Certificate

of
originality
This is to certify that master M.A.JAYASURYA of
class-XII has done the project on study of coaguable
and non coaguable milk proteins in biology for the
partial fulfillment of aissce 2017.

Internal examiner

external examiner

Principal

Acknowledge
ment
I would like to express my special thanks of
gratitude to my teacher mr.shanmugam as
well as our principal___________________ who
gave me the golden opportunity to do this
wonderful project on this topic, which also
helped me in doing a lot of research and I
came to know about so many new things. I
am really thankful to them. I would also like
to thank my parents and friends who helped
me a lot in finishing this project within the
limited time.

S.NO

CONTENT

1.

Introduction

2.

pH value

3.

Blood group system

4.

Blood transfusion

5.
6.
7.

HDN
Blood disorders
Blood group genotyping

8.
9.

Report
Result

10.
11.

Conclusion
References

INDEX

Introduction
3

Blood is a bodily fluid in human and other animals that delivers necessary substances such as
nutrients and oxygen to the cells and transports metabolic waste products away from those
same cells.
When it reaches the lungs, gas exchange occurs when carbon dioxide is diffused out of the
blood into the pulmonary alveoli and oxygen is diffused out of the blood. This oxygenated blood
is pumped to the left hand side of the heart in the pulmonary vein and enters the left atrium
From here it passes through the mitral valve, through the ventricle and taken all around the
body by the aorta. Blood contains antibodies, nutrient, oxygen and much more to help the body
work. In vertebrates, it is composed of blood cells suspended in blood plasma.
Plasma, which constitutes 55% of blood fluid, is mostly water (92% by volume), and contains
dissipated proteins, glucose, mineral ions, hormones, carbon dioxide (plasma being the main
medium for excretory product transportation), and blood cells themselves.
Albumin is the main protein in plasma, and it functions to regulate the colloidal osmotic
pressure of blood. The blood cells are mainly red blood cells (also called RBCs or
erythrocytes), white blood cells (also called WBCs or leukocytes), and platelets.
The most abundant cells in the vertebrate blood are red blood cells. These contain
haemoglobin, an iron containing protein, which facilitates oxygen transport by reversibly
binding to this respiratory gas and greatly increasing its solubility in blood. In contrast, carbon
dioxide is almost entirely transported extracellularly dissolved in plasma as bicarbonate ion.
Vertebrate blood is bright red when its haemoglobin is oxygenated and dark red it is
deoxygenated. Some animals, such as crustaceans and molluscs, use haemoglobin.
Insects and some molluscs use a fluid called hemolymph instead of blood, the difference being
that hemolymph is not contained in closed circulatory system.
In most insects, this blood does not contain oxygen carrying molecules such as
haemoglobin because their bodies are small enough for their tracheal system to suffice for
supplying oxygen.
Blood is circulated around the body through blood vessels by the pumping action of the heart.
In animals with lung, arterial blood carries oxygen from inhaled air to the tissues of the body
and venous blood carries carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism produced by the cells,
from the tissues to the lungs to be exhaled.

BLOOD COMPONENTS
4

Normally, 7-8% of human body weight is from blood. In adults, this amounts to 4.5-6 quarts of
blood.

This essential fluid carries out the critical functions of transporting oxygen and nutrients to our
cells and getting rid of carbon dioxide, ammonia, and other waste products.

In addition, it plays a vital role in our immune system and in maintaining a relatively constant
body temperature.

Blood is a highly specialized tissue composed of more than 4,000 different kinds of
components.

Four of the most important ones are

red cells

white cells

Platelets

plasma.

All humans produce these blood components--there are no populational or regional differences.

RED BLOOD CELLS

Red cells, or erythrocytes , are relatively large microscopic cells without nuclei. In this
latter trait, they are similar to the primitive prokaryotic cells of bacteria. Red cells
normally make up 40-50% of the total blood volume.

They transport oxygen from the lungs to all of the living tissues of the body and carry
away carbon dioxide. The red cells are produced continuously in our bone marrow
from stem cells at a rate of about 2-3 million cells per second. Hemoglobin is the gas
transporting protein molecule that makes up 95% of a red cell.

