Cambridge Seis in Comparative Polis Stew ary Beta creaego (ea air eee ter Bn te Sr Rg a ero Cp nd eB of St Pr Sng 130- ign re sul Nasa de ale, Der: Exe Se Sasa Rae er Rents Ve Helles tote Be emporio Tor arian ate rece yr nen at Te ENE ance nm oe ea ee Resco erent AGRE Tt 2, ape pt SEAR ae ty Se et ECR me Sey Pr ta fh oe ie neta ert et ae soho, gm Mn Sal Bae Ref, nd Rie SESLEWotiny Bary Bp, Making Race and Nation A COMPARISON OF SOUTH AFRICA, ‘THE UNITED STATES, AND BRAZIL. ANTHONY W. MARK Cals Unioiy ‘CAMBRIDGE URIVERSITY PRESSPART TWO <<< Racial Domination and the Nation-State IE STATES of South Afi, the United Sates, and Brant were eter formed oF siaicany reconfigured daring the sco half ofthe nineteenth and early twentieth centr. Bue aid ‘te conzldaton, ational loyalty remained largely divided or as- ‘et. Pray pol llance had een long given to the Brish Empire or Aftaner republic in what was to become South Alia, fren to each ste and to repone inthe United Stes and ied ty loyalty to Portal within Braz. As polis instiaion were ce- configured in each ese elites were eager to only national loyal ena sates ~ totum Alrkaners ad Briih-descenane veers io South Afi, Viegnians and New Yorkers into Americans, rojas tnd replicas ito Brvailans, Official deinione of membership in {single nation-state didnot immedaely produce popular alliances scotiogy ‘Sjmboln developed and encouraged emergent loyalty tothe cen trl poy. Flags wee emblems of rach ene naomi encour ged by the sate. But in each ese, the atonal flag also represented pctorly the process by which previour allegiances were formally Incorporitd. The dag of South Afi incuded a minaare Beith Union Jack and banners ofthe eo Afikinerrepoblics on backdeop ofthe clare of Flan, doe pmboiing the hybrid macare of a ‘snering nation bl upon penal divided loales Sima the flag of the United Stats incladed sie foreach ofthe orginal ‘hiren colonies and a sar added foreach state, symbolising the federal unity of localized authority and allegance. By contrast, the Braian fg bore no sch references to divided powers or lyases, Instead, Bris nner projected the immutable uty of dhe postecolonia maton, spabalized by the conta mod of the constllaion ‘of southern srs 4th moment ofthe founding ofthe republic. The Braan nation wa has projected nea an emerzing polscl com promis uta aed par ofthe natural order. The moe insted ‘on the fag, "Order and Progress” reinforced an image of managed, ‘beret change: Flag imagery thos rected a fndamentaldifer ‘ence ination state building. Bra emerged fom a previously ui- fed and preervedeslny and empire. South Africa and the United Sates, forall dee ooerdiferences, were coasted out of prei= ‘ously more independent units “The lame of how to construct » racial order wat cent tothe Nissi proces of nation-state consolidation, as spnbolzed by the respective fag In the United States, abolition of avery came with the renter subordination ofthe sate to feral power, forged in's Doody cil war and lssing he poseabolition racial order o be e- ‘configured. In South Afi, sbobion came eter. But che military ‘iablshment of central ul in South Afi implied «united policy toward Arcane to replace he varying approaches ofthe former cal nis and repebls. And the elatrely peaceful proces of abolition In Brasil ushered inthe republic, which ao fced the question of ow to tent freed Alo- Bruins, Ihrer connties reached cimacic “moments” when politi reconfgurton wat tied to ves of race, The eengentnaton-satet ‘would then each construct legal rac order, bung upon post ‘perience, eleng to rene peor oe potential coafice: Unity had ‘o! be reafoced, for soidied subpatona loyaies remained sori ses of rice raised “problems” that hal to be aresed to reduce or sod embedded confi ipinging upon efor to re- Infore the navon-tate. These processes reached important turning points with soliton and/or sae consolation, wea ne’ or unied ‘aca policies were debated and enacted, And these process then ‘lived shemeler out amid continued compeston, uncertain, and ‘tations of pcg. The outcomes ofthese processes differed, The ‘ont and compromises inserted in the hisory anderen he Bags ‘ofthe Unived Stn and South Afric rested ia waving forme of Tegal rial domination. The sail inserted inthe Brsian Bg somehow pve rie to “rac democracy.” ‘Divergent rail orders solidified fer aboion and/or afer the formation of unifed rte That ll hes coantis had previously & enacted or practiced forms of ri dsrimiaton dd nr resin ‘eommon oatcome of fil rac dominason. The whet was not ‘rped len, but these legacies were interpreted deren, cated Forward to justly sacal domination, or denied to asy purported rac democracy. Something hsppened on the way eo naion-sate Consolidation that set each county of on its om trajectory of ace taking and coresonding reimerpretons of pase In South A fie and les perasiely in dhe United States, segrestion was legally Inposed. Why blacks were so singled out terme of ace, be 30 lominned, rine to be explained. Why the same resale dd not ‘ere in Bra alo requires explanation. To explicate what hep pened requires anasis of the historical proceses of naon-sate Ili in exch cue, with reference othe esting racial orders and ‘0 inerprttion of he pas and of evolving poi and eomamic &5 “We for Thee, South Africa” ‘THE RACIAL STATE “The morn South Afican house of rce Began to stracrre sep rately consrace. What was eo become South Afien a the sa of the ewenteth century inetd fom the previous centry poles fled by ovo fngments of European ste, Duteh-dexcended Afi anes and Brivsh-descended English-speaers heer alle "En- fish, the swo groupe were themselves diided. Eaersetded and Solated Afianes clung wo images frac distinction and order, amid the complicating fcr of misegention. ‘The Bich arrived ater, bringing pot-Elighensent berlin” thtinpired the relatively carly align of slavery. But such iberalsn di noe precade the Brit ‘throm alu imposing domination over "the natives” tr the A ‘ikaners, Polis! and economic tensions between these groupe ying for pomer were aggranted by diagreement over the treatment of slaves, Alcs, apd colours, The distinct slay of the Eaglsh nd Aiikaners wasreinforce by resokng conflict nd antagonism, ‘ing ther despite her shared sense of wht perio. Afr the ‘arm the century, she British fori combined the houses of Afaner epublcs and crown colonies. The misaligned ors would hae to be ‘ughy joined unl the sare complete renovation of pertheld eon "Nite amore uniform edice facil domination, To bald a united ration for white, shared rac would become the bai for radal ‘econcllaton amid coninved competion, White Confit, Forced Unity, and Black Exclusion ‘The arrival ofthe Brith in South Afics had dramatic ef upon the Aftaner, The Boos had been lose ellecon of ere ine 8 Aependent and repos files seeking to eid enforced coord ‘ition, But the Aftianers found a common inerest a antagonism gins the British. The new English-speaking setlers and suthory (eduly provoked moblaton end forced wy, shaping ation” ‘mong the Akane, who gradgingly came together o pret thet Interests and ves! rials nationale nity aes offen the cise, sea dpe adreray ed resstance Byte id-ineteenth eer, ‘he emerging Aikaner nation soughc expression ins own pls, bot remained divided nto separate republics. Formal diy wat hs Simultaneous wih a rag sentiment of Askaner atonal ‘hat would only ind united expesion in the ere of war with ‘he Beth Empire ‘Violent conics aver who would rule South Afica came wo head sac the tam of the cen, exacerbated by Br economic interests ‘in gold and diamonds The Engh mining magnate bleed thes ‘ued moder sate was required to police labor end internal ai, ‘iene fd demonstrated that “whites were able ro exploit the lesy= ge in Afican society more ssccenfly than AFncan ould exploit the cleavages in wite soay...