Phr.

Rautbhola, Quality control officer

Gases & Vapors

Role of oxygen
One critical role that oxygen plays in the body is that it is used to oxidize our food, in the process
of cellular respiration, thus releasing energy, which is eventually stored in ATP in the electron
transport chain in mitochondria, and in glycolysis in the cytoplasm. (Oxygen is important to the
living cells. It becomes necessary for normal oxidative metabolic process in cell for the
production of energy. The energy is used by cells for the synthesizing ATP. When ATP gets
hydrolysed, energy is released.)
Carbohydrates and fatty acids are gradually broken down to simpler carbohydrates, and then
oxidized in our cells ... producing energy, carbon dioxide, and water.
Another critical purpose oxygen plays is that it is part of the water molecule: cells are about 7090% water by mass, and without water and its ability to form hydrogen bonds life would likely
not be possible at all. So in fact, because of the very high water content, the human body is
mostly oxygen, by mass.

Transport of oxygen (after it has been inhaled) takes place through haemoglobin, a constituent of
blood. Concentration of haemoglobin in the blood has been important in the transport
mechanism; oxygen combines with haemoglobin reversibly as follows.
HB+O2

HbO2 where in,

Hb=Deoxyhaemoglobin and HbO2=oxyhaemoglobin

Cellular respiration is the process by which the cells make energy. Cells in our body combine
glucose and oxygen to make ATP and carbon dioxide. Cellular respiration starts with
glycolysis, where glucose enters the cell, is converted to pyruvate, and makes a few ATP and
NADH.

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Oxygen is the most abundant element in the human body. Its mainly found bound to
hydrogen in the form of water. Water, in turn, makes up about 60% of the human body and
participates in countless metabolic reactions.
The element oxygen acts as an electron acceptor and oxidizing agent. It is found in all four of
the major classes of organic molecules: protein, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids.
Because it is a key element in aerobic cellular respiration, large amounts of oxygen are found
in the lungs and in the bloodstream.
Hemoglobin in blood binds the oxygen molecule, O 2, from inhaled air. Oxygen is used by the
mitochondria in cells to produce the energy molecule adenosine triphosphate or ATP.
While its essential for human life, too much oxygen can be deadly, as it can lead to oxidative
damage to cells and tissues.

Role of carbondioxide
Carbondioxide is readily absorbed and carried by blood both in the cells and in the plasma.
Besides, it is also formed in the body during metabolic process. A large quantity of
carbondioxide produced is removed by lungs in the exhaled air. A large quantity of
carbondioxide cant remain in the dissolved form in plasma. It is known to exit in the following
three major forms, i.e.
i)
ii)
iii)

As a carbonic acid, after combining with water

As a carbamino bound form in which it combines with proteins, again mainly with
haemoglobin
Carrried as bicarbonate in combination with other cations.

During utilization of CO2, under normal physiological conditions the pH of blood has been
maintained via carbonic acid formation, its conversion into bicarbonate ions etc. The normal
H2CO3/HCO3- ratio is 1/20 and from equation
HCO 3

[ H 2 CO 3]
pH= pKalog

The change in pH can be calculated.

It can be seen that an increase in bicarbonate (systemic) ions causes an increase in pH of body
fluids whereas increase in CO2 levels via carbonic acid decreases it. Both effects are
counterbalanced by excreation process.
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The most important factor in the control of ventilation under normal condition is the CO 2 of the
arterial blood. The normal arterial CO2 is held within 3 mm Hg. An increase in CO 2 leads to
respiratory stimulants effect. With a normal CO2, the ventilation increases by about 2-3 litres/min
for each 1 mm Hg rise in CO2.

Transport in the blood

CO2 is carried in blood in three different ways. (The exact percentages vary depending whether it
is arterial or venous blood).

