
Elevator Pressurization
Zoned Smoke Control

Atrium Systems
Smoke Exhaust
Smoke Venting (Gravity Venting)
Smoke Filling
Note: The word Atrium used here to mean any large
volume space.

Maintain Tenable Environment for

Evacuation or Relocation of Occupants
(IBC 909.1)
Control & Reduce Smoke Movement
Between Fire Area & Adjacent Spaces
Provide Conditions to Help Fire Service
Reduce Property Damage
Aid In Post-Fire Smoke Removal

Two Kinds of Systems

Conventional System: Goal is to keep smoke
away from occupants during evacuation.
There is always some amount of smoke that
comes into contact with occupants.
The intent is that smoke contact is slight.
Tenability System: Goal is to maintain a tenable
environment during evacuation or relocation.
A tenable environment is one in which smoke and
heat are limited such that exposure is not life
threatening.
Systems are analyzed to provide confidence that
a tenable environment is maintained.

Tenability Systems
Tenability Systems Evaluate Threats to
Life

Exposure to Toxic Gases

Exposure to Heat
Exposure to Thermal Radiation
Reduced Visibility (indirect Threat
Prolonged Exposure & Falls)

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Physical Mechanisms of Smoke

Control

Compartmentation
Dilution
Pressurization
Airflow
Buoyancy

Compartmentation
Barriers w/ Fire Endurance Long History
Barriers Some Smoke Protection
Compartmentation Alone Passive
Smoke Protection
Compartmentation by itself can be evaluated
by tenability analysis (see Chapter 19).

Compartmentation w/ Pressurization
Discussed Later

Dilution
Dilution of Fire Space Not Recommended
except for Atrium Tenability Systems
Dilution sometimes called
Smoke Purging*
Smoke Removal*
Smoke Extraction*

Dilution Used for Atrium Smoke Filling

Dilution Useful for Post Fire Smoke Removal
*These terms are not recommended. They imply a high level of
performance that can be misleading.

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Airflow
Airflow can be used to control smoke flow
in atria, corridors, tunnels, and doorways.
Equations for Different Applications (see
Chapter 15 & 17)
Caution: Oxygen to Fire Use with Great
Care
Except for transportation tunnels, airflow is
not used very much.

Buoyancy

Theory & Experimental Verification

Buoyancy Hot
Smoke Rises
Used in Atria
Smoke Control
(Discussed Later)

Scientific Method - a method of research

in which a problem is identified, relevant
data are gathered, a hypothesis is
formulated from these data, and the
hypothesis is empirically tested.
Used in Science & Engineering

Theory Based on Accepted Principles of

Engineering
Experimental Verification Full Scale Fire
Tests

Some Fire Tests Pressurization

Henry Grady Hotel Tests (1973)

30 Church Street Tests (1973)
Plaza Hotel Tests (1989)
NRCC Experimental Fire Tower Tests (Mid
1980s to Present)
Pressurized Stairwells, Pressurized Elevators,
etc.

Note: The above tests are a few of the full scale fire tests
that have been done that verify pressurization smoke
control.

In Atlanta, GA
Bldg. Scheduled
for Demolition
Fires Hotel
Rooms (bed,
chair, draperies,
lamps & chest of
drawers)
Verified Stair &
Elevator
Pressurization

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In New York City

Bldg. Scheduled
for Demolition
Fires Office
Materials
Verified Stair &
Elevator
Pressurization

Geometrically
Arranged Sticks
Reproducible Fire
Crib at Right Peak 470 Btu/s
Crib at Plaza
Hotel - Peak 940
Btu/s

In Washington
DC
Building
Scheduled for
Demolition
Fires Wood
Cribs
Verified Zoned
Smoke Control
& Stair
Pressurization

Near Ottawa
10 Story Tower
Built for Fire
Research
Fires Mostly
Gas Burners
Verified Zoned
Stair & Elevator
Pressurization,
etc.