-Aficans (bd) never created 2 tuted ont and whites had been ble to use African allies in every onic." Coloreds in parteaar preferred to ty “pasing for ‘white and blacks were forbidden to own ams, frherandermining {ny snied thes Belen their own act shea, che Brith Tlie the prospect of black opposition, and thi view wat again onimed bythe decisive defeat of the Barat revolt by alas 1006, The poslty that sch els would grow inthe fate only furcher encourage the ides of white anya he rest way "tose ford the interes of the Baropeans™ ‘Air the peace ety, rac prefs came together with sees droge in enenaraping an Aflaner-Enpsh lance and he f= ‘her exclusion of "nates" The ew polis were comected, Britain ‘ld only hope ro rae newly wor trtory by mang peace wih ‘ose “low whites” who had previously ested and who insisted ‘on the abandonment of Britsi's promises of reform and the fa ‘hve “The price of uty and condition was the ineicatonaizaton of white supremacy” The former enemies hed tobe reconcled nd tlkiance beeen the whit was ahve athe eens of bacs sad ‘loureds” For Britain, breaking promises to blacks seemed small Brice to py for the ake of ensuring Akane loyal to he emp 1 Nels Mandela would ater describe these proces, the white sinned peoples of South Aftica pched up their diferences end creed 2 tem of racial domination apis the darkalinned poo- omles oftheir own land Often cynical and merely shetrel poe fomitmens eo ibeal reforms were easy Scutded in favor of a8 alliance with Afaners deemed necessary for securing the prize ‘This eu had been antlpated. Upon his eral a South Abon ‘high commissioner in 1897, Lord blner wrote to Asquith egan- Ing "the wo gree principles” that shold guide his work (1) the ‘Bris rulers shoul seek to “restore che god relations between the Doth fey Akaners) and English” and (2) they shold "secure for the Nates.-adequate and suflent protection apts oppres sion Bus Milaer went on to note hoc oject No 2 i the principal bac othe atinment of ject No. =i apd anys ar been 1 pesonaly oul win ‘re the Dutch is de Colony ad indeed in al of South Abie “fominins.- You have only to sie "the nigger” absolutely Sndthe pie ean Youve, therefore thi snglarstntion, ‘Baty might nde wie Duh and Eng by pocctig the ‘Whe mag, bat You would unt them agus youre, and your iy of proton. There the whale eno he Sst Aen son. [Selfgorersmentl, favkenly abd ealiciagly ap led, would make South Afsca ss loyal 5 Canada ~ bat what ‘oul the price? The abandonment of he lack a0, 0 whom Dou bate pomed poston” “This dilemma, prescient described befor the Boer War, wold be sesvoidale by 1902. Nor was Milner alone ia oeseig this 0x ‘come. Wring in 190, J. A, Hobson noted that hitherto the evo ‘white races, homever they might bicker amongs themselves, edly Ulted wo present single ot guns the Kafe.” Hobson orsa ‘thacthe “ne inevitable feof he present war wl eto acentute the ce cleavage,” for whites would unite agint black to make thelr pece™ The linkage beowen the srstepempenive of ning the for mer white adversties andthe imposition of rail domination was ‘cen lead inthe interrgnim period berwen the peace andthe Fermation ofthe Union of South Aa, Botha and other Afaner elites sought wo reinforce racial segregrtion a mean of eacoursping trite unity and loyalty, mach a the peace testy had abandoned Comments to the nave franchise, There was no exeping the "nt tive quesion” How eo shift “Banta policy from) is provincial 2 cfarscter and atume a more uniform tend” ad Become an mpor- fant mater tobe rerlved Ales in the fe oro years afer the Boer War, “colonies and ex-repuis passed leglaon compeling Affe ove in segregated compounds and locations” The lack of {united sate apparster meant tha ach facts had to be Funded loc at with + tax on beer Boer land sized during the war by Aricne was foribly retired to Akaner landlords” By 1905- ‘he South Afcan Native Airs Commision was doesn “esti. ‘ions upon the purse of land by Natives” andthe need to aoid rising or weakening in any way the unchallenged supremacy and thority ofthe ruling race” of whites The commision called for replacing "the diverse charac of legislation... tare a uniform incpes™ Wichow a formally ied sae it war impossible to ‘iordnae and inpose epreain, Tn 1906, one of Milner sides wnote what became Inown a he ‘Shelbore memorandum. This text ste out Brith interests with astonishing dary, advocating the formalization of asinge sat based fon # onion of English and Afraners. The dirion of South AFice ‘ng separate goverment” of colonies and defeated republics wat decid, no least because these oles dino correspond withthe naral conditions .che don of sce” snfang white. Diurion was farther decried for the eulting ack of coordination ofallway de- ‘lopment and fiscal pole, ba it was “the native probly” that wat ‘mos rgnicent. Without ederlunion of some sors" whites ould ‘eve Be ale to defend themselves from the sj. This problem romped the obviow elton“ fason of hough mand oodbe- fveen the Bets and Boer stock and “polis insu” that ‘would give expression to sach unified “South Afian nationaliy ‘sed on “the metal repent bepoten in the cour of hat arduous struggle” ofthe war. The memorandum concludes tht union "isthe ‘only means whereby peace and prosperity canbe atsine in thiscoun- fn: Tn sequent years Miners "ndergaren” of youn aides furthered the cause o nin by publishing the fing ed monthly jjurmal Te Sti, eioning unity aot et achieved ‘Presure for union reveled a sping consensus on this goal “lbs for diferent reasons. As Donald Denoon explain: perils. hoped tat Union woul being prosper, which ould seit sft Brish migrns to samp Ale mie 93onal. Ars-impeinlis hoped that Union would consoiste ‘Aflaner consol There was le diereemeat ore the smme- Shae porpones of aniston and the etch word "onaisson” ‘sewed ose dpa oer he long-term destiny of he regan” Olive Schreiner and ocher Cape Heras well understod that sach EnglheAfrkaner