Most of it (about 70% to 80%) is converted to bicarbonate ions HCO3- by the

enzyme carbonic anhydrase in the red blood cells, by the reaction
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO3

5% 10% is dissolved in the plasma

5% 10% is bound to hemoglobin as carbamino compounds

Carbondioxide from tissue gets rapidly converted to carbonic acid and to sodium bicarbonate, so
that little amount occurs as free form in the blood.
Carbon dioxide is one of the mediators of local auto regulation of blood supply. If its levels are
high, the capillaries expand to allow a greater blood flow to that tissue.
Bicarbonate ions are crucial for regulating blood pH. A person's breathing rate influences the
level of CO2 in their blood. Breathing that is too slow or shallow causes respiratory acidosis,
while breathing that is too rapid leads to hyperventilation, which can cause respiratory alkalosis.
Although the body requires oxygen for metabolism, low oxygen levels normally do not stimulate
breathing. Rather, breathing is stimulated by higher carbon dioxide levels.

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Carbondioxide
Molecular Formula: CO2

Molecular Weight: 44.01

Carbondioxide is having not less than 99.0% w/w of CO2. For convenience, it is stored and
compressed in metal cylinders.
Preparation: It can be prepared by many methods:

Compounds having carbon like coal, coke, oil, etc. are burned with an excess of oxygen to
yield carbondioxide.
C + O2
CO2
When mineral carbonates are treated with acids, carbondioxide is evolved.
CaCO3 + 2HCl

CaCl2 + H2O+ CO2

Carbondioxide so prepared is not pure. Therefore it is passed through potassium carbonate

solution at room temperature, when potassium carbonate is saturated and gets converted into
potassium bicarbonate. On boiling the solution of potassium bicarbonate at 100C, pure
carbondioxide is evolved as follows:
2KHCO3

100C

CO2 + K2CO3 + H2O

Pure carbondioxide so obtained is then liquefied under pressure in steel cylinders and marked.

When calcium carbonate or sodium bicarbonate is heated, carbondioxide is given out.

CaO3

CaO + CO2

2NaHCO3
Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
Carbondioxide under pressure may be dissolved in cold water. It forms carbonic acid
(H2CO3), from which carbondioxide could be liberated when pressure gets released.
Carbondioxide is also obtained as by-product in the fermentation of sugar molasses.

Properties of carbondioxide:

It is heavy, colourless, odourless gas having a faintly acidic taste.

It can be liquefied under water.
It is soluble in water. It doesnt support combustion.
One litre of carbondioxide at 0C and at one atmospheric pressure weighs 1.997 gm.

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When carbondioxide is passed in water, it forms carbonic acid, which when added to sodium
hydroxide, yields sodium carbonate.
NaOH + H2CO3

NaHCO3 + H2O

Identification of carbondioxide:

It can extinguish flame

A precipitate of barium carbonate is formed when the gas is passed through a solution of
barium hydroxide. The precipitate dissolves in acetic acid with effervescence.
Ba (OH)2 + CO2
BaCO3 + H2O

Test for purity: It has to be tested for the presence of acid, sulphur dioxide, phosphine,
hydrogen sulphide, organic reducing substances and carbon monoxide as per IP.
Assay: It is analysed by the gasometric method.
Storage and labelling:
Carbondioxide is supplied in metal cylinders under
compression. The shoulder of the cylinder is painted grey and is having the name and symbol of
CO2 stencilled with paint on it.

Uses:

It finds use as respiratory stimulant, when inhaled. It stimulates the respiratory and cardio
accelerator centres. It may be generally administered in 5 to 75 percent by mixing in oxygen
or up to 10 percent in air or gas mixture.
On being inhaled it raises the carbondioxide content of the blood. Only in low concentration
of up to 10 percent in the air or gas mixture, it finds use to stimulate the respiratory and
cardiovascular centres.
In concentration of 20 percent or more it has been found to be very fatal and in very high
concentration, it causes convulsions and respiratory depression.
Carbondioxide and oxygen mixture may be used in the treatment of carbon monoxide
poisoning.

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Carbondioxide can also be solidified to dry ice or carbondioxide snow having a temperature
of about -80C. It evaporates (sublimates) slowly and can be applied warts and tissue, which
are frozen and destroyed.
Dry ice is very convenient for obtaining very low temperature in laboratory experiments
without elaborate equipment.

Oxygen:
Molecular formula: O2

Molecular weight: 32

Oxygen is an important constituent of air and constitutes about 21 % by volume of atmosphere.