Atrium Fire Research

Austrian Society of Engineers - Scale
Model Fire Tests of Theater Smoke
Venting (1881)
Atrium Smoke Control Full Size Fire
Tests & Scale Model Fire Tests

ANALYSIS OF SYSTEMS

United Kingdom (BRI)

Canada (NRCC)
Australia (BHP)

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Engineering Analysis
An engineering analysis is needed to
determine that a smoke control system can

be balanced to work for the design fire or

fires.
Methods of Analysis

Logical Reasoning
Rules of Thumb
Algebraic Equations
Computer Programs

Engineering Analysis
Rational Analysis of Smoke Control
Systems Required (IBC 909.4)

Stack Effect
Temperature of Fire
Wind Effect
HVAC Systems
Climate
Duration of Operation
Smoke Control System Interaction

Engineering Analysis More than One Method

Stack Effect
Stack Effect Upward Flow in Shafts
Cold Outdoors

Reverse Stack Effect Downward Flow in

Shafts
Hot Outdoors

Stack Effect is More Significant for Tall

Buildings
Note: For outdoor design
temperatures, see Chapter 2

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Stack Effect & Smoke

Buoyancy
Forces Smoke into Shaft
Smoke Flows up Shaft
Smoke Flows into Floors
above Neutral Plane

Buoyancy Some Smoke

Flow through Floor Leakage

When Smoke Buoyancy

Dominates Stack Effect
Smoke into Shaft
Smoke Flow through Shaft
Smoke Flow to Upper Floors

Buoyancy Smoke Flow

through Floor Leakage

When Stack Effect

Dominates Smoke
Buoyancy
No Smoke into Shaft
No Smoke Flow through
Shaft

Buoyancy Smoke Flow

through Floor Leakage

Airflow Down & Hot

Smoke Flows UP
Where Does Smoke
Flow?
Smoke Mix in Shaft?
No Simple Answers
Analyze with CFD

Simple Stack Effect One

Shaft or Similar Shafts
Complex Stack Effect
Shafts at Different
Temperatures
Shafts of Different Heights

Analysis: Network
Computer Model
(CONTAM)

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Temperature of Fire
Buoyancy and Expansion of Design Fire
Not Adversely Effect System
Pressurization Systems
Buoyancy - Minimum Design Pressure
Difference
Expansion Need Paths to Outdoors

Atrium Systems - Buoyancy and

Expansion Addressed in Normal Design
Methods
Design Fires Discussed Later

Arrows Wind Velocity

Wind Velocity Increases
with Height

Design Consider Adverse

Effects of Wind
Prevent Smoke Feedback
into Air Intakes
Prevent Excessive Makeup
Air Velocity in Atrium Smoke
Control (Discuss Later)
Wind Data Chapter 2

Wind Profile Changes with

Terrain
Airport Wind Data
Adjusted for Project Site

HVAC Systems

Climate

Design Consider HVAC

Consider Effects of Low Temperatures on:

Transport of Fire & Smoke

All modes of System Status
Effects of Fire on HVAC
Systems

During Building Fire

HVAC System Shut Down
(Dates to 1930s)
HVAC Smoke Control Mode
(Dates to 1970s)

System
Property
Occupants

Location of Inlets & Exhaust Prevent

Snow & Ice Blockage

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Duration of Operation
Smoke Control Systems Capable of
Operating for (IBC 2015, 909.4.7):
20 Minutes, or
1.5 Times Calculated Egress Time,
Whichever is Greater

Smoke Control System Interaction

Design Consider Interaction of Smoke Control
Systems All Design Scenarios
A pressurization system results in airflow
throughout the building and to the outdoors.
Flow to the outside usually goes through
building leakage.
One system may work by itself, but there may
not be enough building leakage for all the
systems to work together at the same time.
Systems need to be designed for interaction.

Dampers

FIRE & SMOKE DAMPERS

Types of Dampers:

Balancing
Control
Fire (resist the passage of fire UL555)
Smoke (resist the passage of smoke
UL555S)

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Smoke Dampers

STAIRWELL
PRESSURIZATION

Stairwell Pressurization
IBC 2015 (909.20.5):
Minimum Pressure Difference: 0.10 in. w.g.
Maximum Pressure Difference: 0.35 in. w.g.