reconiaon implied greater racial elena, domination and explotaton of the majorgy, drawing a." sodow’” over the frre. They saght to del the overeat to tion Bat the coinedence of imperialist and Afaner interests in ‘ion ws too song. The train had already let the season with oth formar waring partis onboard. Though Schreiner ape to Brit ish Sentiment for defending “he native,” this seamen had already ‘een forme in the peace ety. For Bin, a the victorin war of imperial conquest, the im erative for combating canto over ts prize was worth snuch mare than any moral commitment to blacks With the record braking 5,106-carst Callinan diamond ~ vento King Edvard VIL by Botha in 1907 a8 proof of his loyalty ~ glimmering mos bilan among ‘he crown jewel, Briain yearned to reap dhe reward rom ts ichest ew colon possession, To do so, unity would have wo be forged writ the Afrikaners within ingle state, a the pie of turing a deaf far to Schrciner’s prophetic warning. The Blood spl in the Boer ‘War broughe the bith ofa new sate, but not «unified nation. AS signaled bythe treaty negations ending the war, racial domination would be used to encourage such national unity by means of white- Fle sate Ethnic Political Competition and Segregation “The cont beeween Engh and Aflaner woald noc simply di- sppeat mth the end of mary belligerence. Appeasing Akan na ‘onaliam peoted less “easy” than Miler expected, The war would ‘continue by the other means of protracted poll competion. And ‘flores to rslv this ene confit would coninue to puste the logic of 1902. Advocates of united white “South Afican nationals” ‘wold conssendy ill bck onthe stategy of pricing the ral ‘erence from backs in order to submerge white enc diference. ‘Aaner nadonalins countered their competitors with ells for 96 ‘we FoR Tee SOUTH ARRICA” stronger racial domination his ongoing dynamic would consistently ‘rutin refinements of egrepatonint police. ‘With che Briss Puen pasing ofthe Ac of Union, ia 1910, single South Afican rate came int exitence The form ofthat Stste ws influenced both by the Bish model imported frm Loo- don and by provision for an inceasingl unified state reinforced by nmperal power. The pice confi ad Ie tle tolerance fru slow ‘olution of eenul ste power, which might have encouraged even ‘her conic. The American model offderlsn wa abo expily ejected shaving “cused one ofthe greatest cl mars in say" South Ais had agus fart experienced a compare watershed cont snd under Brita rae rather than federal waion sought 2 polieal gtem tht would avoid excerbnting tensions" Instead the South Alcan state emerged soa ful-bown onthe peal al Shel a unitary state with pabamentarysovereigny...- Thecen- teal govecument was lgally sopeeme ore all loa icoetons “Moreover, powers were not divided within the center" As it would dbewbere i Alte, Bch clonalin forged a strong and eid te, suing that sch cenalizaton of power would imi fare Conf: This ssmption would be proved fly wrong bt inthe ‘meantime Bride interes were served “The inage betreen cretng 2 nrongly centralized ete and frg- ing Afitaner-English unity onthe bac of rca domination uly esame farther evden withthe formal extension of segregicon Ip cord with he findings ofthe South Afican Native Ase Com ‘ine, land ownership was tobe divided by “be” inorder 0 Infor dinsons of ads and thereby more easly suppres them = ‘The 191 Nate Land Ac imiing Alian residence to 7.3 percent ofthe land “reserved” for that purpose, ceased Afitaners of che ftte's commitment w acl domination Thi act thereby sought to fy whites, coumering nascent suppor for Aikaner naonalts tinder former General Hertang” Franchise ieses were addressed wth somewhat reste cognizance freon dierences with formal les entsblshed by eich province titin «national famework™ But Alkane leaders nied thatthe ‘mote iberal Cape franchise nor be enended othe now-unied coun {y, for to do so would “enable (nates to out-vor Earopean tm ntlerabesnacon’™ Instead, Cape eran would be brought ‘more int ine with the other provinces. Panchise resins in the 9sCape resulted in she 23 percent white popation shee having 8S percent of the vor by 1909 ‘Racial domination not oly encouraged white unity, thus allowing for sate consolidation, bat aso reflected the presures of dominant ‘economic interes. Milner objects of posta reconstruction wn- ‘dra anid ste “Uepended on geting the fold mines back ato fal potable produson.”” Mining fo sbundane bt low rae ore, roving the engine ofesiyderelopanent, quired pen cheap Tabor as wou ater induc prodecon’ Farmers aso seguir cheap blak abr. But sateen ABs were oily dered for having an “absence of incentive to labor.” Before she war the Bri had gun to force seh Iabor at low wages, but during the war they had een lace o proceed, fearing that doing so would Five discouraged black suppre for the Brith enue. Afr the wat ‘nd union, th then solved, valida Hobson's pedi chat "te int ets of ory (inthe Boer War] wl be represented ina large, csp, submis soppy of black and white labo." ish epital’ effor to provoke the Boer War, forcing nics tion ofthe county, pid of handsomely. The newly founded South [African sate moved to reinforce ear pracies fra doination ‘nd to encode uniform ples of labor control not preioly pos ‘ible oll or hur tates, and the Native Lands Act of 1913 esting ‘the purchase of land by “naive,” forced Acans ff land where they ‘ould be selfs, ensuring large siply of cheap labor and viding the nes to rant higher wage scents to blac abr, an ‘option ofilly decribed as "out of place Ste policies rerving the interes of ype transformed Afean ot a proecrit, wilk laborsoercive plies sesifed by ace helping to fel economic ex- pansion and sate grove Te ws ceva in the state's interest to Frokter grows suggesting 4 permive convergence of interest bee fete and itn the sent and cap" White worker interests ‘ere alo sere, fr insane with a comprehensive “color har ‘alse in 1911 o ensoe that feed black eazy ino the bor Iharket would pot daplae thou white who wee sredy advanced bythe sll. Sach segregation and ofl job isciminaton farther reduced the pice of abr by limiting Bac options, nd vied the ‘working else ito rai groupe, diminishing it potential Bagsning power A tend of strong sate intervenon fr economic gun was 96 Sey hitb ings nd oly biting is new zscoml rom appreniy refined Engh ultra chauin- finn, snened “Briah race pain,» Dest forma oi seth comoay, Lond Mine i oe gap hs nro togicsing South Aes, encouraging Beh tego nd oun tetancng he oomcon of Sons of England chek ny 2190, shoal erection in Afons ted only the our ‘recy Boe thse eres backfite, fr insice wh Alans Eeming her rn sot chine Abner nonlin gro the awe eon of the wa ong eer forma ses ‘ena aly, a the Bosh ne edt pen thecal pin mi be bn min el sing Engh ashe angange of economic oppor. Dut fs Bri offi were aoe so pet wth anetsencoeeaence “To aempe deems pope ad