EXPERIMENT -1

OHMS LAW

AIM:
To determine resistance per cm of a given wire by plotting a graph of potential
difference versus current.
APPARATUS:
A voltmeter, an ammeter, unknown resistance, rheostat, key, battery and connecting
wires.
THEORY AND FORMULA:
Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is
directly proportional to the potential difference across the two points, provided that

the physical condition of the conductors ,such as length temperature etc. do not
change. If V is the potential difference and I is the current then
IV
Or V / I = constant(R)
R is the resistance of the conductor
Resistance of the wire R = V / I (from the graph)
If L is the Length of the wire,
Resistance per cm of given wire = R/L /cm

PROCEDURE
1

Arrange the apparatus according to the circuit diagram as shown.

Note the zero correction of ammeter and voltmeter, if any

Insert the key K and slide the rheostat contact starting from the left end to
the right end. Note down the observations in the ammeter and voltmeter.

Go on increasing the current step by step with the help of rheostat and take
at least six sets of observations. Tabulate all the observations.

Draw the graph by plotting voltmeter reading (V) along the X axis and
ammeter reading (I) along the Y axis.

SOURCES OF ERROR
1

The connections may be loose

The ratio of V/I may not be constant due to heating caused by passage of
current for longer interval of time

High resistance rheostat may be used.

PRECAUTIONS
1

The ends of the wire should be neat and clean

The connections should be tight

The current should be passed for a short interval of time

A low resistance rheostat should be used.

GRAPH

OBSERVATIONS
2

Least count of voltmeter = -------------V

Least count of ammeter = -------------- A
Length of the wire L

= --------------- cm

To determine the resistance of the wire

SN

VOLTMETER
READING [V]

AMMETER
READING [A]

Resistance of the wire R from graph= V / I =

Resistance per cm of given wire = R /L =

/cm

RESULT:
Resistance of the wire R = V / I =
Resistance per cm of given wire = R /L =

/cm

EXPERIMENT 2
REFRACTIVE INDEX OF PRISM
AIM :
To plot the graph showing the variation of angle of deviation with angle of incidence for a glass
prism and to determine the angle of minimum deviation. Hence calculate refractive index of the
material of the prism.
APPARATUS:
Drawing board, sheets of white paper, drawing pins, pencil, protractor.
THEORY:
The refractive index of the material of prism is given by
= Sin
Where A is an angle of prism and min is angle of minimum deviation.

i = angle of incidence
e = angle of emergence
= angle of deviation
r1 & r2 = angle of refraction

PROCEDURE
1

Fix the white sheet of paper in the drawing board. Place the prism and draw its
boundary with the help of a sharp pencil.
4

Draw a normal N on the face AB and draw an incident ray PQ making an angle of
incidence I say 350.

Fix two pins P1 and P2 on the incident line PQ.

Now see the images P1 and P2 through the face Ac.Fix other pins P3 andP4 in such
away that these two pins and images of pins P1 and P2 all appear in the same
line.

Remove the pins P3 andP4 and join their positions getting the emergent ray RS.

Measure the angle of deviation corresponding to this angle of incidence.

SOURCES OF ERROR
1

The pins are not fixed vertically.

Prism is disturbed while taking observations.

The curve should be smooth (free hand).

PRECAUTIONS
1

The angle of incidence should be between 300 and 600.

The distance between pins should be at least 6 cm.

The pins must be vertical

4 The position of the prism should disturbed on the white sheet

OBSERVATIONS
Angle of prism A= ------------S.NO

Angle
of
i(degrees)

incidence Angle of deviation (degrees)

1
2
3

4
5

GRAPH

CALCULATION

= Sin

RESULT
1

As angle of incidence is increased, angle of deviation decreases, become

minimum and then increases

Refractive index of the material of the prism is = ----------

EXPERIMENT 3
METRE BRIDGE (1)

AIM
To find an unknown resistance using Metre bridge and hence determine the specific resistance
of its material of the wire.
APPARATUS
Metre bridge, Galvanometer, Resistance box, one way key , a cell ,unknown resistance, screw
gauge , connecting wires and jockey
FORMULA

Metre bridge is a form of Wheatstone bridge, under balanced conditions.

P/Q

R/X

For a metre bridge, the expression becomes X = R

Where, X is unknown resistance
R is known resistance
l is the balancing length

Specific resistance,

Where D is the diameter of the unknown resistor

L is the length of the given wire

PROCEDURE
1. Arrange the apparatus and assemble it as shown in the figure
2. Close the key and test the connection. Take out 1 or 2 ohms resistance from the resistance
box and touch the jockey at two ends of the wire. If the deflection in the galvanometer is
in opposite direction, the connections are correct.
3. Move the jockey over the wire and find the position for which the galvanometer shows
the zero deflection. Note the value of R.
4. Repeat the experiment for getting more values
5. Measure the length of the resistance wire
6. Measure the diameter of the wire and record all then observations

SOURCES OF ERROR
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

The meter bridge wire may not be of uniform area of cross section through out its length.
The thick copper strips at the two ends of the wire offer some resistance.
As current passes through the wire, it gets heated and its resistance can change.
Plugs in the resistance box may need to be tight.
The screw gauge may have errors

PRECAUTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.

