Part 7: Learning1

Learning refers to a relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of

practice/ experience.
Kinds of Learning
1. Conditioning
1.1 Classical conditioning- Learning by which a neutral stimulus becomes
associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar
response.
1.1.2 Stimuli and Responses in Classical Conditioning
1.1.2.1 Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS). A stimulus that produces a response without
prior learning.
1.1.2.2 Unconditioned Response (UCR).An unlearned response that is automatically
elicited by the UCS.
1.1.2.3 Conditioned Stimulus (CS). A previously neutral stimulus that eventually
elicits the conditioned response after being associated with the unconditioned
stimulus.
1.1.2.4 Conditioned response (CR) The learned response to the conditioned
stimulus that occurs after the CS-UCS pairing.
1.1.3. Acquisition (in classical conditioning) The initial learning of the stimulusresponse link, which involves a neutral stimulus being associated with a UCS and
becoming a conditioned stimulus (CS) that elicits the CR.
1.1.4 Generalization The tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original
stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response.
1.1.5 Discrimination The process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not to
others.
1.1.6 Extinction (in classical conditioning) The weakening of the conditioned
response in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus.
1.1.7 Spontaneous recovery. The process in classical conditioning by which a
conditioned response can recur after a time delay without further conditioning.
1.1.8 Counter conditioning. A classical conditioning procedure for weakening a CR
by associating a fear-provoking stimulus with a new response that is incompatible
with the fear.
1.2 Operant conditioning also called as instrumental conditioning; certain
responses are learned because they operate on, or affect, the environment; a form
of learning in which the consequences of behavior change the probability of the
behaviors occurrence.
1.2.1 The Law of Effect- Thorndikes concept that behaviors followed by positive
outcomes are strengthened, whereas behaviors followed by negative outcomes are
weakened. Thorndikes view is called S-R theory because the organisms behavior is
due to a connection between a stimulus and a response.
1.2.2 Shaping. The process of rewarding approximations of desired behavior; a
technique of reinforcing only variations in response that deviate in the direction
desired by the experimenter.
1.2.3 Reinforcement refers to the process whereby the delivery of an appetite
stimulus or the removal of an aversive stimulus increases the probability of a
behavior.

1Condensed by Roland Aparece, MA., Psychology Department, University of Bohol, from Edward E. Smith et. al.

Atkinson & Hilgards Introduction to Psychology, 14th ed. (Singapore: Wadsworth, a division of Thompson
Learning, Inc., 2003) pp. 233-264. John W. Santrock. Psychology 7th ed. (Singapore: The McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., 2003) pp. 268-303.

1.2.3.1 Positive reinforcement. The frequency of a behavior increases because it is

followed by a rewarding stimulus.
1.2.3.2 Negative reinforcement. The frequency of a behavior increases because it is
followed by the removal of an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus.
1.2.3.3 Primary reinforcement. The use of reinforcers that are innately satisfying.
1.2.3.4 Secondary reinforcement, acquires its positive value through experience.
1.2.4 Punishment, the process by which delivery of an aversive stimulus or the
removal of an appetite stimulus decreases the probability of a behavior.
1.2.4.1 Positive punishment, a behavior decreases when it is followed by an
unpleasant stimulus.
1.2.4.2 Negative Punishment, a behavior decreases when a positive stimulus is
removed from it.
2. Observational Learning or Modeling, a process by which persons learns
behavior through observation and imitation. Bandura (1986) described four main
processes that are involved in observational learning: attention, retention, motor
reproduction, and reinforcement.
2.1 Attention-In order to reproduce a models action or doing you must attend to
what the model is saying or doing. Attention to the model is influenced by a host of
characteristics, e.g. warm, powerful etc.
2.2 Retention, in order to reproduce a models action, you must code the
information and keep it in memory so that it can be retrieved.
2.3 Production is the process of imitating the models action.
2.4 Reinforcement, or incentive conditions, is the final step of observational
learning.
3. Cognitive Factors of Learning
3.1 Purposive Behavior. Tolman emphasized the purposiveness of behavior. The
purposive aspect of Tolmans view refers to his belief that much of behavior is goal
directed. There is considerable interest in goal-directed behavior today. In studying
the purposiveness of behavior, Tolman went beyond stimuli and responses to
discuss cognitive mechanism. Tolman believed that expectancies, acquired through
experiences with the environment, are an important cognitive mechanism in
learning.
Cognitive maps, an organisms mental representations of physical space, involve
expectancies about which actions are needed to reach a goal.
Evidence to support the role of cognitive maps was obtained in experiment on
latent learning, uninforced learning that is not immediately reflected in behavior.
3.2 Insight learning, Kohler developed the concept of insight learning, a form of
problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight or understanding
of a problems solution.
3.2.1 The solution is sudden, availability once discovered, its transferability.
3.2 2. Two phases in insight learning
3.2.2.1 Problem solving stage to arrive a solution
3.2.2.2 The solution is stored in memory, and retrieved whenever a similar problem
situation presents itself.