fl roe te ‘opponent need? ‘isn onan found xpreion inthe ney essed tal non ofthe eid tee 4 mao of whites, AP hae resogazed thr pepe: of elcnalcotl sere Bort ‘War. The nna resourced sae cul hen be wed wo scare Asner ines and defend Ataser eee Confit own conocer a fee Enh toil ceded the oil em to he Meaney Io 1910, ser 1 ice con pitng Aone agin Engl forme ary ier of the defer Ane ops, Lins Ba sed ie missed open el 1919 by iy Ja "Te 1910 eto tome ws rn, Before he war, te A anes id ben nie, prong nee yen n sept repub, The Bois had fred the Afters ogee in 1 hewiy ued wae a then watched atte Bsa red by iene of he eet who woul ne at power oer ere sepepeion Briss vicary tad delved tothe Adancs What they ad lone ben uate to scompiny war fs Seer ha bon clea! pee of he Unted Ser er he Ci Wer 2nd inposed J Crow natn. oti’ and Sons cevon Gil no signa mphantAkanernationalism, bu he rie ofreaiiepliins who hod accepted de- fest and guiely tmed to advoctingrconcliasion and dhe end of nino between Engish-pesker and Afaner. Boda and Smus Sought ro nese the reson between white unity and Afilane ‘onalsan arguing tha white “naGonal unity i enizly consistent Uvth the preserntion of our Inguage, our dios, our cull “Their sherri underplayed the exent to which Botha and Sits sought to apps the Bish. In he es of many of thle Flow ‘kaners they "deleted to the fmperis ets” Smuts in p= Cul mas stacked by he flow Boer for his support of English: [enguage education in the schools and fr his estance vo efforts a ‘msicaning a separate Aikans cule. Inthe First World War othe ad Site sided with Britain agit the Germans, who had supported the Akaer in the Boer Wat, provoking asl rebel Tom by mre site Alkane, Smuts mes remade with the ep thet of "handyman of the empire’ Nonedicess, be retained Signet popula s «hero ofthe Boer War, and ther po ‘ied the British withthe perfec vehice for ening their polis Sith impunity, appessing the Afkaners and sniping whies while Pring ined ierest Sentimental acachment fr former Boe commanders wes not he only lve maintaining white unity in the early yeas of tate bling “The further enaement oficial domination served the une purpose, in accordance with te post Boer War reasoning. Smit genelly refered t leave the elaboration of race relation forthe Fate, bat then the ise cold not be put of, he consistently upheld aca ‘lominaton on which Aner nd English cold agree and un By 1917, Shuts was pobilycommized to the exclsion of “non whites” from “common eiieaship" and the armed forces, and to "seeping [lacks] epare a moch #8 posible in oar inssuions™ (Color brs were established onthe mines and elsewhere nx eon trol, ing Alten wbaszaton, wa proposed in 192, flloved the nex yea by the cresson of spate Nate Urban Arca” This racial excsion comsaced white suppor daring the formative yea: ‘oF union, and recived the Blesing ofthe Beek Empire Changing geopolitical sod economic coniions nevertheless de stabilized he compromise arangement of the South Aicn Party {government under Botha and then Smuts, Dung the Fst World 8 ‘we ron Tie soUrH AFRICA War, when many English workers went off o fight, the proportion of Abaners working sn che mines increased. When gol profits ater fell amid posear inflaton and fl in the price of ol, the mining owes became eager to displace some ofthese white with lover Pd backs" Bo the colar tar protected white workers and thereby fffecvely rected the minimizadon of labor costs. The Chamber ‘of Mins comsordam proposed to reduce the number of served ab Sand to subsite "abode 2000 semislled whites by lower paid Macs” White workers went om sik provoking Smite owe force o quell what bad exalted int the Rand evl In March 1922, Smut lle in 7000 troops and is ai force, resting in four days ‘of conic leaving upto 220 dead Defeated by fore, Afaner workers sought to potect dhs i= terest by turing to poieal moilatin, fanning ehni animosity pint Smut’ pier Having remained loyal to Site and hs ef fos at white wy, he Aaner major now tne agin him, Smuts had demonstrated that he fore the English ming capital’ Interest over the intrest of Aianer worker. Unity as one things shooting Afianess was another Thoogh recent Scholsip st ‘quesdoned the direc ality, he Rand revole di srengthen 41924 iliance led by Bary Heraog'sAianer Navona, which defeated Smut ia eat year's lesion” The efor pared by English cxp- ital had led toa reastertion of Aaner nator, which would ph the state to atin favor of Afrikaner workers a agai the Incerets of capil. A son athe English and thee Atianer lies hd wavered fom the post Boee War "deal of ici domination une whites, they found themselves pase aside. If the elecsions of Afianer Generals Botks and then Smuts were srprising in ight of Briain’ Boer War veer, then the 1924 dec ‘on ofthe more militant Heraog was all the moreso But Bris ‘imate commiment to democticy and unity among whiter wat steafas,even to the point of empowering an Aimer national. "The British perhaps hoped tha this oatome would self asin a passe Aflaners and promote white unity. Restoring chat intrawfite Peace was ow seea to be more imporan than meeting the imme= ‘late demands of expt or the Rand revoke hd demonstrated that ‘Arkaner national could sil ereten sbi and state iy, on ‘hich all profs depended. The newly forged, increasingly rong Cena sate changed hand. ”“Tried in Holand rather thin Ben, Heraog ad peagcaly agred to union ser he Boer War and arucd at al who pve ther uncondinl loa to South Alin were Anes” eve Engloh™ Bo by 1912 he dy st Boi’ accommodation bad fom and his ene of Aine cll diesen fred is ‘ign fom Bothe's bint Theres, Heraog aged fora “gu oucan apron fo white ani, oth he Aare and Egish people remain dint eran they Arwed slong peel Toure I prea, Herg pursed hi adoccy of Aars inset secon advange, ang language to row bis net very mide He delved om prone 1928 by mang A {Stns an offal language ofthe mate Teroy waar eo pots enero fthoe who alle hi inte wake ofthe 12D seal By then moe than 30 pent tt Afoner ales wre known "por whites” whose posson srs frer eel ding the Depesion” The sat-omed ron Tu Ste Corerton ater growing sate factions employe igh roprdn of whites Th Alans -ominatedageetre se tor wu ao ssa by the sae’" With hse praca pais of Sie appro pote Alans together with his "vo seams" ‘herons Hear “ployed the ana ano ang" “While Sms ad wed al seein to aly white, Herzog pred uc polices even fare forthe sera pure of 2 Posing odsince Alone nonlin and dion Se oi polices were desi by erty vont era ad as ot rove thea "dnt nave poli cing tha South Aca was be fered by se wits Sots Nimealf wa conderned by many A ‘Sane “a Ka over These color br een = Tam is for whitey which Sant had stermped to rel 3 fi {ecoral peri snore 1926. Union among Dads ras banels revencng ts fm ning the bagining power 0 fun tha ow wags sno compete more efcorely" The Nae ant Bl cle there sqion of Asean eee eng to