Photonic S

UniversityofPennsylvania
EMTMProgram
Photonics
TheBasicsandApplicationsof
ModernPhotonics,FiberOpticsCommunications,
andOptical&ImageSignalProcessing
Winter19981999
(Seepage4forinitialassignment.)
DwightL.Jaggard
ProfessorofElectricalEngineering
EXEN625:Photonics
Winter1998
MooreSchoolofElectricalEngineering
UniversityofPennsylvania
Philadelphia,PA19104
USA
<jaggard@seas.upenn.edu>
215.898.8241
2
1991,1992,1993,1994,1995,1996,1997,1998byDwightL.Jaggard
Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthisworkcoveredbythecopyrighthereonmaybereproducedorusedinanyformorby
anymeanswithoutwrittenpermissionoftheauthor.
EXEN625:Photonics
Winter1998
EXEN625:Photonics
AbbreviatedCourseSyllabus
People:
D.L.Jaggard,Professor,UniversityofPennsylvania(jaggard@seas.upenn.edu).
ThomasWu,Consultant&Grader,UniversityofPennsylvania(xwu@ee.upenn.edu).
Appointments:ContactMs.JanetChinat215.898.8241or<jschin@seas.upenn.edu>.
CourseObjectiveandDescription:
Thiscourseprovidesablendofphotonicfundamentalsandapplicationstothefastmoving
technology involved in optical communication systems and devices. Photonics is becoming
increasinglyimportantaslimitationsofspeed,sizeandbandwidthaffectmanyelectronicdevicesand
systems. Herethefundamentals ofwavesandtheirinteractions withstructures andmaterials are
combined with the application ofthese effects to lasers, other electrooptical devices, and optical
systemsandnetworks. Thecoursecoversopticalwaveproperties;fiberandintegratedopticswith
applicationstoopticalcommunications;lasersandtheiroperationanduses;selectedopticaldevices;
anintroductiontoopticalsignalprocessing;andselectedreviewsofemergingphotonictechnologies
includingopticalnetworksandarchitectures.Youwilldevelopanoverviewofmodernphotonics,a
understandingofopticalcommunicationssystems,andaknowledgeofphotonicsintechnology.
CourseOutline:
I.
RoleofPhotonicsandFiberOptics
A.
LasersandTheirUses
B.
FiberOpticsandOpticalCommunicationSystems
C.
IntegratedOptics
D.
OpticalSignalProcessing
II.
IntroductiontoLasersandLight
A.
LaserLightvs.NaturalLight
B.
OverviewofLaserOperation
C.
TypesofLasers
D.
LaserBeamOutput
III.
BasicsofOptics(orOpticswithaLittleMath)
A.
SomeBasicsofWaves
B.
OpticalMaterials
C.
Reflection
D.
Refraction
E.
Diffraction
F.
Coherence
IV.
PrinciplesofLaserOperation(orOpticswithaLittlePhysics)
A.
Overview
B.
AtomicSystem
C.
LaserCavitiesandOutput
D.
LaserDesign
E.
LaserTypesandModificationsandTheirApplications(orOpticswithaFewPictures)
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V.
VI.
VI.
VII.
FiberandGuidedWaveOptics(orOpticswithMirrors)
A.
OpticalFibers
B.
ThinFilmIntegratedOptics
C.
ApplicationstoOpticalCommunicationsandOpticalSystems
D.
ClassProject
OpticalSystemsandNetworks
A.
Devices
B.
Networks
C.
Architecture
ApplicationsofHolographyandOpticalSignalProcessing
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Photonics
Readings/Assignments/Projects/Grades
1.
Thecoursenotesentitled Photonics (thisdocument)isanabbreviatedversionof Noteson
LasersandLightwhichhighlightsthemostimportantaspectsoflight,lasers,fiberoptics,andoptical
communicationsandsignalprocessing. Itformstheoutlineforthecourseandintegratesreadings,
coursenotes,assignments,miniprojects,andafinalproject. Thisisyourkeyreference. Youare
responsibleforthepartsthatarecoveredinclassorassignedforreading.