Each red cell has about 270,000,000 iron-rich hemoglobin molecules. People who are
anemic generally have a deficiency in red cells, and subsequently feel fatigued due to
a shortage of oxygen.

The red color of blood is primarily due to oxygenated red cells. Human fetal
hemoglobin molecules differ from those produced by adults in the number of amino
acid chains. Fetal hemoglobin has three chains, while adults produce only two.

As a consequence, fetal hemoglobin molecules attract and transport relatively more

oxygen to the cells of the body.
Red blood cells

WHITE BLOOD CELLS

White cells, or leukocytes , exist in variable numbers and types but make up a very
small part of blood's volume--normally only about 1% in healthy people. Leukocytes
are not limited to blood.
They occur elsewhere in the body as well, most notably in the spleen, liver, and lymph
glands. Most are produced in our bone marrow from the same kind of stem cells that
produce red blood cells. Others are produced in the thymus gland, which is at the
base of the neck. Some white cells (called lymphocytes ) are the first responders for
our immune system. They seek out, identify, and bind to alien protein on bacteria,
viruses, and fungi so that they can be removed. Other white cells (called granulocytes
and macrophages ) then arrive to surround and destroy the alien cells.

They also have the function of getting rid of dead or dying blood cells as well as
foreign matter such as dust and asbestos. Red cells remain viable for only about 4
months before they are removed from the blood and their components recycled in the
spleen. Individual white cells usually only last 18-36 hours before they also are
removed, though some types live as much as a year.
The description of white cells presented here is a simplification. There are actually
many specialized sub-types of them that participate in different ways in our immune
responses.
White blood cell

PLATELETS

Platelets, or thrombocytes, are cell fragments without nuclei that work with blood
clotting chemicals at the site of wounds. They do this by adhering to the walls of blood
vessels, thereby plugging the rupture in the vascular wall. They also can release
coagulating chemicals which cause clots to form in the blood that can plug up
narrowed blood vessels. Thirteen different blood clotting factors, in addition to
platelets, need to interact for clotting to occur. They do so in a cascading manner, one
factor triggering another. Hemophiliacs lack the ability to produce either blood factor 8
or 9.

Platelets are not equally effective in clotting blood throughout the entire day. The
body's circadian rhythm system (its internal biological clock) causes the peak of
platelet activation in the morning. This is one of the main reasons that strokes and
heart attacks are more common in the morning.

Recent research has shown that platelets also help fight infections by releasing
proteins that kill invading bacteria and some other microorganisms. In addition,
platelets stimulate the immune system. Individual platelets are about 1/3 the size of
red cells. They have a lifespan of 9-10 days. Like the red and white blood cells,
platelets are produced in bone marrow from stem cells.

Platelets

PLASMA

Plasma is the relatively clear, yellow tinted water (92+%), sugar, fat, protein and salt
solution which carries the red cells, white cells, and platelets. Normally, 55% of our
blood's volume is made up of plasma.
As the heart pumps blood to cells throughout the body, plasma brings nourishment to
them and removes the waste products of metabolism.
Plasma also contains blood clotting factors, sugars, lipids, vitamins, minerals,
hormones, enzymes, antibodies, and other proteins. It is likely that plasma contains
some of every protein produced by the body--approximately 500 have been identified
in human plasma so far.

FUNCTIONS

Transportation

Blood is the primary means of transport in the body that is responsible for
transporting important nutrients and materials to and from the cells and
molecules that make up our body. It is the duty of blood to first take the oxygen
processed by the lungs to all the cells of the body and then to collect the
carbon dioxide from the cells and deliver it to the lungs.

It is also tasked with the job of collecting metabolic waste from up and down
the body and take it to the kidneys for excretion.

Blood also has to perform the task of delivering the nutrients and glucose
generated by the organs of the digestive system to the other parts of the body
including the liver.

In addition to these tasks, blood also has to carry out the transportation of
hormones produced by the glands of the endocrine system.

Blood performs the important task of protecting the body from the threat of
infections and disease causing bacteria. The white blood cells found in blood
are responsible for safeguarding the different organs of the body by producing
antibodies and proteins which are capable of fighting off and killing the germs
and viruses that can causes serious damage to the body cells. The platelets
present in blood handle the task of limiting blood loss in the wake of an injury
by helping the blood to clot quickly.