The balance point must be confined to the middle region of the wire (40-60 cm)
Plugs should be tight.
The jockey should not touch the wire, when it is moved to and fro.
Keep the key of the battery closed only when the reading is being taken and open it
immediately after that.
5. Avoid backlash error by rotating the circular scale in many directions.
OBSERVATIONS
Least count of Metre Bridge = -------------------- cm
To determine the unknown resistance X
S
R [ohms}
NO

Balancing
100-L
length
L [cm]
[cm]

X = R [100-L]
L
(ohms)

1
2
3
4
5
Mean value of resistance X = ---------------------- ohms
To find the specific resistance
Mean diameter = ----------- cm
CALCULATIONS
Length of the wire = ----------cm
Mean diameter = ----------- cm
9

Specific resistance

=
= --------------------- ohm meter

RESULT
Resistance of the wire = ---------------------
The specific resistance of the material of the wire = -----------------------m

10

11

EXPERIMENT-4
METRE BRIDGE (2)

AIM
To verify the laws of combination of resistances (in series/parallel) using Metre bridge
APPARATUS
Metre Bridge, Galvanometer, Resistance box, one-way key, a cell, two unknown resistance
wires, connecting wires and jockey
FORMULA
For a metre bridge, the resistance can be determined by the formula X = R

Where

X is unknown resistance
R is known resistance
l is the balancing length

1.When two resistances R1&R2 are connected in series, then the total resistance Rs will

be

Rs = R1+R2

2. When two resistances R1&R2 are connected in parallel then the total resistance R p will be
given by
1/Rp = 1/R1 + 1/R2

Or

RP

R1 R2
R1 R2

12

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

(a) Series combination

(a) Parallel combination

PROCEDURE
1. Mark the two given resistance coil as R1 and R2.
2. Connect R1 in the right gap of metre bridge and determine its resistance as explained in
metre bridge1
3. Repeat the similar observation for resistance coil R2 and determine its value.
4. Connect R1 and R2 in series in the right gap of the Meter bridge as shown in the figure
and find the resistance of combination.
13

5. Connect the two coils R1 and R2 in parallel in the right gap of the Meter bridge as shown
in the figure and find the resistance of combination.
6. Record the observations in the observation table..
SOURCES OF ERROR
1.
2.
3.
4.

The metre bridge wire may not be of uniform area of cross section through out its length.
The thick copper strips at the two ends of the wire offer some resistance.
As current passes through the wire, it gets heated and its resistance can change.
Plugs in the resistance box may nit be tight

PRECAUTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.

The balance point must be confined to the middle region of the wire (40-60 cm)
Plugs should be tight.
The jockey should not touch the wire, when it is moved to and fro.
Keep the key of the battery closed only when the reading is being taken and open it
immediately after that.

OBSERVATIONS

Least count of Metre Bridge = -------------------- cm

Given R1 = --------------------
R2 = --------------------
To determine the resistance
Unknown
resistors

S
no

R
Balancing 100-L
[ohms] length L [cm]
[cm]

R 1 = R [100-L]
L

Mean
resistance
[Ohms]

1
R1 &R2 2
in series
3

Rs=

14

1
R1 &R2 2
in parallel
3

Rp =

R1 = ------------R2 = -------------CALCULATIONS
1.In series
Experimental value, Rs =

----- -------------- ohm

Theoretical value, Rs = R1+R2

= ----- -------------- ohm

2.In parallel
Experimental value, RP = ----- -------------- ohm
Theoretical value, R P

R1 R2
R1 R2

----- -------------- ohm

RESULT
1. Value of resistance in series Rs = ---------------------
2. Value of resistance in parallel Rp = ---------------------
3. With in the limits of the experimental error the values of Rs and Rp agree with the
theoretical values

15

EXPERIMENT 5
CONVEX LENS
AIM
To find the focal length of convex lens by plotting of graph u and v and between 1/u and
1/v
APPARATUS
Convex lens, optical bench, two needles and meter scale.
THEORY
The position of the image formed by a convex lens depends upon the position of object
with respect to lens. The relation between u, v and f for convex lens is
1/f = 1/v - 1/u
DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE
1 Find the rough focal length of the convex lens is found by taking the image of a distant
object on the screen.
2 Place lens and the two needles are mounted on a vertical upright. The tips of the needles
and the centre of the lens should be kept at the same height from the end of the bench.
The object needle is placed between F and 2F of the convex lens and the image
needle on the other side of the lens. The image needle is moved forward and
backward till the real and inverted image of the object needle is seen through the lens
just over the image needle.

16

3 Then the distance between the object needle and lens u and the image needle and lens v is
measured.
4 Repeat the above steps for different positions of object needle and image needle.
5 A graph is plotted between u and v between 1/u and 1/v.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The convex lens is very thick.
2. The principal axis of the lens may not be parallel to the optical bench scale.
3. The parallax is not removed from tip to tip
PRECAUTIONS
1. Always place the convex lens in the middle of the optical bench.
2. Always choose a lens of small focal length.
3. The parallax should be removed from tip to tip
4. The uprights should be vertical &stable.
5. Eyes should be placed at a distance of about 100 cm from the needle while removing
OBSERVATIONS
Rough focal length of convex lens = ----------------------cm

S.No

Position of
Convex
lens(a)cm

Object
needle(b)cm

Image
needle
(cm)

Distance
b/w
object
c needle &
lens(u)
[a-b]

1
2
3
4
17

Distance
1/v(cm) 1/u (cm)
b/w image
needle
&
lens(v) [ca]

5
6

U and V graph
Draw OP such that angle POA = 450
Then OA = OB = 2f
Mean f from the u-v graph =OA+OB = ----------------------cm
4

I/V - I/U Graph

OA = -------- cm
OB = ---------- cm
1/f =OA+OB=---------------------2
Therefore mean f =

18

RESULT
Focal length of convex lens
1. From u-v graph = --------------------------- m
2. From 1/u 1/v graph = ---------------------- m

19