2.
Homeworkwill beassignedfromthis document (seeproblems at theend). Assistance in
solvingtheseproblemsandreviewsessionswillbegivenbyThomasWu<xwu@ee.upenn.edu>,a
PennPh.D.studentinElectricalEngineering.Latehomeworkisnotaccepted.
3.
NotesonLasersandLightcoversingreatertechnicaldetailselectedaspectsofthepropertiesof
lightandtheoperationoflasers. Itprovidesareadilyavailablesourceforselectedtechnicaland
scientificaspectsofthecourseforwhichyoumaywantadditionalinformation.
4.
Fiber Optic Communications by Joseph C. Palais is a general text covering the photonic
landscapefromopticalbasicstofiberopticsfundamentalstosystemsaspectsoffibercommunications.
Chapters1through5providebackgroundmaterialforthefirstpartofthecoursewhiletheremaining
portion(especiallychapters6,8,9,12)formthetextforthesecondhalfofthiscourseonfiberoptics.
Thebibliographyattheend(pg.315)isusefulforfurtherreading.
5.
TheseriesofarticlesentitledDesignersGuidetoFiberOpticsprovidesagood,althoughdated,
overviewoffiberopticssystemdesignandwillbecoordinatedwiththetextbyPalais. Aseriesof
papersstartingwiththearticle, LightwaveCommunications:TheFifthGenerationbyD.Emmanuel,
provide an overview of fiber optical communication systems. Of particular interest are allfiber
systemsandtheuseofnonlinearopticsandsolitarywavesinmodernsystems.
6.
Optical Communication Systems byJ.Gowar is dedicated tothe details ofthe generation,
transmission,andreceptionofphotonicsignalsforcommunications.Thisbookcoversmaterialfrom
basicwavepropagationtosystemsconcepts. Severalrelevantchaptersareincludedinthecourse
material.FiberOpticNetworksbyP.Greenprovidessomeoftheusefulsystemsandnetworksaspects
ofthecourse.Severalchaptersofthistextarealsoincluded.
7.
Avarietyofreprintsfromtherecentliteratureareincludedinthecoursematerialandwillbe
suppliedasneeded.Miniprojectswillbetakenfromcurrentdiscoveriesinphotonictechnology.
8.
You may be interested in Webbased information on recent advances in photonics. The
PennWellPublishingsite<http://www/lfw/com/>isagoodplacetostart.
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EXEN625:Photonics
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9.
Ademonstrationlaboratorywillbeincludedastimepermits.
10.
Gradeswillbeweightedonthefollowingitems(allpercentagesareapproximate):
Allhomework
15%
Twominiprojects
15%
Quiz(SessionVIifgiven)
15%
FinalProject(duestartofnextterm)
35%
FinalProjectPresentation(SessionVI)
10%
Classparticipation
10%
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Winter1998
ReadingandReviewProblemAssignments
SessionI
BeforeSessionI,skimchapters13(pg.178)ofFiberOpticCommunications,andreadthe
attachedcoursenotes PhotonicsforSessionI(pg.512). AfterSessionI,skimthefirsthalfofthe
handout NotesonLasersandLight,readtheprojectdescription(endofthisdocument),reviewthe
readingmateriallistedaboveasneeded,anddoreviewproblems (endofthis document)fornext
sessionasassignedinclass.
SessionII
Readthesecondhalfofthehandout NotesonLasersandLight,theattachedcoursenotes
PhotonicsforSessionIIandchapters23(pg.3678)ofFiberOpticCommunications.Skimthis
documentandlookattherequirementsforthefinalproject.Doreviewproblemsfornextsession.
SessionIII
ReadthereprintedmaterialfromthetextAnIntroductiontoLasersandtheirApplications,the
coursenotes Photonics forSessionIII. Doreviewproblemsfornextsessionandfinalizechoiceof
teamsandtopicforyourfinalphotonsproject.