Blood is also a regulator of many factors in the body. It oversees the

temperature of the body and maintains it to a level that is tolerated by the body
with ease. Blood is also responsible for controlling the concentration of
Hydrogen ions in the body, which are also known as pH balance. The
administration of the levels of water and salt required by each cell of the body
also falls under the regulation duties of blood. Another regulatory task
performed by blood is to control the blood pressure and restrict it under a
normal range.

Protection

Regulation

pH VALUES

Human blood stays in a very narrow pH range right around ( 7.35 - 7.45 ).
Below or above this range means symptoms and disease. If blood pH moves to much below
6.8 or above 7.8, cells stop functioning and the patient dies.
The ideal pH for blood is 7.4.
(Blood pH is regulated to stay within the narrow range of 7.35 to 7.45, making it slightly basic.
Blood that has a pH below 7.35 is too acidic, whereas blood pH above 7.45 is too basic. Blood
pH, partial pressure of oxygen (pO2), partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO 2), and HCO3- are
carefully regulated by a number of homeostatic mechanisms, which exert their influence
principally through the respiratory system and the urinary system in order to control the acidbase balance and respiration. An arterial blood gas test will measure these. Plasma also
circulates hormones transmitting their messages to various tissues. The list of normal reference
ranges for various blood electrolytes is extensive.)

BLOOD IN NON MAMMALIAN VERTEBRATES

Human blood is typical of that of mammals, although the precise details concerning cell
numbers, size, protein structure, and so on, vary somewhat between species. In nonmammalian vertebrates, however, there are some key differences.

Red blood cells of non-mammalian vertebrates are flattened and ovoid in form,
and retain their cell nuclei

There is considerable variation in the types and proportions of white blood

cells; for example, acidophils are generally more common than in humans

Platelets are unique to mammals; in other vertebrates, small nucleated,

spindle cells called thrombocytes are responsible for blood clotting instead

BLOOD TYPES

A blood type (also called a blood group) is a classification of blood based on the presence and
absence of antibodies and also based on the presence or absence of inherited antigenic
substances on the surface of red blood cells (RBCs).
These antigens may be proteins, carbohydrates, glycoproteins, or glycolipids, depending on the
blood group system. Some of these antigens are also present on the surface of other types of
cells of various tissues. Several of these red blood cell surface antigens can stem from one
allele (or an alternative version of a gene) and collectively form a blood group system.
Blood types are inherited and represent contributions from both parents. A total of 35 human
blood group systems are now recognized by the International Society of Blood Transfusion
(ISBT). The two most important ones are ABO and the RhD antigen; they determine someone's
blood type (A, B, AB and O, with +, or Null denoting RhD status).

BLOOD GROUP SYSTEM

A complete blood type would describe a full set of 30 substances on the surface of RBCs, and
an individual's blood type is one of many possible combinations of blood-group antigens.

Across the 35 blood groups, over 600 different blood-group antigens have been found,
10

Almost always, an individual has the same blood group for life, but very rarely an individual's
blood type changes through addition or suppression of an antigen in infection, malignancy, or
autoimmune disease.

Another more common cause in blood type change is a bone marrow transplant. Bone-marrow
transplants are performed for many leukemias and lymphomas, among other diseases.

If a person receives bone marrow from someone who is a different ABO type (e.g., a type A
patient receives a type O bone marrow), the patient's blood type will eventually convert to the
donor's type.

Some blood types are associated with inheritance of other diseases; for example, the Kell
antigen is sometimes associated with McLeod syndrome.

Certain blood types may affect susceptibility to infections, an example being the resistance to
specific malaria species seen in individuals lacking the Duffy antigen.

The Duffy antigen, presumably as a result of natural selection, is more common in ethnic
groups from areas with a high incidence of malaria.