Acceptable Pressurization Between Min

& Max

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Stairwell Pressurization Systems

Single and Multiple Injection

Compartmentation
Vestibules
System with Fire Floor Exhaust (With a
Type of Zoned Smoke Control
Discussed Later)

Not for Tall Stairwells

(For stairwell heights
more than 100 feet,
single injection systems
need a design
analysis.)

For Tall Stairwells

Duct Distributes Air
in Stairwell
Fan Locations:

Top
Bottom
In Between

Not for Tall Stairwells (For

stairwell heights more than
100 feet, single injection
systems need a design
analysis.)
Propeller Fan Flow
Impacted by Wind Use in
Walls Needs Engineering
Analysis

Not for Tall Stairwells

(For stairwell heights
more than 100 feet,
single injection systems
need a design
analysis.)

This system is not used much

today.
Each compartment has one
or more supply injection
points.
Caution: This system is not
good for total building
evacuation.

Can Use Multiple

Fans

12

4/8/2015

Simple & Complicated Buildings

Simple Building
Not Excessively Tall
Floor Plan & Leakage Similar Floor to Floor

Complicated Building
Floor Plan & Leakage Different Floor to Floor
Acceptable Pressurization - Challenging
CONTAM Analysis Often Needed

Stairwells & Open Doors

Stairwells & Open Doors

Non-Compensating Systems

ASHRAE Research Project RP-1203 (Klote

2003)

Door Opens Pressure Drops

Simple System Air Supplied at Constant
Flow Rate

Compensating Systems
Door Opens Pressure Adjusted
Not Required by IBC
Most are Complicated Systems

Study of Impact Propped Open Stairwell Doors

Analytical Study (Computer Study)
No Experimental Verification

Expected Result of RP-1203:

With stair door propped open on fire floor, smoke
filled the stairwell. (Major Failure Mode)

Incidental Finding of RP-1203:

With stair door closed on fire floor & other doors
open, conditions in the stairwell were tenable.
Further study is needed.

Pressure Compensating Systems

Open Exterior Door System

Outside Overpressure Relief System
Building Barometric Damper System
Bypass System
Variable Air Volume (VAV) System

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Pressurized Elevators

ELEVATOR PRESSURIZATION

Purpose of Elevator Shaft Pressurization

Prevent Smoke Migration through Hoistway
Protect Fire Service when Using Elevators

Smoke Control for Elevator Evacuation

Not Discussed Here (see Chapter 12)

Pressurization Range: 0.10 to 0.25 inches

water

Pressurized Elevators
More Challenging than Pressurized
Stairwells
Large Amounts of Pressurization Air
Building Leakage may not be Enough

Computer Network Analysis (CONTAM) Recommended

Elevator Piston Effect

Piston Effect: Elevator car results in
building flows.
Adverse Impacts - Considered For
Elevator Pressurization Systems

Elevator Piston Effect

Results in Building
Flows
Interact with
Smoke Control
Systems
Move Smoke in
Building
Piston Effect Should be
Considered

Results in Building Flows

Theory Developed by Klote & Tamura
Experiments done in US & Canada
Concern Single Car Shaft
Equations in Smoke Control Handbook,
Chapter 3

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Pressurized Elevators
Large Air Supply Challenge for Basic
System
Alternate Pressurized Elevator Systems
Exterior Vent (EV) System
Floor Exhaust (FE) System
Ground Floor Lobby (GFL) System

Systems Illustrated with Example Building

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Elevator Pressurization EV System

Vents in exterior walls increase building
leakiness.
With vents, building leakage is high enough
for successful pressurization.
The vents are usually closed, but they open
when the pressurization system is activated.
The vents should be located to minimize
adverse wind effects.
Vents may need fire dampers depending on
code requirements.

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Elevator Pressurization FE System

The exhaust shaft has a fan (not shown)
located in the mechanical penthouse, and
the dampers are closed on all floors when
the system is not operating.
On system activation, the dampers open
on the floors to be exhausted, and the
exhaust fan is activated.

Elevator Pressurization FE System

The FE system deals with the building
envelope issue by reducing the amount of
supply air used.
A relatively small amount of air is supplied
to the elevator shafts and the stairwells.
The fire floor is exhausted such that
acceptable pressurization is maintained on
the fire floor where it is needed.
It is common to also exhaust one or two
floors above and below the fire floor.