SessionIV
Skimchapters4and6ofFiberOpticCommunicationandreadchapter5.Alsoreadthefirst
halfofthehandoutDesignersGuidetoFiberOptics,thecoursenotesPhotonicsforSessionIV.Do
reviewproblemsfornextsession.Youwillbeaskedtoidentifytheparticipantsinyourprojectandthe
generaltopicofyourfinalproject.
SessionV
Skim chapters 7, 8,9 and 12of Fiber Optic Communication, read the secondhalf of the
handout Designers Guideto Fiber Optics, thecoursenotes Photonics forSessionV. Doreview
problemsfornextsession. Bepreparedtogiveatwominutesummaryofyourfinalprojecttothe
class.Afterclass,prepareforquizatthebeginningofSessionVI.
SessionVI
Skimchapters9and12ofthetext FiberOpticCommunications andreviewthematerialon
opticalFoulertransformsandopticalsignalprocessingin Photonics,reviewFouriertransformsand
readthepaper"TheUseofOpticalFourierTransformstoObtainPleomorphism,SizeandChromatic
ClumpinginNuclearModels,"byC.P.MilesandD.L.Jaggard,Anal.Quant.CytologyJ.3,149156
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EXEN625:Photonics
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(1981)orreadalternativematerialassignedinclass. Doreviewproblemsandhaveadraftofyour
photonicsprojectready.Thefinalprojectisdueatthestartofthenextterm(approximatelytwoweeks
afterourfinalclassroomsession). BepreparedwithVUgraphsforafivetotenminutetalkthat
providesanoverviewofyourfinalproject.Prepareforthecoursequizz.
Thephotonicsfinalprojectdescription,sampleminiprojects,samplequizzes,labdescription,
andreviewproblemsaregivenonthelastpagesofthisdocument.
Photonics
DwightL.Jaggard
SessionI
I.
RoleofPhotonicsinEmergingTechnologies
A.
LasersandTheirUses
II.
B.
FiberOpticsandOpticalCommunicationSystems
C.
IntegratedOptics
D.
IntroductiontoLasersandLight
(SeeNotesonLasersandLightbyD.L.Jaggard)
A.
LaserLightvs.NaturalLight
1.
Directionality
Laser:
3
Beamwidth~/D~10 radians
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Thermal:
Beamwidth~radians
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2.
Focusing
Laser:
Minimumspotsize~
Thermal:
Minimumspotsize>>
Wavelength:
=
(infreespace)
=wavelength(m)
c=speedoflight=3x108(m/s)
f=frequency(Hz.orcps)=/2
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3.
Intensity
Laserisbrighterthanthesun!
Sunbrightness1.5x105lumens/cm2str.
Laserbrightness108lumens/cm2str.
Onaperfrequencybasis,laseris~106moreintense
(Safety)
Units:
Intensity
1watt=680lumens
Angles
PlanarAngle
=
2radians=allofacircle=360
SolidAngle
=
4steradians=allspace
Length
1=1010m
1micron=106m
lighttravels1footinonenanosecond(=109sec)
4.
Monochromaticity
Laser:
Energyspreadoverof<1=10
10
Sun:
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Energyspreadoverfrom4,0007,000
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DifferentialWavelength/DifferentialFrequency:
=f
=changeinwavelength
c=speedoflight=3x108(m/s)
f=frequency
f=changeinfrequency
5.
Coherence
Coherence:
Ameasureoftheabilityofawavetointerferewithadelayed
ordisplacedversionofitself.
Laser:
Sun:
Lightcaninterferewithitselfoversignificant
distances(speckle)
Lightcannotinterferewithitselfeasily
Coherencelengthlccoherencetime
B.
OverviewofLaserOperation
1.
LaserArchitecture
Threecomponentsneeded:
Sourceofpower(pump)
Amplifier(activemedium)
Feedback(cavityorreflector)
13
2.
C.
D.
TypicalHeNeLaser
TypesofLasers
1.
Gas
2.
Solid
3.