THE ABO BLOOD GROUP SYSTEM

There are 4 major blood groups determined by the presence or absence of 2 antigens A and
B on the surface of red blood cells:
GROUP A has only A antigen on the red cells and B antibody in plasma.
GROUP B has only B antigen on the red cells and A antibody in plasma.
GROUP AB has both A and B antigens on red cells but neither A nor B
antibody in the plasma.
GROUP O has neither A nor B antigens on red cells but both A and B
antibody are in the plasma

The ABO system is the most important blood-group system in human-blood transfusion. The
associated anti-A and anti-B antibodies are usually immunoglobulin M, abbreviated IgM,
antibodies.
ABO IgM antibodies are produced in the first years of life by sensitization to environmental
substances such as food, bacteria, and viruses. The original terminology used by Dr. Karl
Landsteiner in 1901 for the classification is A/B/C; in later publications "C" became "O".
"O" is often called 0 (zero, or null) in other languages. The Austrian Federal Ministry of Health
claims the original terminology used by Dr. Karl Landsteiner in 1901 for the classification is
0(Zero)/A/B/AB and that in later publications "0" became "O" in most of English language
countries.

11

ABO blood group system: diagram showing the carbohydrate chains that determine the ABO blood
group

OTHER BLOOD GROUP SYSTEMS

33 blood-group systems have been identified, including the ABO and Rh systems.
Thus, in addition to the ABO antigens and Rh antigens, many other antigens are expressed on
the RBC surface membrane.
For example, an individual can be AB, D positive, and at the same time M and N positive (MNS
system), K positive (Kell system), Lea or Leb negative (Lewis system), and so on, being positive
or negative for each blood group system antigen. Many of the blood group systems were
named after the patients in whom the corresponding antibodies were initially encountered.

RED BLOOD CELL CAPATIBILITY

Blood group AB individuals have both A and B antigens on the surface of their RBCs, and
their blood plasma does not contain any antibodies against either A or B antigen. Therefore, an
individual with type AB blood can receive blood from any group (with AB being preferable), but
cannot donate blood to any group other than AB. They are known as universal recipients.
Blood group A individuals have the A antigen on the surface of their RBCs, and blood serum
containing IgM antibodies against the B antigen. Therefore, a group A individual can receive
blood only from individuals of groups A or O (with A being preferable), and can donate blood to
individuals with type A or AB.
Blood group B individuals have the B antigen on the surface of their RBCs, and blood serum
containing IgM antibodies against the A antigen. Therefore, a group B individual can receive
blood only from individuals of groups B or O (with B being preferable), and can donate blood to
individuals with type B or AB.
Blood group O (or blood group zero in some countries) individuals do not have either A or B
antigens on the surface of their RBCs, and their blood serum contains IgM anti-A and anti-B
antibodies. Therefore, a group O individual can receive blood only from a group O individual,
but can donate blood to individuals of any ABO blood group (i.e., A, B, O or AB). If a patient in a
hospital situation needs a blood transfusion in an emergency, and if the time taken to process
the recipient's blood would cause a detrimental delay, O negative blood can be issued.
12

Because it is compatible with anyone, O negative blood is often overused and consequently is
always in short supply. According to the American Association of Blood Banks and the British
Chief Medical Officers National Blood Transfusion Committee, the use of group O RhD
negative red cells should be restricted to persons with O negative blood, women who might be
pregnant, and emergency cases in which blood-group testing is genuinely impracticable. [

Red blood cell compatibility chart

PLASMA COMPATIBILITY

Blood plasma compatibility is the inverse of red blood cell compatibility.

Type AB plasma carries neither anti-A nor anti-B antibodies and can be transfused to individuals of any
blood group; but type AB patients can only receive type AB plasma.
Type O carries both antibodies, so individuals of blood group O can receive plasma from any blood
group, but type O plasma can be used only by type O recipients.

Plasma compatibility chart

Rh D antibodies are uncommon, so generally neither D negative nor D positive blood contain
anti-D antibodies. If a potential donor is found to have anti-D antibodies or any strong atypical
blood group antibody by antibody screening in the blood bank, they would not be accepted as a
donor (or in some blood banks the blood would be drawn but the product would need to be
appropriately labeled); therefore, donor blood plasma issued by a blood bank can be selected
to be free of D antibodies and free of other atypical antibodies, and such donor plasma issued
from a blood bank would be suitable for a recipient who may be D positive or D negative, as
long as blood plasma and the recipient are ABO compatible
13

BLOOD TRANSFUTION

Blood transfusion is generally the process of receiving blood or blood products into one's
circulation intravenously.
Transfusions are used for various medical conditions to replace lost components of the blood.
Early transfusions used whole blood, but modern medical practice commonly uses only
components of the blood, such as red blood cells, white blood cells, plasma, clotting factors,
and platelets.