ole «cto agra by sifrcing farmer comol owt Bid ie y 1, Hag wa wa etl waning + ‘hr gro (ck pnt emia iS lector Tac dominaon ued ese a he bi fo encouraging Wate wniy as puede ter by an Afane acon gore tment Hstany wed spp 0 cost the Aine vung _msorgy nd to diance from English iberalism, Afrikaner naton- ali sought wo trump the competing tendency for white unity by ven further developing the rc domination seen a advanageons by both carpe These development reveal the extent 0 which coumerrendenis sichin white pole ironically reinforced rial domination for op: posing reson, As wef a eal domination proved wa he a4 ta gy for encouraging white uniy and sate building, Engst and Atte tensions sl id not deappeas. Afaner rationals co ‘mained suspicious of Eaglch Iberlsm and pushed for fre Sg regaton eo potest Afitne interes and 19 prevent any rein fo Enylsh reforms. To counter this wendency, the Eagish and ther Afrikaner allies would advocate greter sprepaton to reassure and fri over Atlan rank and ka this way, Alsbaner notonlion reinforced the impetus for white unity via rca domination. The forced and defended by violence Blas were abo excloded from Fore, eating that Southern courts would or provide “equ pro- oral ofthe subesfge involved the race specif nature of post Reconstruction sol pices wis commonly andertood. es pe ue haps most dicey reveled in the applition of such policies 0 rmulatoes. Before aboliion primary social distincdon was beeen slae and ons, with feed mulatioes treated stan intermediate ‘xegry tha didnot drupe the basic bifention After Raconsue ‘on, 3 biracial order wat reinfored in order to encourage resins econcition, with ae replacing bondage a the primary dstacoon Segregation, not reqied to demarcate difference under savey, was Imposed scoring to race. Malas ad tobe placed within this new order, to avid any sippage that might have fed Southern 1e- Senunent. Tn 1896, the US. Supreme Cour decared that csen sn "was subject to sepregasion within suppose "Separate files” Micegention and “ined marriages” were made egaL™ Whites were rer more distinguished from blacks, repadlesof mixed ances. Describing she esjecory of post Reconsriction sacl policy Jn his way runs the rik of a fie impression. What appears ache- tilly coherent, centrally contalld, and compres actully Aeveloped in elavely disorganized and potaced process. Reson- fsoction ise ha reveled the limite of the ably ofthe central fovemment ta impose it wll on the South “To enforce (bck Fighs would have reqied« concenuation of eaionalsuthorty nd {ffsenebaresscrasic administration that wae beyond the capacity of the American state” a he ing, despite sate consolation during ‘he Girl War" The abandonment of Reconstruction siguled the td of atempe at ending such centro contol and intr ce, and a resurgence of what William Jennings Bryn would de. ‘sere at sates agsin “sovereign in your loa afr” ‘Unlike South Afi's cently imposed polices, seresion ‘would be imposed unevenly and ffl, resting inthe ag bene 1877 and che fll elaborstonofim Crow inthe 1890s and thereat Even the, Ji Crow vas enforced a mach by hoodlams by loc shorty. Often the two were indistingushale, a acted ude nd ther ofl tarned a lind eye >the mobs who had word then Into ofce." More than two shousand bie (and some whites) were lynched during the last cro decades ofthe entry, wl he federal goverament ddined to iatervene™ Tack of grand design or song central action di nt amebiorte {he tac on lacks Ae they were largely concentrated in te South, ‘made Le diene in rea terms to blacks whether tei plight uaeves enforce by Wathingon, lo and ate ofcilor mobs With ng but eedomy" the nd of Resnstacton ef Hack withoat ‘he patrols seca of slavey. To mee the labor needs a= {thy wee forced int dt peoage and shrecroppig, ad in She rege wre off ad mane ajc orl prj By the 1890 Sak cos ad been relied, and were apbed most ‘only in una ae were wits nak ed more cei Rendenal pega in he North proceeded apace, defended by hte nbs and Fo svat gents Acading toa speaker the Lousiana Const! Convention i189, “the nego ia New York Boston, Philp, Cheago-»# more seeped aan {aual than in New Ons" The tem "egreppon” came to (oy the cay went cen, and pracace as etended even tothe giles of he US. Set” “Thc ersblahmen of egal acl dominion ithe South an on- timing diinnation inthe Neh Gnished the regional ang rhn ep ave by Reconstn. ea ddd the wooing css Tong sxe Ines Bu the stews sho produed rovers ec “TThe South surendsed chim to mtn economic ad pls power in the nonin rem for wc sbd rac autonomy Tene Soh soe Southern regan aonomy nd sly io appeal. Confederate spit war kept alive in sbsequent ge. {Shion by the sold Demecrae Puy contol over the eon ad ‘Shrine sagen agsiat None intrenson: White working 15S unis in both the Nor ad Sout, wa al slid by white fac aaine” Sock scolar ple and wosker ob [Sona count th mton- baling projet of diminishing r= {Boland cos ontngnsan, Bat hse outomes cul ot be aeded 5 consent of psig the lager si th pedoiatedallow- {hg such wecraonsof repel ads interes hud the fee of ‘Shrinng move epi antago whin overechig wheal larg "Whites were somewhat wid by rc, cos clas. Eznnmie de lopment ring nresred competion, Dat fst among whites hl enly ue wh acs. cas onic grew both he ‘Now and South together with rice confit" Els sought oie ne th ik ofan confi, though rac acrinstion ‘inoue White worker, indading immigrants, were apesed 1 the exlision of back compestors sd by higher wages. To a9 on ‘een, capil and workers combined to keep blacks suppres fg ing hind of ss compromise. Busines accepted the coms of rege repstion as a means of allaying white worker fers of ack ‘Conpotion, while eesionally us cheaper lack labor to wnderat ‘thes and hold down their wages AS Willamson concludes: Barnes exits to make money. Sereated fies were mar ex- pee than unegrepeed lism ht bane ith ng Fepied faces rested oncoming Segregation. But dordr snd ‘nese deroy busine altogether Ifthe len wis to be ded by segrepson, basics realy adap and pase he ons long" Economic development and the esions it broaght did contribute tothe enforcement of racial domination, Bat white capitan labor had contrary and of incerally divided incre. Racial domination ann den be atwibted to narrow or ufo cas iter ‘ead, clas confice and internal cles division help to explain the ‘dil caer, Racal dontoation telpng to unify whites ws whitey, ‘erved to diminish cas confie more than it exlsvly served the Inwress of anyone dass or faction thereof. Building on pir ide ‘logical and cle prejudice, both white capital and whiee workers fartcpted. As De Boirconeladd, "the white workers. ae jut 1 culpable asthe white owner of capi” Particular polices il Aieed by region, with Washing etecvely ling tach rein 4 nay. Bat in sm, the vregnted racial order preetved eee, avoiding the economiedslocaon of Farther regional or class wae, ‘Noreen