Elevator Pressurization GFL

System
Enclosed elevator lobby on the ground floor
reduces the tendency of open exterior doors
to cause high pressure differences across the
elevator shaft at the ground floor.
The GFL system often has a vent between
the enclosed lobby and the building, with the
intent of preventing excessive pressure
differences across the lobby doors.
The lobby doors are the doors between the
enclosed lobby and the building.

Elevator Pressurization GFL

System
The floor leakage can have a significant
impact on the performance of a GFL
system.

Buildings with Corridors

Discussion has been for Open Plan
Offices
What about Interior Partitions?
Interior Partitions add to flow resistance
from elevators to outdoors.
The Floor Exhaust (FE) and the Exterior
Vent (EV) systems can be adapted for
buildings with corridors.

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ZONED SMOKE CONTROL

Zoned Smoke Control

A building is divided into a number of zones, each
separated from the others by barriers.
The zone with the fire is the smoke zone.
Surrounding zones border on the smoke zone.
Passive smoke protection or pressurization is
used to limit the extent of smoke spread beyond
the smoke zone.
It is beyond the capability of smoke control to
maintain tenable conditions in the smoke zone,
and it is intended that occupants evacuate the
smoke zone as soon as possible.

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Most General Concept of Zoned

Smoke Control
Smoke Zone

Fan Powered Exhaust,

Smoke Vents to Outside,
Smoke Shafts, or
Smoke Shafts & Makeup Air Shafts

Surrounding Zones
Fan Powered Pressurization
Outside Air Vents
Rely on Compartmentation

Fire floor & floors directly

above and below are
exhausted.
Other floors rely on
passive protection.
Fire floor exhaust can be
used for challenging
stairwell pressurization
systems.

Atrium Systems

ATRIUM SMOKE CONTROL

Mechanical Smoke Exhaust

Common in US & Elsewhere

Natural Smoke Venting

Common in Britain, Europe, Japan, Hong Kong &
Australia
Sustainable Eliminates Fans

Atrium Smoke Filling

Useful for Very Large Atria
Sustainable Eliminates Fans & All Other Smoke
Control Equipment

19

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Definitions
Large-Volume Space: An uncompartmented
space, generally two or more stories in height.
(atrium, sports arena, etc.)
In this talk, atrium is used to mean any
large-volume space.
Communicating Space: A space within a
building that has an open pathway to a largevolume space such that smoke from a fire in
either the communicating space or the largevolume space can move from one to another
without restriction. (NFPA 92)

Definitions Continued
Separated Spaces: Spaces within a
building that are isolated from largevolume spaces by smoke barriers. (NFPA
92)
Note: NFPA 92 defines a smoke barrier as
one that is designed to work with a smoke
control system.

Plume Entrains Air

Mass Flow Increases with
Height
Temperature Drops with
Height
Temperature Drop Impacts:

Smoke Detection
Design Fires

20

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Smoke Exhaust for Fire in Atrium

Smoke Exhaust through a Plenum with a
Suspended Ceiling Not Recommended:
Exhaust Flow through Plenum Can Lift Ceiling
Tiles out of Frames
Possible Adverse Impact on System
Performance
Ceiling Repair May Be Needed After Periodic
Testing

Fire Locations

Common Methods of Analysis

Fire in Atrium (Large-Volume Space)

Axisymmetric Plume
Common Design Fire
Fire in Communicating Space Sprinklered
Balcony Spill Plume
Common Design Fire
Fire in Communicating Space Unsprinklered

Algebraic Equations

Not Common

Fire in Separated Space

Not Part of Atrium Smoke Control

Governing Equations

Steady & Unsteady Smoke Exhaust

AtriumCalc Excel Application from ASHRAE
(Uses NFPA 92 Equations)

CFD Modeling
Divide Space into Cells (20,000 to 200,000) &
Solve Governing Equations for Each Cell
Very Powerful Analytical Tool
Hours or Days of Computer Time
Often Used for Tenability Systems

Example: Momentum X Direction

The governing equations are:

Conservation of Mass
Conservation of Momentum
Conservation of Energy
Conservation of Species (optional)

These are non-linear partial differential

equations.

