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Airflow, Lung Volumes, and

Flow-Volume Loop
by James M. OBrien, Jr., MD, MSc
Airflow and lung volume measurements can be used to differentiate obstructive from
restrictive pulmonary disorders, to characterize severity, and to measure responses to
therapy. Measurements are typically reported as absolute flows and volumes and as
percentages of predicted values using data derived from large populations of people
presumed to have normal lung function. Variables used to predict normal values
include age, sex, ethnicity, and height.
Clinical Calculator: PFT Predicted Values for Girls MultiCalc
Clinical Calculator: PFT Predicted Values for Boys MultiCalc
Clinical Calculator: PFT Adjusted Predicted Values for Women MultiCalc
Clinical Calculator: PFT Adjusted Predicted Values for Men MultiCalc

Airflow
Quantitative measures of inspiratory and expiratory flow are obtained by forced
spirometry. Nose clips are used to occlude the nares.
In assessments of expiratory flow, patients inhale as deeply as possible, seal their lips
around a mouthpiece, and exhale as forcefully and completely as possible into an
apparatus that records the exhaled volume (forced vital capacity [FVC]) and the volume
exhaled in the first second (the forced expiratory volume in 1 sec [FEV 1 ]see Figure:
Normal spirogram.). Most currently used devices measure only airflow and integrate
time to estimate the expired volume.
In assessments of inspiratory flow and volume, patients exhale as completely as
possible, then forcibly inhale. These maneuvers provide several measures. The FVC is
the maximal amount of air that the patient can forcibly exhale after taking a maximal
inhalation. The FEV 1 is the most reproducible flow parameter and is especially useful in
diagnosing and monitoring patients with obstructive pulmonary disorders (eg, asthma,
COPD). FEV 1 and FVC help differentiate obstructive and restrictive lung disorders. A

normal FEV 1 makes irreversible obstructive lung disease unlikely whereas a normal FVC
makes restrictive disease unlikely.

Normal spirogram.
FEF 2575% =forced expiratory flow during expiration of 25 to 75% of the FVC; FEV 1 =
forced expiratory volume in the first second of forced vital capacity maneuver; FVC =
forced vital capacity (the maximum amount of air forcibly expired after maximum
inspiration).

The forced expiratory flow averaged over the time during which 25 to 75% of the FVC is
exhaled may be a more sensitive marker of mild, small airway airflow limitation than the
FEV 1 , but the reproducibility of this variable is poor. The peak expiratory flow (PEF) is
the peak flow occurring during exhalation. This variable is used primarily for home
monitoring of patients with asthma and for determining diurnal variations in airflow.
Clinical Calculator: Peak Expiratory Flow Prediction
Interpretation of these measures depends on good patient effort, which is often
improved by coaching during the actual maneuver. Acceptable spirograms demonstrate
good test initiation (eg, a quick and forceful onset of exhalation), no coughing, smooth
curves, and absence of early termination of expiration (eg, minimum exhalation time of
6 sec with no change in volume for the last 1 sec). Reproducible efforts agree within 5%
or 100 mL with other efforts. Results not meeting these minimum acceptable criteria
should be interpreted with caution.

Lung volume
Lung volumes (see Figure: Normal lung volumes.) are measured by determining
functional residual capacity (FRC) and with spirometry.

Normal lung volumes.

ERV = expiratory reserve volume; FRC = functional residual capacity; IC = inspiratory
capacity; IRV = inspiratory reserve volume; RV = residual volume; TLC = total lung
capacity; VC = vital capacity; V T = tidal volume.
FRC = RV + ERV; IC =V T + IRV; VC =V T + IRV + ERV.

Clinical Calculator: Lung Volume Multicalc

FRC is measured using gas dilution techniques or a plethysmograph (which is more
accurate in patients who have airflow limitation and trapped gas).
Gas dilution techniques include
Nitrogen washout
Helium equilibration
With nitrogen washout, the patient exhales to FRC and then breathes from a spirometer
containing 100% O 2 . The test ends when the exhaled nitrogen concentration is zero.
The collected volume of exhaled nitrogen is equal to 81% of the initial FRC.
With helium equilibration, the patient exhales to FRC and then is connected to a closed
system containing known volumes of helium and O 2 . Helium concentration is
measured until it is the same on inhalation and exhalation, indicating it has equilibrated
with the volume of gas in the lung, which can then be estimated from the change in
helium concentration that has occurred.
Both of these techniques may underestimate FRC because they measure only the lung
volume that communicates with the airways. In patients with severe airflow limitation, a
considerable volume of trapped gas may communicate very poorly or not at all.
Body plethysmography uses Boyles law to measure the compressible gas volume
within the thorax and is more accurate than gas dilution techniques. While sitting in an

airtight box, the patient tries to inhale against a closed mouthpiece from FRC. As the
chest wall expands, the pressure in the closed box rises. Knowing the pre-inspiratory
box volume and the pressure in the box before and after the inspiratory effort allows
for calculation of the change in box volume, which must equal the change in lung
volume.
Knowing FRC allows the lungs to be divided into subvolumes that are either measured
with spirometry or calculated (see Figure: Normal lung volumes.). Normally the FRC
represents about 40% of total lung capacity (TLC).