Liquid
LaserBeamOutput
1.
Divergencediffractioneffect/beamwaist
2.
III.
EXEN625:Photonics
Winter1998
Cavities
Modes
Typicaloutput
BasicsofOptics(orOpticswithaLittleMath)
A.
SomeBasicsofWaves
1.
Raysandphasefronts
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2.
3.
Interference
Formofwaves
Electricfield
E(z,t)=Acos[2(ft+]e1
Needfourquantitiestodescribe
Amplitude
Wavelength(orfrequency)
Phase
Polarization
4.
A
=c/f(infreespace)
e1(unitvector)
Auxiliaryrelations
k=wavenumber==
=2f
f=
5.
ElectricandMagneticFieldsandIntensity
H(z,t)=Bcos[2(ft+]e2
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Intensity~|E|2
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B.
OpticalMaterials
1.
Refractiveindex
IndexofRefraction:
n=
Ifnvarieswithfrequencyorwavelength,the
materialissaidtobedispersive.
n>1(usually)
2.
Dispersion
Formostmaterials,ndecreaseswithdecreasingfrequencyorincreasing
wavelength
Thischangeinvelocitycanbeusedtomanipulatewavefrontsandwaves
andistheprincipalusedfortheoperationofthelensandtheprism
C.
Reflection
1.
SomeSimpleRules
SimpleRule#1:
Theangleofincidenceequalstheangleofreflection.
SimpleRule#2:
Atnormalincidence,thefieldreflectioncoefficientisgiven
by
=.
by
andtheintensityreflectioncoefficient(orreflectance)is
given
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|| .
R=
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2.
Refraction
Refraction isthebendingoflightraysbyaninterfacebetweentwomaterials
ofdifferingrefractiveindicesduetothedifferenceinthephasevelocityineachcase.
3.
MoreSimpleRulesandRefraction
SimpleRule#3:
Thecriticalanglecforwavesatobliqueincidenceisgiven
by
sinc=
forn2<n1.
SimpleRule#4:
TheBrewsteranglebforwavesatobliqueincidenceisgivenby
tanb=
forbothn2<n1andn2>n1.
SimpleRule#5:
Snell'slawofrefractionisgivenby
n1sin1=n2sin2.
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SessionII
4.
ReflectionatAnyAngle
Ingeneral,thepowerreflectioncoefficientsR andR forparalleland
||
perpendicularpolarizationcanbefoundandwritteninasimpleformat.The
resultis
Rule#6:
R =
||
R =
wheretheangles1and2aretheangleandincidenceandtheangleof
refraction,respectively,relatedbySimpleRule#5.
[NotethatR (above)isthesameasR (ofthetext),likewisefor
||
R andR .]
5.
Applications:
a.
Totalinternalreflectionprismsandfibers
b.
Lensbeamexpander
c.
Mirrors
d.
Polarizers(Brewsteranglemirrors)
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D.
Diffraction
1.
Diffractionisthespatialspreadingoflightduetopropagationorscatteringby
anobject.Sincethedistributionoflightfarfromasourceisproportionaltothe
Fourier transform ofthe source distribution, we see that small (measured in
wavelengths)sourceshavealargeamountofspreadingwhilelarge(measuredin
wavelengths) sources have a small amount of spreading. Diffraction is an
attribute ofallsourcesofwavesandisresponsibleforthespreadinginfree
spaceofmicrowavebeams,opticalbeamsandacoustics.Mathematically,thisis
givenbytherelation
Beamwidth~/D(=wavelengthofwave,D=diameterofbeam)as
statedpreviously.
2.
Acomparisonof diffraction and refraction fortypicalopticalwavesisuseful.

Sinceformostopticalmaterialstheindexofrefractiondecreaseswithincreasing
wavelength,bySnell'slawitisclearthatforrefraction,higherfrequency(e.g.,
blue) light is usually bent more than for lower frequency (e.g., red) light.