The governing equations are solved by

numerical routines not a spreadsheet (like
Excel).

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CFD Examples
Example in 3 Story Atrium
Two Examples:
Shielded Fire in 2nd Floor Conference Room
(20% PU foam)
Shielded Fire in 1st Floor Toy Store (80% PU
foam)

Smoke Exhaust Sized for Fire in Atrium

Space
(not balcony spill plumes)

Purpose of Examples - Show CFD & Balcony

Spill Plumes

Spill Plume from 2nd Floor

Simulated by Fire Dynamics Simulator
(FDS)
Fire in Conference Room
Shielded Fire (500 kW Peak)
Fuel: 80% Cellulosic Material & 20% PU
Foam
Video Speeded Up (3 X Real Time)

Spill Plume from Second Floor

Conference Room

Spill Plume from 1st Floor

Simulated by FDS
Fire in Toy Store
Shielded Fire (1000 kW Peak)
Fuel: 20% Cellulosic Material & 80% PU
Foam
Video Speeded Up (3 X Real Time)

22

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Spill Plume from First Floor Toy Store

Spill Plume from First Floor

Toy Store
Smoke Exhaust Sized for:
Fire in Atrium
Not Toy Store Fire

Simulation of System Failure

Design should be modified for the toy
store fire.
This demonstrates the importance of
balcony spill plumes.

Atrium Issues

Smoke Layer Depth

Makeup Air Velocity
Wind Impact
Plugholing
Smoke Stratification

Atrium Smoke Control Minimum

Smoke Layer Depth
Minimum Smoke Layer Depth: 20% of
Floor-to-Ceiling Height
Unless Analysis Shows Otherwise
Full Scale Data
Scale Modeling
CFD Modeling

The minimum makeup air velocity

is 200 fpm at locations where it
could contact the plume.

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Makeup Air

Makeup Air

Makeup Air:

Fan Powered

Natural (Thru Openings) or

Fan-Powered

200 fpm Limitation at the Plume (NFPA 92)

Prevent Plume Disruption
Confirmed by NRCC Canada Research
Hadjisophocleous & Zhou 2008

Usually 85% to 95% of Exhaust Mass Flow

Natural thru Openings

Open Doors, Vents, etc.
Concern About Wind
Complex Paths
Can be analyzed by a network flow program
(CONTAM)
For information about CONTAM, see Chapter 14

Wind

Plugholing

Design to Minimize Potential Wind Impact

Plugholing is pulling lower layer air into the

exhaust.
If the exhaust flow is relatively low, there
will be no plugholing.
The approach to prevent plugholing is to
keep the exhaust flow low enough.
Analysis

Velocity Limit 200 fpm

Smoke Feedback into Makeup Air

Makeup Air Openings Facing Different

Directions Velocity can Exceed 200 fpm
Evaluate by Wind Analysis (CFD or Wind
Tunnel Tests)
Eliminate Problem with
Openings Facing One Direction
Fan Powered Makeup Air

Equations Design to Eliminate Plugholing

CFD Modeling

24

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Stratification
Stratification can prevent smoke from
reaching ceiling mounted smoke
detectors.
Solution: Beam Smoke Detectors Below
Hot Air Layer

Smoke Venting
If areas Av & Ai are large enough, smoke
can be vented to maintain the desired
smoke layer for the design fire.
CFD Suggested for Analysis of Smoke
Venting
Wind
Tenability

Not in the IBC May Need Approval

Smoke Filling
Conventional System
Evacuation time must be less than filling time.
Use Smoke Filling Equations (Discussed Later)

Tenability System
Tenable environment must be maintained.
CFD analysis is recommended.
Evacuation time can be more than filling time.

Tenability System Recommended

Alternate to Most Codes May Need
Approval

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COMMISSIONING &
PERIODIC TESTING

Commissioning & Periodic Testing

To have confidence that life safety systems
including smoke control will work as
intended, they need to have commissioning,
acceptance testing and periodic testing.
Life safety systems are different from most
other systems (HVAC, pluming, electrical
power, etc.).

Commissioning
Definition: Commissioning is the process
for verifying and documenting that the
performance of facilities, systems and
assemblies meets defined objectives and
criteria.