Flow-volume loop
In contrast to the spirogram, which displays airflow (in L) over time (in sec), the flowvolume loop (see Figure: Flow-volume loops.) displays airflow (in L/sec) as it relates to
lung volume (in L) during maximal inspiration from complete exhalation (residual
volume [RV]) and during maximum expiration from complete inhalation (TLC). The
principal advantage of the flow-volume loop is that it can show whether airflow is
appropriate for a particular lung volume. For example, airflow is normally slower at low
lung volumes because elastic recoil is lower at lower lung volumes. Patients with
pulmonary fibrosis have low lung volumes and their airflow appears to be decreased if
measured alone. However, when airflow is presented as a function of lung volume, it
becomes apparent that airflow is actually higher than normal (as a result of the
increased elastic recoil characteristic of fibrotic lungs).

Flow-volume loops.
(A) Normal. Inspiratory limb of loop is symmetric and convex. Expiratory limb is linear.
Airflow at the midpoint of inspiratory capacity and airflow at the midpoint of expiratory
capacity are often measured and compared. Maximal inspiratory airflow at 50% of
forced vital capacity (MIF 50% FVC) is greater than maximal expiratory airflow at 50%
FVC (MEF 50% FVC) because dynamic compression of the airways occurs during
exhalation.
(B) Obstructive disorder (eg, emphysema, asthma). Although all airflow is diminished,
expiratory prolongation predominates, and MEF < MIF. Peak expiratory flow is
sometimes used to estimate degree of airway obstruction but depends on patient
effort.
(C) Restrictive disorder (eg, interstitial lung disease, kyphoscoliosis). The loop is
narrowed because of diminished lung volumes. Airflow is greater than normal at
comparable lung volumes because the increased elastic recoil of lungs holds the
airways open.

(D) Fixed obstruction of the upper airway (eg, tracheal stenosis, goiter). The top and
bottom of the loops are flattened so that the configuration approaches that of a
rectangle. Fixed obstruction limits flow equally during inspiration and expiration, and
MEF = MIF.
(E) Variable extrathoracic obstruction (eg, unilateral vocal cord paralysis, vocal cord
dysfunction). When a single vocal cord is paralyzed, it moves passively with pressure
gradients across the glottis. During forced inspiration, it is drawn inward, resulting in a
plateau of decreased inspiratory flow. During forced expiration, it is passively blown
aside, and expiratory flow is unimpaired. Therefore, MIF 50% FVC < MEF 50% FVC.
(F) Variable intrathoracic obstruction (eg, tracheomalacia). During a forced
inspiration, negative pleural pressure holds the floppy trachea open. With forced
expiration, loss of structural support results in tracheal narrowing and a plateau of
diminished flow. Airflow is maintained briefly before airway compression occurs.

Flow-volume loops require that absolute lung volumes be measured. Unfortunately,

many laboratories simply plot airflow against the FVC; the flow-FVC loop does not have
an inspiratory limb and therefore does not provide as much information.

Patterns of Abnormalities
Most common respiratory disorders can be categorized as obstructive or restrictive on
the basis of airflow and lung volumes ( Characteristic Physiologic Changes Associated
With Pulmonary Disorders).

Characteristic Physiologic Changes Associated With Pulmonary

Disorders
Measure

Obstructive Disorders

Restrictive Disorders

Mixed Disorders

FEV 1 /FVC Decreased

Normal or increased

Decreased

FEV 1

Decreased

Decreased, normal, or increased

Decreased

FVC

Decreased or normal

Decreased

Decreased or normal

TLC

Normal or increased

Decreased

Decreased, normal, or increased

RV

Normal or increased

Decreased

Decreased, normal, or increased

FEV 1 = forced expiratory volume in 1 sec; FVC = forced vital capacity; RV = residual volume; TLC = total lung
capacity.