Oxygen of IP is having not less than 99.0 % v/v of O2. The residue is having either of argon with
traces of nitrogen or hydrogen. It is made available and supplied in compressed form in metallic
cylinders.
Preparation of Oxygen:

By fractionation of liquid air: In this method, air is first of all purified by removing moisture,
carbondioxide, dust etc., and is then compressed to obtain liquid air. The liquid air is then
fractionated by distillation, to obtain oxygen which is then filled under pressure in metallic
cylinders.

By electrolysis method: In this method, a direct current is passed through a cell between the
iron or steel electrodes which are immersed in about 10 percent of aqueous solution of
sodium or potassium hydroxide. Oxygen gets liberated at the anode and hydrogen at the
cathode. The liberated oxygen is then filled under pressure in metallic cylinders.

Properties of Oxygen
Oxygen is colourless, odourless and tasteless gas. It is having a density of 1.105. One volume of
oxygen dissolves in about 32 volumes of water and 3.6 volumes of alcohol at 1 atmospheric
pressure at 20C. Oxygen is reactive chemically and primarily acts as an oxidizing agent. Nonmetals like sulphur, carbon and phosphorus react with oxygen when heated to form oxides.
S+O2
C+ O2

SO2
CO2

Oxygen doesnt react directly with halogens or inert gases. Most metals, when heated, react with
oxygen like:
4Fe + 3O2
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2Fe2O3

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2Mg + O2

2MgO

Identification

When glowing piece of wood is introduced into the gas, it burns into flames.
When mixed with an equal volume of nitric oxide, red fumes are produced.
It is absorbed when shaken with alkaline pyrogallol solution; the solution becomes dark
brown.

Test for purity: It is tested for acidity and alkalinity, carbonmonoxide, carbondioxide,
halogens and oxidizing substances as per IP.
Assay: It may be assayed by the gasometric method.
Storage and labelling: oxygen is stored and supplied in metallic cylinders, under
pressure with a pressure gauge. The shoulder of cylinder is painted white and the remainder is
painted black. The name and symbol of oxygen (O2) are stencilled in paint on the shoulder of the
cylinder.

Uses:

It finds use in variety of hypoxia condition for undertaking artificial respiration.

Oxygen is used as inhalant for supporting respiration during anesthesia or post-operative
conditions and in treatment of asthmatic conditions, shock, poisoning due to gases, malignant
wounds, burns and some infections.
Premixed carbondioxide (5-7 %) helps in stimulating respiratory centre. As helium is having
less density than nitrogen, oxygen-helium mixture (21:79) is easier to breathe and is
preferred for patients with severe lung damage.

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Inorganic anesthetics: Definition, Nitrous oxide
An anesthetic is a drug that causes anesthesia, which is a reversible loss of sensation. Anesthetics
contrast with analgesics (painkillers), which relieve pain without eliminating sensation. These
drugs are generally administered to facilitate surgery.
General anesthesia allows the patient to sleep with the use of anesthesia, completely unaware
of the surgery. Local anesthesia allows the patient to remain awake without feeling pain, which
is the key difference between general and local anesthesia.

Molecular formula: N2O

Molecular weight: 44.02

It is having not less than 99.0% v/v of N 2O. It is supplied and stored in metal cylinder. It is also
known as Laughing gas because it produces an exhilarating effect when inhaled.
Preparation: It may be obtained by thermal decomposition of ammonium nitrate. The gas may be
then purified by washing with sodium dichromate, sodium hydroxide and water. Finally, it is
filled in cylinders under pressure (about 100 atm).
NH4NO3

170C

2H2O + N2O

Higher temperatures cause the formation of nitrogen, other oxides of nitrogen and ammonia. The
reaction may also become explosive. It can also be prepared by heating a mixture of sodium
nitrate and ammonium sulphate.
2NaNO3 + (NH4)2SO4

Na2SO4 + 2N2O (g) + 4H2O

Properties

It is colourless gas having a characteristic odour and taste. It dissolves in about 2 volumes of
water, and is soluble in alcohol and solvent ether. At a high temperature (500C), it gets
decomposed.

N2O

N2 + (O)

The liberated oxygen helps in burning. Due to endothermic decomposition, certain oxidation
takes place.

Identification:

When glowing piece of wood is plunged into the gas, it bursts into flames.
No red fumes are obtained when it gets mixed with nitric oxide.
It is not absorbed by alkaline pyrogallol solution.