Republcns sill oa oceasin pushed for seforms, but their lick of socesagnn demonstees the inpews vo unify whites policy and economy ia ace. EH 10 repeal the Fifteenth Amendment were resisted and det peoage was challenged in che cary events century, bate amendment and restrictions os tito” remained unenforced. The most notable step at Nrchers ‘efor was the proposed "Fors Bil” ofthe 1890s, which threatened ‘gin to snd federal ofc South to ence “that every man who ened wo wote has an opportuni to este his vote fee.” Guar ttceing the Eanchise wa dscbed by he bls pporere a 3 a tional obligation, The bills leading advoate, Henry Cabot Lodge, argued that Hacks dere “some beer rover” for their "oy, 18We owe them no more and no let than we ove all American tiiens.” Boe even Loge acknowledged tht “the negro question” remained “a mater of ary pli, dividing secsons and heping sve seesional animosis and agian... Each state and each com ‘munity me work ot its on saaton,” een at heared tha the ‘Eenchise is diferent question." The eae lope of ewig soch ‘eee t loc authority soa dampen regional sptagonism again won the dy. Souther abjeedons agains Norther efor wo again “oppress the people” were given grester weight than ay moral ob- ligation ro blacks Having pad in the House, the Force Bl at defeated in the Seat, Mack denfranchsement proceeded farther, ‘nd the felerl goverment consinsed tallow Jim Crow. Eaforcing the black franchive continued to be st wide forthe larger goal of ations consolidation, By the end ofthe century, reponalanimosny had sigieandy sued, celped by the pupesefl allowing of racial domination to ‘neourage reptonal reconciliation. Symbol dh ictory, President ‘MeKinley vised Alsbua i 198, joining a "prolonged celebration ‘of secdonal reconlion. singing both Yankee Doodle and Dini Wah the consolidation afin Crow in the South, America ‘entered what has beea described asthe golden age of raisin the [North well") The racial order was eefirmed both damestly zd iteration, Immigration was rested according to rae cat- ‘pores, anderen Native Americans were subject renewed repre ‘Son pera andthe Spanish-American Wat placed milions of Crim and Pace peoples ander American rl, wih thee rab- jest peoples popularly viewed as “a varied anartnent of infor “AS thefts of the American centry were enjoyed the cae of the ere rina contiee began to he Ta 1912 Soutern-bora Democrat, Woodrow Wilson, was elected president. Southerners re- ‘turned eo postions of power in Washingan, and even black federal che servants were sbjeced to segregation,” Racial domination, = tonal econiiton, national nity and prose all grew together. ‘The wadom ofthe founding fhe’ federal, balancing enel sau state powers inorder w hold roether adverse nation of hie, wns celebrated anew. Reconstruction reforms were remorpectivly de ‘eve at 2 blunder,” wid the "race problem” left be worked out inthe South. The pital episodes ofthe Civil War and Re- onstruction faded ino memory se aerations Contratizing Per and Greater Waite Unity Wich Recontrog, te United Sats verge rm he a hat South Ae would take. Bu by the late mieten sentry, the couy had overdo» patern smi ota Soh Ain ‘coding or loving focal dosnnton to encourage aon ate Consldvon among ies. The South wa pps by allowing for Jim Grow. Thi angerent had ited eu padaly de ‘ishing sectonal nino, mich sx seen would contin tine tension in South Abo Southerner sn Norres eg 1 converge ntoaly economy and poli A tensions Binh, cml sat sory nue sd weet me! ee omic and geopoa hllenges. Evers het cena stn ‘ould rerum to apy i rete stength tp a nd Jn ‘Grow; pthed by rig ack promt se i omer to “heal he ‘oil of rice and to coma thi ew chlenge Yo natonste {iy we hls Chaper9. The fc he on how sone Sat eonsolstion emerged sre fly, om she asf race om taco, ad wa hen red apis ‘Cen sate story pil expuded to ead of he economic ishocaon of the Grest Depesin. The spectace of widespread "denon through ofl oftheir wn coal popl op posto rl nrvenden ino es fsa aly pe oe Sie of he pbc aim vente Soot, ng come to se Fgh, advoated sronger conta! mahorty to meet Prose ‘ees! Present Brann D, Roorevl encosraged this ow and tough deter: Hisadninronexded he del machine, raving sy the stonomy of te wate, hfangpowee evar the centr the eso he momen, edn war agin recone ‘4 though the rail rr ridley ae “The New Deal reprventd a reurgence of cetalized power not seen since Reconstrcion, Ba ale purposely sill remake tring the demon of ce elo ad Southern essance Wh poor bist sulleng dspropotonacly fom the Depron bent ‘rom new forms of ssaaoee aa sone pang, toy weve nok usSree yh rans aa hy were en impli ded. ‘any polities ensred thi esl Eajoying dominance in their e- som Southern Democrats wer offen aeied reli, galing se Forty and commitee chaiemanchips im Congress. Thy wsed thet over to prevent federal economieinerventon fom threatening + {al domination Fr instance, arcalrl and domesc workers Were ‘clad fom Socal Security and Old Age Insurance, leaving ei Hone of blake unooverd, With the federal boresseray tll under= evlope, id to Dependent Children and other programs were let {o nates to adnuniter, and Southern sates wee thereby fc wo dix ‘imine Proposed anlynching leplason and fiat extend the ‘eanchise wo Hacks inthe Sou were considered by FDR “oo hot to touch") The president fared dha adaresing such sues would "tgonive those Souther legis on whom he depended to pss the New Deal, whch he considered more important than addresing ‘ack concerns pert. The South had regained its plc foothold in Washington, with Northern Democrats consrsined by the l= ce with Souther Democrat. Tncremed fara power isnot applied immedisely to race re- form, but did erate the potenti for such rforen alter dat.” ‘Nien Americans embraced ths expeceon and in grate for thet limited ene fom the New Deal bie thee support the Demoriie ary, by then the leading advocate of eer imeren- ‘son Jim Czow lved on, though the wsjeory of growing federal omer posed frre thet to lca segeepaton ast had under Re- onsricon. Buta longs most lacks remained in the South nd ‘declranchsss, they cold not exert the ful potential of elector pressure for elorms including effanchisemen. This wcous cele epee frm becoming a more prominent sue atthe cine "Economie anton and new migration patere began #0 an ermine the peor ts. With dramatic bck migration north pat~ teuirly afer coton producion inthe South cllaped, and with tleceasod white migration during the Ft Woeld War, Northern Industry was increasingly ager to employ a greater proporon of Cheap bls Iabor And in Nortber manafactrng, blacks were (ved = nkebreskers to diminish morkng-das bargining power tnd suppres white wages Capital beefed fom such dide-and- rule ace by defesting white labor host onto acs and away 146 om employers This ye of resenment exploded in the Bast St. Louis riot of 1917, when white workers actualy stacked