Obstructive disorders
Obstructive disorders are characterized by a reduction in airflow, particularly the FEV 1
and the FEV 1 expressed as a percentage of the FVC (FEV 1 /FVC). The degree of
reduction in FEV 1 compared with predicted values determines the degree of the
obstructive defect ( Severity of Obstructive and Restrictive Lung Disorders*). Obstructive
defects are caused by
Increased resistance to airflow due to abnormalities within the airway lumen (eg,
tumors, secretions, mucosal thickening)

Changes in the wall of the airway (eg, contraction of smooth muscle, edema)
Decreased elastic recoil (eg, the parenchymal destruction that occurs in
emphysema)
With decreased airflow, expiratory times are longer than usual, and air may become
trapped in the lungs due to incomplete emptying, thereby increasing lung volumes (eg,
TLC, RV).

Severity of Obstructive and Restrictive Lung Disorders*

Obstructive

Restrictive

Severity
FEV 1 /FVC (% predicted)

FEV 1 (% predicted)

TLC (% predicted)

Normal

70

80

80

Mild

< 70

80

7079

Moderate

< 70

50 FEV 1 <80

5069

Severe

< 70

30 FEV 1 <50

< 50

< 30 or < 50 with chronic respiratory failure

Very severe < 70

*Severity is based primarily on FEV 1 /FVC and FEV 1 for obstructive disorders and on TLC for restrictive
disorders.
Criteria

vary by guideline.

FEV 1 = forced expiratory volume in 1 sec; FVC = forced vital capacity; TLC = total lung capacity.

Improvement of FEV 1 and FEV 1 /FVC by 12% or 200 mL with the administration of a
bronchodilator confirms the diagnosis of asthma or airway hyperresponsiveness.
However, some patients with asthma can have normal pulmonary function and normal
spirometric parameters between exacerbations. When suspicion of asthma remains
high despite normal spirometry results, provocative testing with methacholine, a
synthetic analog of acetylcholine that is a nonspecific bronchial irritant, is indicated to
detect or exclude bronchoconstriction. In a methacholine challenge test, spirometric
parameters are measured at baseline and after inhalation of increasing concentrations
of methacholine. Laboratories have different definitions of airway hyperreactivity, but in

general patients showing at least a 20% drop in FEV 1 from baseline (PC 20 ) when the
concentration of inhaled methacholine is < 1 mg/mL is considered diagnostic of
increased bronchial reactivity, whereas a PC 20 > 16 mg/mL excludes the diagnosis. PC
20 values

between 1 and 16 mg/mL are inconclusive.

Exercise testing may be used to detect exercise-induced bronchoconstriction but is less

sensitive than methacholine challenge testing for detecting general airway
hyperresponsiveness. The patient does a constant level of work on a treadmill or cycle
ergometer for 6 to 8 min at an intensity selected to produce a heart rate of 80% of
predicted maximum heart rate. The FEV 1 and FVC are measured before and 5, 15, and
30 min after exercise. Exercise-induced bronchospasm reduces FEV 1 or FVC 15% after
exercise. Eucapnic voluntary hyperventilation (EVH) may also be used to diagnose
exercise-induce bronchoconstriction and is the method accepted by the International
Olympic Committee. EVH involves hyperventilation of a gas mixture of 5% CO 2 and 21%
O 2 at 85% of maximum voluntary ventilation for 6 min. FEV 1 is then measured at
specified intervals after the test. As with other bronchial provocation tests, the drop in
FEV 1 that is diagnostic of exercise-induced bronchospasm varies by laboratory.

Restrictive disorders
Restrictive disorders are characterized by a reduction in lung volume, specifically a TLC <
80% of the predicted value. The decrease in TLC determines the severity of restriction (
Severity of Obstructive and Restrictive Lung Disorders*). The decrease in lung volumes
causes a decrease in airflow (reduced FEV 1 see Figure: Flow-volume loops. B).
However, airflow relative to lung volume is increased, so the FEV 1 /FVC ratio is normal
or increased.
Restrictive defects are caused by the following:
Loss in lung volume (eg, lobectomy)
Abnormalities of structures surrounding the lung (eg, pleural disorder, kyphosis,
obesity)
Weakness of the inspiratory muscles of respiration (eg, neuromuscular disorders)
Abnormalities of the lung parenchyma (eg, pulmonary fibrosis)
The feature common to all is a decrease in the compliance of the lungs, the chest wall,
or both.
Last full review/revision April 2014 by James M. OBrien, Jr., MD, MSc
Tests of Pulmonary Function (PFT)

Overview of Tests of Pulmonary Function

Airflow, Lung Volumes, and Flow-Volume Loop
Measurement of Gas Exchange
Tests of Respiratory Muscle Function
Exercise Testing
Overview of Tests of Pulmonary Function
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