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Phr. Rautbhola, Quality control officer

Tests for purity: It has to be tested for acidity and alkalinity, halogens, oxidizing substances,
reducing substances, arsine, phosphine, carbonmonoxide and carbondioxide as per IP.
Storage and labelling: It is stored and supplied in metal cylinders. The shoulder of the cylinder
has to be painted blue and the name and symbol of N2O gas is stencilled with paint on it.

Uses:

It finds use as a general anaesthetic for producing conditions of analgesia and anaesthesia.
It finds use in calming excited mental patients.
It is very readily absorbed by inhalation and causes rapid anaesthesia and analgesia (loss of
sensation of pain). Pure nitrous oxide causes hypoxia very rapidly. Hence it is almost always
administered mixed with 20 to 50 % of oxygen. However it acts as a weak anaesthetic and a
better analgesic.
It is often used to induce anaesthesia, which is maintained by using other gaseous
anaesthetics. It is relatively nontoxic and is used frequently in dental and obstetric practice.

Respiratory Stimulant: Definition, Ammonia solution, spirit

of ammonia
A respiratory stimulant is primarily used in addition to noninvasive ventilation as a means to help
increase the urge to breathe. It works by stimulating the central nervous system, resulting in an
increase in respiratory rate and tidal volume, which is the amount of air that is inhaled or exhaled
during a normal breath.

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Noninvasive ventilation (NIV) refers to the administration of ventilatory support without using
an invasive artificial airway (endotracheal tube or tracheostomy tube).
Different types of respiratory stimulants work by acting on the neurotransmitters in the brain to
encourage respiration and increase the volume of air that a patient inhales and exhales.

They are used to promote breathing in severely traumatized patients.

Ammonia solution dilute

It is having 9.5% to 10.5 % w/w of ammonia.
Preparation: It is prepared by diluting the strong ammonia solution with purified water to be
having 10 % w/w of NH3.
NH3 + H2O

NH4OH

Test for purity: It has to be tested for weight per ml, arsenic, heavy metals, non-volatile matter
etc.
Storage: It is stored in well closed container and placed in cool place.
Uses: Ammonia gas is reflex stimulant. Its action is directly due to irriation of trigeminal nerve.
The dilute ammonia solution is alkaline in nature and it is therefore not used directly.

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Aromatic Spirit of Ammonia
The spirit is having about 1.20 % w/v of free ammonia (limit 1.12-1.25) calculated as NH3 and 3
% w/v ammonium carbonate (limit 2.76-3.24), calculated as ammonium carbonate.
It is having 64-70 % w/v of alcohol, besides lemon oil and nutmeg oil, which find use mainly as
flavouring agents.

S.N.: Composition of spirit of Ammonia

1
2
3
4
5
6

Ammonium bicarbonate

25 g

Ammonia solution strong

70 ml

Lemon oil

5 ml

Nutmeg oil

3 ml

Alcohol (90%)

750 ml

Purified water sufficient to produce

1000 ml

Preparation:
Lemon oil, nutmeg oil, alcohol and about 375 ml of water are kept in a distillation assembly. On
distillation of these contents, about 875 ml of distillate is collected. An additional amount of 35
ml of distillate is collected, then transferred to a stoppered bottle and to it ammonium
bicarbonate and ammonium solution are added. The contents are generally warmed on a water
bath at 60C with occasional stirring. This solution is then allowed to filter through cotton wool
and then gradually mixed with the first distillate. Sufficient water is then added for getting the
desired volume.
Properties: It is colourless, transparent liquid having a pungent aromatic odour and taste.
Assay: Spirit of ammonia is assayed for both Ammonium carbonate and for free ammonia.
Storage: It is preserved in small, closed container. Rubber stoppers are not used because they
absorb ammonia.
Uses:

Aromatic spirit of ammonia finds use as a respiratory stimulant by inhalation.

It also finds use as a flavouring agent. It is said to accelerate heart and brings about vasoconstriction.

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It is supplied in single dose thin walled glass vial wrapped in cotton envelope. When it is
broken, the contents are absorbed by cotton and on inhalation respiratory stimulation is
produced.

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