Plastic bag with 0.50.7 liters containing packed red blood cells in citrate, phosphate, dextrose, and adenine (CPDA) solution

Rh BLOOD GROUP SYSTEM

The Rh blood group system (including the Rh factor) is one of thirty-five current human blood
group systems.

It is the second most important blood group system, after ABO. At present, the Rh blood group
system consists of 50 defined blood-group antigens, among which the five antigens D, C, c, E,
and e are the most important.

The commonly used terms Rh factor, Rh positive and Rh negative refer to the D antigen only.

Besides its role in blood transfusion, the Rh blood group systemspecifically, the D antigen
is used to determine the risk of hemolytic disease of the newborn (or erythroblastosis fetalis) as
prevention is the best approach to the management of this condition.

Rh FACTOR

An individual either has, or does not have, the "Rh factor" on the surface of their red
blood cells. This term strictly refers only to the most immunogenic D antigen of the Rh
blood group system, or the Rh blood group system.

14

The status is usually indicated by Rh positive (Rh+ does have the D antigen) or Rh
negative (Rh does not have the D antigen) suffix to the ABO blood type. However,
other antigens of this blood group system are also clinically relevant.

These antigens are listed separately (see below: Rh nomenclature). In contrast to the
ABO blood group, immunization against Rh can generally only occur through blood
transfusion or placental exposure during pregnancy in women.

BLOOD DONATION

A blood donation occurs when a person voluntarily has blood drawn and used for transfusions
and/or made into biopharmaceutical medications by a process called fractionation (separation
of whole-blood components). Donation may be of whole blood (WB), or of specific components
directly (the latter called apheresis). Blood banks often participate in the collection process as
well as the procedures that follow it.

Today in the developed world, most blood donors are unpaid volunteers who donate blood for a
community supply. In poorer countries, established supplies are limited and donors usually give
15

blood when family or friends need a transfusion (directed donation). Many donors donate as an
act of charity, but in countries that allow paid donation some donors are paid, and in some
cases there are incentives other than money such as paid time off from work. Donors can also
have blood drawn for their own future use (autologous donation). Donating is relatively safe,
but some donors have bruising where the needle is inserted or may feel faint.

Potential donors are evaluated for anything that might make their blood unsafe to use. The
screening includes testing for diseases that can be transmitted by a blood transfusion, including
HIV and viral hepatitis. The donor must also answer questions about medical history and take a
short physical examination to make sure the donation is not hazardous to his or her health.
How often a donor can donate varies from days to months based on what component they
donate and the laws of the country where the donation takes place. For example, in the United
States, donors must wait eight weeks (56 days) between whole blood donations but only seven
days between plateletpheresis donations and twice per seven-day period in plasmapheresis.

The amount of blood drawn and the methods vary. The collection can be done manually or with
automated equipment that takes only specific components of the blood. Most of the
components of blood used for transfusions have a short shelf life, and maintaining a constant
supply is a persistent problem. This has led to some increased interest in autotransfusion,
whereby a patient's blood is salvaged during surgery for continuous reinfusion or
alternatively, is "self-donated" prior to when it will be needed. (Generally, the notion of

16

"donation" does not refer to giving to one's self, though in this context it has become somewhat
acceptably idiomatic.)

UNIVERSAL DONORS AND UNIVERSAL RECIPIENTS

With regard to transfusions of packed red blood cells, individuals with type O Rh D negative
blood are often called universal donors, and those with type AB Rh D positive blood are called
universal recipients; however, these terms are only generally true with respect to possible
reactions of the recipient's anti-A and anti-B antibodies to transfused red blood cells, and also
possible sensitization to Rh D antigens. One exception is individuals with hh antigen system
(also known as the Bombay phenotype) who can only receive blood safely from other hh
donors, because they form antibodies against the H antigen present on all red blood cells.

Blood donors with exceptionally strong anti-A, anti-B or any atypical blood group antibody may
be excluded from blood donation. In general, while the plasma fraction of a blood transfusion
may carry donor antibodies not found in the recipient, a significant reaction is unlikely because
of dilution.