In Normal Operation: Life Safety Problems

Not Apparent
In an Emergency: Too Late to Fix Problems

Commissioning Process

Special Inspections

Commissioning Process: From Start to End

of Project
ASHRAE Guideline 1.5 (2012) The
Commissioning Process for Smoke Control
Systems
Performance Verified with Respect to Design
AHJ Uses Special Inspections to Verify Code
Compliance
For a simple project, AHJ may waive
requirement for special inspection.

International Building Code (IBC) has

requirements for the special inspection
and the qualifications of the special
inspector.
Special Inspection Not Always Required
Special Inspection Considered Part of
Commissioning
Rest of this Discussion - Focuses on
Special Inspections

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Test Documentation
Project Plan (Done Before Testing):

Outline
Description of Testing
State of Construction Needed for Tests
Sample Data Sheets

Test Report (Done After Testing):

Summary of Test Results
Compilation of All Inspection Reports & Any NonCompliance Issues
Collection of Testing and Inspection Logs
Data Sheets for All of Inspected Components
Signatures of Special Inspection Team Members

Two Phases of Special Inspection

Inspection Phase: To determine that the
specified system components have been
installed, and that the installation of these
components is according to the
manufacturers instructions.
Testing Phase: To establish that the
system achieves the accepted
performance criteria.
Inspection and testing usually are done in
many stages.

Firefighters Smoke Control Station

(FSCS)
An FSCS is a system for use by the fire
service that provides graphical monitoring
and manual overriding capability over
smoke control systems and equipment.
Typically an FSCS is designed and built
specifically for each building.
The FSCS is also called the Firefighter's
Smoke Control Panel and the Firefighter's
Control Panel.

End-to-End Verification
End-to-end verification: a self-testing
method that provides positive confirmation
that the desired result has been achieved
when a controlled device has been
activated, such as during smoke control,
testing, or manual override operations
(NFPA 92).
Lights on FSCP Based on End-to-End
Verification (Airflow, Damper Position, etc.)

Inspection & Equipment Functional

Testing

Smoke Barriers
Fans
Dampers
Operable Doors and Windows
Verification of Self-Test Feature
Firefighters Smoke Control Station
(FSCS)

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Sequence of Operations Testing

The sequence of operations is the
documented sequence of component actions
that are programmed to happen in the
response to a given change of state event.
Purpose: To verify that the automatic
functions of the smoke control system
operate as designed.
A testing matrix (also called an activation
schedule in some standards) is often created
to facilitate the process, and a testing matrix
needs to include all of the components to be
tested.
See Appendix A for a larger copy of this slide.

System Performance Testing

Testing and Balancing before Formal
Acceptance Testing
Systems Tested:

Zoned Smoke Control

Pressurized Stairwells
Pressurized Elevators
Atrium Smoke Control

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Chemical Smoke
Methods:

Push Gauge
against Door
(take care to only
disengage latch,
see Figure)
Push Gauge
against Push-Bar
(not shown)

Method should be
approved by AHJ.

Chemical smoke from smoke bombs is very

different from real smoke.
Visibility is very different.
Buoyancy is very different.

Zoned Smoke Control: Because they are

subjective and tend to give occupants a false
sense of security, smoke bomb tests are not
recommended.
Atrium Demonstration Testing: Because of
lack of buoyancy, smoke bomb tests are not
recommended.
Other Use for Smoke Bombs: Leakage Test

DESIGN FIRES & SMOKE

PRODUCTION

Design Fires

Stages of Fire Development

Design Fire for Smoke Control System

Based on Rational Analysis by Design

Engineer & Approved by Fire Code Official
(IBC 909.9)
More Information See Chapter 5

Ignition
Growth
Flashover
Fully Developed (sometimes called post
flashover)
Decay (fuel burns out or fire is
suppressed)
Note: Not all fires go through all of these stages.