Black. With rig Back empoynene inthe Nord, white unionists began tosh tsk eeoginng shat their tres wou beer served bya crogsraceallunce. By 1940, the Congress of Industrial Organ- ‘aon (CIO) had unionized a hal milion blacks, insisting on their ented inclaon afer merging with he more conserve Aer- ‘ean Federation of Labor (AP of L).”" Disagreement over the inl sion of blacks within che ion movement remained ‘While whie worker ia the Nor beg o abandon segregation, the entliztion of power unde the New Deal was farther consol. ned by he Second Wed Wat. The war ert apd its aftermath then further undermine the ail order. The wa self brought in ‘reed nd employment for women and backs replacing white ‘le abres called int service, Other Backs joined the army, where they “had a chance en compete and showed they could exo" All ‘eer, inching Backs, were rewarded for therefore within {reised educational opprtenises provided by the GL Bl of igh Bar the impact ofthe war apeead beyond such policies, rising black ‘pecans of reform as rena for their sevice and i beeping rth the Allie? sntiact rhetoric The war bad broken the olton {GF America and of black Americans, with unforeseen consequences, Amerisn embarrismene athe contadiion bree the an rit rhetoric of the war and segegadon at home was made all the ‘more ste afer the war bythe county’ merging nermatinal po ‘Sion snd concer abou is reptaon. The war had shaken Eato pan colon contol over Aca and Ass andthe Unived Stace wat ger fo win alls among newly independene sates that might och tise be kt to the Soviet Union” The USS. government wt therfore eager to presen the bse pole image of domestic race relist the wotd. President Harry Truman, eager for Norther Black vores, appointed «nana commision ang for rform and Aesgreatd the amy. But ater many Southern Democrats bolted the pay and refed t sippore him for election in 198, Troan srs ner rltvely Be pressure on cl rights and largely ignored the ire of race "Wher te executive bach altered the jadcry took up the ead From the late 1930s the US. Supreme Court had wpheld + mamber of reform inedveton, Roaring and eleoral eign. But She ea “7bomb came in 1958 withthe Broo v aod of Edson decision, returning Poy. Fergwon and mandsig school desegrepnton. “The Cone concluded that “eduction ede ont inportant faction ‘of sue and foes! govereac" and tht dsvimiatory plies e Tabled by such authorities were inconsitent with nainal noc sd requirements or “good cizenship." Inernatonl reparation, ote or inencein brie before the Csr certainly hada bearing fn this Jeon; bt dhis was a scondary cancer. More ro the pi Broom was a capstone co the new dic iperss upholding fede “A more progressive Court, encouraged bythe post-New Deal ex pansion of entra authori, endorsed federal intervention into the Sst bastion of stat’ right. Loca auhoryy over race ed been inte afer Reconsroction. Buti the sterseing decades, fer] ower had grown by leaving the dvie lve of race where icy, Ind was approaching effin arengh o addr thier head on Tnetionaly cr not the Coure acted on this yam, helping to et the cour on 2 new eajectoy, pushed much farther by subsequent back protest demanding inchson in the sation, Despite naonalconclstion, sectional animosity remined an impediment, and. the promise of federal intervention remained Stronger than the rei. The “deliberate sped of school desere ftom di not materiale. Ba black te Cour’ decison meant that or the fe tne sce Reconstruction they fl the eral gor= fren was acl on thei side" The implication was even broader than school desegregation; Bram. Bart of Eun pe ounced segregation prs tobe discriminatory and unconstiiona. blacks henceforth began eo engage in direc acon ren dhe relaely conservative Present Dwight D. Eisenhower could no avoid the shifting terrain of groving ental author and Drssre for race reforms signaled by the Bros decison and the ‘Soergent cv righs morement Eisenhower hinself was reluctant ‘Shullenge racial norms, fvored gradual change, opposed “wei min- fing cross ace, and wis elacan abou feral intervenion,™ But 4 commander-in-chief he took very seriously any meace of ins ‘ection ehrstening conta sate authority, Sch atest wis pod by the aces of resurgent Kn Kr Klan and of White iden’ Council which emerged hroughou the Sosth in the wake of Brom, and de rofl of Arhanes to plement coat ordered school de 198 serregation in ts apt. Eisenhower responded by sng the army {o Litde Rook, the Sst sack commiment of federal troops since Reconstracon"Soutbeen blacks understood this inerenon st & dizer challenge wo see rights. Eenhowersobequently sported the Civil Rights Ace of 1987 and erested Commission of Ci Righs, whose representatives were wecomel by Southern lacks st 4 signal dae "the Big Government has realy come sl the way down here to help wt" Toke F. Kennedy shared Eienhower’s pois concem thi d= tril intervention on the sue of rice would heighten sertional ani- most, cos votes and farther divide the mation Southerners wed Kennedy nc to “interfer inthe afr ofa sovercign sates” and Kenney hel was concerned shout further antagoniing Southern white Diierats. "The Kennedys didnot want a rock the oat. They lp their je onthe prize of sold Democratic Souther vote. They (4d aoe wane start another cil war" Kennedy’ dena wat the same ficed by FDR, and like Rocreee he sooght to projet + prograive image without aking firm action on dvs hse of ace Kennedy had promistd an executive order to desegrgat federally supported housing with "stoke of pen.” Bela sen thosands of pens tothe White Hous, but the order remained unsigned. At the ‘ane time, Kennedy continued to use Harms Woflor, hi sient fori righ, a fer to esi presse fr fuer reforms. The sdministason ltr wied to divert such presre nco more manage: thle activ for voter regeston™ ‘Despite his elucsnce, Kennedy like Fisenhower was not wing to see central shorty defed and was even mere idelogcly p= sSousnss and wn” roving the ANC" The Youth League fel er nfo ferns an nd eet ns prcgton by an eres wed pope Mew Cpeciog dnd genet lene on tack er would prone rene oth be te “The ANCsnnpaanding psec equsing reforms wis nose dramas abandoned afer he 18 clacton of be Neo ary ses imostono pete Whi ian sate bung nd ial “mination excels igh pin. Soproaton wo rence oten- ‘Md and ended Pe pecines were coninced at ey bad dera pose to ey onc he Yt Leap ene foes more aeons ang of opponsion” Lal bythe Youth gus ths more mun smc wn ved snd implement Te bi, te You Laue’ Progmme of Acn, ling mse Ste pots and noe dence, ws approve. Fis ene ftuly Td to the Defunce Campaign of prota in 1952 which insted ANC msabahp abo 100,00°" By then the You Taga ffi dak Sotelo the ANC a= wile “Foc more para enna, he morte open <> atcznd Race aft Semin the sine gosto o South Aiea Soucy?” The winreed cal onder father seed 4 common [Econ con oe lon 8 news fa epepton spied inayng frm ao elu ‘Stns