Additionally, red blood cell surface antigens other than A, B and Rh D, might cause adverse
reactions and sensitization, if they can bind to the corresponding antibodies to generate an
immune response. Transfusions are further complicated because platelets and white blood
cells (WBCs) have their own systems of surface antigens, and sensitization to platelet or WBC
antigens can occur as a result of transfusion.

With regard to transfusions of plasma, this situation is reversed. Type O plasma, containing
both anti-A and anti-B antibodies, can only be given to O recipients. The antibodies will attack
the antigens on any other blood type. Conversely, AB plasma can be given to patients of any
ABO blood group due to not containing any anti-A or anti-B antibodies.

17

HEMOLYTIC DISEASE OF THE NEWBORN (HDN)

A pregnant woman can make IgG blood group antibodies if her foetus has a blood group
antigen that she does not have. This can happen if some of the fetus' blood cells pass into the
mother's blood circulation (e.g. a small fetomaternal hemorrhage at the time of childbirth or
obstetric intervention), or sometimes after a therapeutic blood transfusion. This can cause Rh
disease or other forms of hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN) in the current pregnancy
and/or subsequent pregnancies. If a pregnant woman is known to have anti-D antibodies, the
Rh blood type of a fetus can be tested by analysis of foetal DNA in maternal plasma to assess
the risk to the foetus of Rh disease. One of the major advances of twentieth century medicine
was to prevent this disease by stopping the formation of Anti-D antibodies by D negative
mothers with an inject able medication called Rho(D) immune globulin. Antibodies associated
with some blood groups can cause severe HDN, others can only cause mild HDN and others
are not known to cause HDN.

O NEGATIVE

As an O Negative blood donor you have a particularly unique opportunity to help people in
emergency situations. O Negative blood cells are called universal meaning they can be
transfused to almost any patient in need, and only 6.6% of the population has O Negative
blood. In the event of an emergency, trauma patients and accident victims are given a fighting
chance at life due to O Negative blood transfusion. You may hear that O Negative blood is the

18

type they carry on the medical helicopters. This is often the case when there is no time to ask
questions.

Additionally, O Negative red blood cells are safest for newborn infants with under-developed
immune systems. Your commitment to regular and frequent donations is especially important to
maintain sufficient supplies for our community. And, local patients are grateful for your gift of
life. It is also important to remember that while donors of all blood types can receive O
Negative blood; those with O Negative blood can generally only receive O Negative blood. In
extreme emergencies when O Negative is in short supply, sometimes O Positive can be
substituted. 1 in 15 people have O- blood (approximately 6.6% of the population)

Whats Your Type?

O+

1 in 3

37.4%

A+

1 in 3

35.7%

B+

1 in 12

8.5%

AB+

1 in 29

3.4%

O-

1 in 15

6.6%

A-

1 in 16

6.3%

B-

1 in 67

1.5%

AB-

1 in 167

.6%

Source: Americas Blood Centres

Compatible Blood Types

O- can receive OO+ can receive O+, OA- can receive A-, OA+ can receive A+, A-, O+, O-

19

B- can receive B-, OB+ can receive B+, B-, O+, OAB- can receive AB-, B-, A-, OAB+ can receive AB+, AB-, B+, B-, A+, A-, O+, O-

Compatible Plasma Types

O can receive O, A, B, AB
A can receive A, AB
B can receive B, AB
AB can receive AB

BLOOD DISORDERS

Blood disorders that affect red blood cells include:

Anemia: People with anemia have a low number of red blood cells. Mild anemia often
causes no symptoms. More severe anemia can cause fatigue, pale skin, and shortness
of breath with exertion.

Iron-deficiency anemia: Iron is necessary for the body to make red blood cells. Low
iron intake and loss of blood due to menstruation are the most common causes of irondeficiency anemia. It may also be caused by blood loss from the GI tract because of
ulcers or cancer. Treatment includes iron pills, or rarely, blood transfusion.

20

Anemia of chronic disease: People with chronic kidney disease or other chronic
diseases tend to develop anemia. Anemia of chronic disease does not usually require
treatment. Injections of a synthetic hormone, epoetin alfa (Epogen or Procrit), to
stimulate the production of blood cells or blood transfusions may be necessary in some
people with this form of anemia.