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Growth Time, tg

Growth Times: NFPA 92

Slow:
tg = 600 s
Medium:
tg = 300 s
Fast:
tg = 150 s
Ultra Fast: tg = 75 s

Note: NFPA 72 has different values

Flashover
Flashover Fast Change:
From: Apparent Steady Fire at Limited
Location
To: Room Totally on Fire

Flashover takes from about 20 seconds to

2 minutes.
Cause - Objects Ignited by Radiation from
Hot Fire Gases

Flashover Video
Christmas Tree
Fire
Living Room Fire
Available from
NIST

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Christmas Tree Fire

Living Room Fire

Measurement of HRR
Oxygen Consumption Calorimeter
(Developed in 1980s)
Heat Released in Fire is Constant (~ 6%)
(13.1 MJ per kg of Oxygen)

Concept:
Burn Object & Collect All Gases
Measure Temperature, Flow, Oxygen
Calculate HRR

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HRR of Objects
Oxygen Consumption Calorimeter:
Measured HRR of Many Objects (see Chapter
5)

A few HRRs are discussed below.

HRR of Automobiles
American Iron and Steel Institute (Cohn 1973)
Burning Car did not Spread to Adjacent Cars

CTICM in France (Joyeux 1997)

Burning Car Spread to Adjacent Car

BRE in the UK (Shipp et al. 2006, BRE 2010)

Fires Generally Larger than Other Tests

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Sprinklered Fires
Unshielded Fires
No Obstructions Blocking Sprinkler Spray
Sprinkler Activation Time Calculated by
Some Zone Fire Models (But Not in Atrium)

Shielded Fires
Obstruction Blocking Sprinkler Spray
Evaluated by Fire Tests

Sprinkler Action Causes Smoke Mixing

1 story Spaces Smoke Fills Space
Atrium Usually Smoke Free Lower Layer

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Unshielded Fire with Sprinkler

Operation
Growth Stage up to Sprinkler Activation
Fire Test Data
Idealized Growth Curve

Activation Calculated by Zone Fire Model

(CFAST)
After Sprinkler Activation Decay Stage

Shielded Fires
Shielded fires are important for balcony
spill plume applications.
Sprinkler activation models and zone fire
models (CFAST, etc.) are not appropriate
for predicting the sprinkler activation time
with shielded fires.
Research at NIST and NRC Canada
provide useful information.

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Smoke Production
Successfully Sprinklered Fires (Expected)
Normally Small Smoke Production
Sometimes High Smoke Production

Unsuccessfully Sprinklered Fires

(Unusual)
High HRR
High Smoke Production

The Misconception of Smoke

Smoke - Often Visually Black & Deadly

Most People Dont Know This.
Today, People Dont See Much Smoke
EPA Air Pollution Regulations:
Practically No Smoke from Factories, Fire Research
Laboratories, Fire Fighting Schools, Movie Studios, etc.

TV & Movies:
Flames - Exciting Footage
Almost No Smoke

Fire Laboratories - Almost No Smoke

EPA Regulations & Burning Under Hoods

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Smoke Production Videos

Unusual Videos Show Smoke
Clothing Store Fire (BHP Lab)
Toy Store Fire (BHP Lab)
Mobile Shelving Fire (NRC Canada)

Clothing Store Fire

Toy Store Fire

Test at BHP Laboratory, Melbourne,
Australia (Bennetts, et al. 1997)
16 ft Ceiling
Stuffed Animals on Steel Shelves
4 Normal (Standard) Response Sprinklers
Activation at 3 minutes
Successful Sprinkler Operation
High Smoke Production

Toy Store Fire

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Mobile Shelving Fire

Test at NRC Canada (Lougheed,
Mawhinney and ONeill 1994)
Storage Design Major Building in Canada

Paper in Cardboard Boxes

12 Quick (Fast) Response Sprinklers
Sprinklers Not in Conformance w/ Code
Sprinkler Failure
High Smoke Production

Mobile Shelving Fire

Mobile Shelving Fire

If Fire in Mobile Storage of Actual Building:

Fire Spread Throughout Basement

Smoke Spread Throughout Building
Likely Multiple Deaths (Smoke Inhalation)
Loss of Valuable Historical Material

NRC Canada Hired Sprinkler Expert &

Developed Alternate Design
Successful Tests of Alternate Design

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Questions?
Dr. John H. Klote PE
john@SmokeControlExpert.com

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Appendix A Example Testing Matrix

A1

A2