repos of these groupe one cei oat an ponenaance wih he ANC™ The banned Communi Pay ‘thet llc sumang to lomo eld hae ErSuct bet sas exlton old be chalnged an ojere we tecouy scl yal itn he ance Tha ch Ying ost ee incrprsed wn te res of wht became the Conran ogee th many shred Made’ view “as fete cara in hse day whic wa og han what Cas fe Tos the Aline ened he Fes Care, ing wy or mal denecroy, somewhat on he pre 198 tally divisive ies of tcie and economic resin. Oppot- tion in itself provide a fim foundation for uy, feared by ate fics who were inereasngly concerned tht Afri were Becom= ing more and more plicaly conscious When such unity found ‘expresion in 2 farther eposon of protest afer the Sharpevile ase secre of peacefl ps law protors in 1960, the stite banned the ‘major opposition groups. The ANC then eae elf in ele {hascent guess movement ‘Despite more militant tats, he ANC and ales sl remained selavely mods in der goals On economics, the Freedom Charter fled for nationalization ofthe mines, but not for 4 more genes] Challenge fo base rope relations. ‘The Cotnmunit Pas ado- ‘ated «national democratic revolason aa precondition for amore ‘andamentl economic eansformation, The ANC ered the for. mer withoot const iself the later The prgmati ogc of ‘his poston wa that refisributon could nly be planned and enrig ‘ut ater che poor msjrey had been incled inthe pli, and dat ‘nly limited change cold be achieved at once" Cre suggested ‘thatthe omision of economic rediriibtion fom immediate ANC goals insted sogesed continued sppeasement of the white eb Tshment, bu the ANC argued the its demand for pola nln vas byitelfa radial challeag tothe acily ordered tate and white rig. ‘The ANC did ot simply cll inchson of those rail ate fore ecded by apartheid, but aso advocate hae all such ste- fone be abandoned in « nonraial sats. This elise stance dh Bot preclude the ANC from reogniing racial eateries they had been imposed Racaly defined, diner groupe mere incorpraed into the ANC allance, But che goal of nonratal impy hat, ‘sc disinetions would be abandoned afer incisive national denoe- ‘acy hal been achieved, And Maras assumed that clas then would become the more presing identy and ise, acing economic ans fermation. A more radia ideological challenger racial domination iscficalt wo imagine, bo onracalism can also be seen a2 response to sate pois. The ANC remained commited to the pine of ‘onal, conden that with a black mori he extension of democracy in el would ensure vee ‘Een within the eppostion, noe all pred withthe ANC'sieol- ‘ogy and strategy. More alte Aan nationale within he Youth 199“League were dismayed by the ANC’ allance with nonsAfians,Tn 199 this group Broke aay from the ANC ro frm the Pan Ale ‘ais Congress (PAC), open only to those giving “primary loyalty” to Arca and thereby effectively exchoding clouds, Asay and Uvhiter The PAC stacked the ANC's lak of commitment 10 o- homie change, bu aso dismissed Comamaniss as whie ideology Inconsistent with Afican traditions of communal and sharing. ‘They a dinpraged oneal for iy abandonment of Afiean sutionalsm, which the PAC embraced a «power serve mo- Silsing Healy. The Acne setumed tha her retoric would inspire mass instrecsn, whic later the PAC's sll geil aetir~ iis were intended to spark The ANC alowed ileeecoaduding that minority regime el in power by Farce would not accu m0 previo aterpted Gandhian acs fa ater years the ANC mains inl cul disobtience wile pursued an organized guerilla cam pln, argc tate inellinsnotao ch foment insurrection So une the white reine iological and strategie dagrement and basic orguizationa ‘competion provee! considers wil brercen previous lies di ‘ied inthe ANC and PAC.” In pre, dhisension elected the de- Temivenes of those within the ANC who earier had been or Femainedsympathese to Aicn naooalian. They well undestod the emotional drawing power of Afcans acting alone 2 response to heightened represen, And inter years the PAC di ive the ANC mach to wory about, growing gulch in sie. Bar during the ‘eens of eu ht followed banning withthe ANC in 1960, the PAC was or by edershipdispts, corrpsion, and ack of nding, Teaving weakened by she ine was again lepalized in 1990. By ones the ANC reined wel faded and organize, its poplsty tobiered by mote eectve guerlia actives and by the eareilly owrshed image of Neon Mandela in pron. The ANC. w Cnetge ff banning and ele with much gener sent nd pop- sli "The 1960s were the high pone ofthe spared ste. Oppasion haa been lagelycrohed and Verwoerd’ sjtematc desi of cial tlominaon wasp into place with the costrucon of separate homelands for etuded AfScan. Asians and coloured found them ‘eles inereasingly sje to patted regulasons that weated ther Inore 4s subordinates than intermedia. Demands for sil in- hos aor fd the growth of urban aren, schools, and universes, al oficial separated by rail groups. For instance, the numberof ‘Alvcns enrolled in separate residential universe ose fom 619 in 1959 co 2,608 in 1971 and to 12,204 by 1982, with the uber of such institutions growing from one in 1959 to Bre by 1982. The umber of Aficas employed in manufirring grew fom 308,332 1960 780,914 by 1980." Sach developement and dependenes on tack abor were seen by the sate a consent wth or atleast co tunable within, apache ‘Unintentional, however, apartheid and economic growth served to concentrate backs, exerting long-standing white fy ofthe ‘Mac majonty. Concentration nbn ses ade orgaisaon mare feasible; in segregated township, fries, and eduction isi Sons blacks met acros etic ins, providing = lous and ning target for seeing in each other a common identity. Speaking on bal of s new generation of backs coming of age under spit, Steve ‘Biko argo that very ficet of my fe fa] heen cred and shaped witha se ‘ones of separte devlopmene What Hacks ding ‘merely to respond oa station a which they nd there the jects of wit acim. We ae in he pstion in wich wea beens of the coor af our ain, We are callctey sere ‘gaint ~ what an be more lpia! than for us to ep 8 pow" ‘The Black Consciousness movement founded by Biko in 1969 em braced imposed rail density aa bai freestnce, defining ond Jncloing 26 “bac ll hose subject wo apartheid Ths, state con- soliton of racial domination alo consolidated opposing rca den ‘Sy cating across cata diferenes and the ofl stpories of African, coloured and Asn Slfdloding ofl vcws an bed survey findings that most coloaredr did not fivor an allance with ‘ck mised the powerfal emergence fj such an alliance The highewater mark of racial domination produced » orespending!y ‘igh point of ued racial deny, hereby inpting snobieaion. "The Black Consciousness (BC) movement had orpniational co ponents, but was most prominently an ideological epession of a ‘unity and opposition. BC employed the state's own thereto ei force popular concioussesr of racial domination and the sperton