Pernicious anemia (B12 deficiency): A condition that prevents the body from absorbing
enough B12 in the diet. This can be caused by a weakened stomach lining or an
autoimmune condition. Besides anemia, nerve damage (neuropathy) can eventually
result. High doses of B12 prevent long-term problems.

Aplastic anemia: In people with aplastic anemia, the bone marrow does not produce
enough blood cells, including red blood cells. A viral infection, drug side effect, or an
autoimmune condition can cause aplastic anemia. Medications, blood transfusions,
and even a bone marrow transplant, may be required to treat aplastic anemia.

Autoimmune hemolytic anemia: In people with this condition, an overactive immune

system destroys the body's own red blood cells, causing anemia. Medicines that
suppress the immune system, such as prednisone, may be required to stop the
process.

Blood disorders that affect white blood cells include:

Lymphoma : A form of blood cancer that develops in the lymph system. In lymphoma, a
white blood cell becomes malignant, multiplying and spreading abnormally. Hodgkin's
lymphoma and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma are the two major groups of lymphoma.
Treatment with chemotherapy and/or radiation can often extend life with lymphoma,
and sometimes cure it.

Leukaemia : A form of blood cancer in which a white blood cell becomes malignant and
multiplies inside bone marrow. Leukaemia may be acute (rapid and severe) or chronic
(slowly progressing). Chemotherapy and/or stem cell transplantation (bone marrow
transplant) can be used to treat leukaemia, and may result in a cure.

Multiple myeloma: A blood cancer in which a white blood cell called a plasma cell
becomes malignant. The plasma cells multiply and release damaging substances that
eventually cause organ damage. Multiple myeloma has no cure, but stem cell
transplant and/or chemotherapy can allow many people to live for years with the
condition.

Myelodysplastic syndrome: A family of blood cancers that affect the bone marrow.
Myelodysplastic syndrome often progresses very slowly, but may suddenly transform
into a severe leukaemia. Treatments may include blood transfusions, chemotherapy
and stem cell transplant.
21

Blood disorders that affect the platelets include:

Thrombocytopenia : A low number of platelets in the blood; numerous conditions

cause thrombocytopenia, but most do not result in abnormal bleeding.

Idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura: A condition causing a persistently low number of

platelets in the blood, due to an unknown cause; usually, there are no symptoms, yet
abnormal bruising, small red spots on the skin (petechiae), or abnormal bleeding can
result.

Heparin -induced thrombocytopenia: A low platelet count caused by a reaction against

heparin, a blood thinner given to many hospitalized people to prevent blood clots

Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura: A rare blood disorder causing small blood clots
to form in blood vessels throughout the body; platelets are used up in the process,
causing a low platelet count.

Essential thrombocytosis (primary thrombocythemia): The body produces too many

platelets, due to an unknown cause; the platelets do not work properly, resulting in
excessive clotting, bleeding, or both.

Blood disorders that affect blood plasma include:

Sepsis : An infection somewhere in the body spreads into the blood. Symptoms
include fever, rapid breathing, respiratory failure, and low blood pressure.

Hemophilia : A genetic deficiency of certain proteins that help blood to clot; there are
multiple forms of hemophilia, ranging in severity from mild to life-threatening.

von Willebrand disease: von Willebrand factor is a protein in blood that helps blood
to clot. In von Willebrand disease, the body either produces too little of the protein, or
produces a protein that doesn't work well. The condition is inherited, but most people
with von Willebrand disease have no symptoms and don't know they have it. Some
people with von Willebrand disease will have excessive bleeding after an injury or
during surgery.

Hypercoaguable state (hypercoagulable state): A tendency for the blood to clot too
easily; most affected people have only a mild excess tendency to clot, and may
never be diagnosed. Some people develop repeated episodes of blood clotting
throughout life, requiring them to take a daily blood thinning medicine.

Deep venous thrombosis: A blood clot in a deep vein, usually in the leg; a deep
venous thrombosis can dislodge and travel through the heart to the lungs, causing a
pulmonary embolism.
22

Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC): A condition that causes tiny blood

clots and areas of bleeding throughout the body simultaneously; severe infections,
surgery, or complications of pregnancy are conditions that can lead to DIC.

GENETIC DISORDERS

There are different genetic disorders that can affect the blood and bone marrow. People
inherit genetic disorders or diseases through their genes. They may be diagnosed when a
baby is born or the disorder can develop later in life. Sometimes people with these
conditions will need a stem cell transplant.

BLOOD GROUP
GENOTYPING

In addition to the current practice of serologic testing of blood types, the progress in molecular
diagnostics allows the increasing use of blood group genotyping.

In contrast to serologic tests reporting a direct blood type phenotype, genotyping allows the
prediction of a phenotype based on the knowledge of the molecular basis of the currently known
antigens.

This allows a more detailed determination of the blood type and therefore a better match for
transfusion, which can be crucial in particular for patients with needs for many transfusions to
prevent allo-immunization.

BLOOD GROUPS : REPORT

S.NO

NAME

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11
12.
13.
14.

Abinaya
Adhitya
Amrutha Anoop
Amrutha K
Bharti
Chinmaya
Daphne
Gifty
Kiruba
Madhumitha
Nithyasri
Pavithra
Poorani
Preethigasri

AB

O
+ve
+ve

+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
23

15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.

Priya dharshni
Priyanka
Rajeshwari
Smriti
Vishnu priya
Yamini
Alok
Hariharan
Hariprasad
Vignesh
Vishnu
Bala siddarth
Shreekanth
Aashish
Sudeept
Rishab
Vikram
Ashish
Nishanth
Adil yusuf
Robin
Nikhil
Sanjay
Maria jose
Jawahar
Nikil kumar
Dinesh
Solomon
Tarun
Rohith
Shailender
Vijith
Satyajeet
Sonam
Anamika
Pooja
Preethi
Shreya
Aashna
Swathi
Priya
Rashmi
Varshini
Sindhu priya
Shobitha
Madhumitha
Gautham
Vaibhar

+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve

+ve
+ve
+ve
24

63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
95.
96.
97.
98.
99
100.

Prakhor
Akshay
Surajit
Megha
Abinaya
Shalini
Mridula
Souparnika
Nivedha
Kanaka
Anu priya
Hepsibah
Sweta
Arya
Vinothini
Shakthi
Rajesh
Ashwin
Madhan
Bala
Anbu
Praveen
Mohan
Shashang
Avinash
Abhijith
Arun
Vishal
Sreejith
Arjun
Rohith
Jayshankar
Thamarai kannan
Arpitha
Kirthi
Varsha
Anushka
Priyush

+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve
+ve

25

RESULT:
No of students surveyed : 100
% of students having A blood group :

15%

% of students having B blood group

29%

% of students having O blood group

54%

% of students having AB blood group

2%

26

Conclusion
After the study of genotyping in human blood group, I would like to conclude
that ,
Blood is the primary means of transport in the body that is responsible for
transporting important nutrients and materials to and from the cells and
molecules that make up our body. Blood performs the important task of
protecting the body from the threat of infections and disease causing
bacteria. Blood is also a regulator of many factors in the body. It oversees the
temperature of the body and maintains it to a level that is tolerated by the
body with ease. From the data, more number of students is having O blood
group i.e., they are universal donors. Only 2% of students are having AB
blood group i.e., they are universal recipients. Nobody has negative blood
cells, that too O negative blood cells are called universal meaning they can
be transfused to almost any patient in need and it states that only 6.6% of the
population has O negative blood.
33 blood group systems have been identified including the ABO and Rh
systems. Thus, in addition to the ABO antigens and Rh antigen many other
antigens are expressed on the RBC surface membrane. Blood has disorders
also, such as anaemia, lymphoma, leukaemia, etc..., It shows the symptoms
27

like, pale skin and shortness of breath exertion. These disorders can be
cured by chemotherapy, radiation or by gene therapy. Next blood donation
occurs when a person voluntarily has blood drawn and used for transfusion.
Donating blood is a safe and easy process which gives you the chance to
change lives.

References

Wikipedia
Complete NEET Guide
Oswaal Biology
Biology Text Book Of Class XII

28

29