However, for diffraction, larger wavelength (e.g.,red) light is bent more by
scatteringfromagratingoredgethansmallerwavelength(e.g.,blue)light.That
is,diffractionandrefraction(fromnormallydispersivematerials)haveopposite
behaviorwithvariationsinwavelengthorfrequency.
3.
RayPictureofDiffraction
Iftworaysareconsideredwhichemanatefromtheedgeofanapertureofwidth
Dilluminatedbyaplanewaveofwavelength,theydestructivelyinterfereata
half spot size on each side of the optic axis (see next page). Simple
trigonometrydemonstratesthat
sin[/2]=
whereisthebeamwidth(inradians).Forsmallangels,thisleadsdirectlyto
ourpreviouslystatedrelation
~/D.
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Note:
Nullsoccurwhendestructiveinterferenceappearsfromtorays
whichare180(=radians)outofphase.
4.
PhysicalorWaveOpticViewpoint
Analternativeviewpoint,whichweshallinvestigatelaterindealingwith
opticalsignalprocessing,showsthatthefarfieldpatternistheFouriertransform
ofthesourcedistribution.Belowisgivenasummaryofthisresult.Detailsare
giveninthelastsectionofthesenotes.
Thediffractedopticalfield (x,y,z)isgivenintermsofintegrationor
summation over the aperture (in the z = 0+ plane) of the aperture
field0(x',y',0)(seenextpage).ThisisknownasHuygen'sprinciple.Herek
(=2) is the wavenumber of the incident wave and is the angle of the
observerwithrespecttothezaxis.
(x,y,z)=cos0(x',y',0)exp[i]dx'dy'
Inthefarfieldthisexpressionbecomes
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(x,y,z)=CF[0(x',y',0)]
where
|f =x/r,f =y/r
x
C=cos
Note:
Intensity=I(x,y,z)=|(x,y,z)|
SpotSizex=
Beamwidth=
Example: Find the farfield pattern for a two dimensional square
apertureofsideLasshownabove.
Solution:
0(x',y',0)=rect[x'/L]
(x,y,z)=CF[0(x',y',0)]
|f =x/r,f =y/r
x
=C|L| sinc[Lfx]sinc[Lfy]
|f =x/r,f =y/r
x
=C|L| sinc[Lx/r]sinc[Ly/r]
Clearlythefirstzeroalongthexaxisinthefarfield
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isatLx/r=1orx=isthewidthofthemain
diffraction
spot.Thisrigorouslyconfirmstheprevious results up to a numerical

factor.
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5.
ResolutionandDiffraction
Diffractionisthelimitingeffecttotheultimateresolutionofopticalinstruments
andsystems.Resolutionisameasureoftheabilityofasystemtodistinguishbetween
signalswhicharecloselyspacedinwavelength.
TheresolvingpowerRpofanopticalinstrumentorsystemisdefinedby
Rp=
Derivations for a number of devices are carried out in the detailed notes, here we
summarizetheseresults.
DEVICE
PARAMETERS
Prism
BeamwidthB
Dispersiondn/d
BeamwidthB
Spacingd
FinesseF
CavitylengthL
Wavelength
Grating
Interferometer
RESOLVING
POWER
Bdn/d
TYPICAL
RESOLUTION
10,000
B/d
100,000
2FL/
10,000,000
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E.
Coherence
1.
Coherenceistheabilityoflighttointerferewithadelayedordisplacedversion
of itself. Interference with a delayed version produces a measure of longitudinal
coherenceandyieldsameasureofcoherencetimet c anditsassociatedlongitudinal
coherencelengthlc=ctc.Interferencewithadisplacedversionproducesameasureof
transversecoherenceandyieldsameasureofthecoherenceareaandthetransverse
coherencelengthlt.Together,onecanenvisionacoherencevolumecomposedofthe
coherencelengthlcandacrosssectionalareagivenbyltxlt.
2.
LongitudinalCoherence
Optically, one uses the Michelson interferometer the measure the degree of
longitudinalcoherence.Thisisdescribedinthehandout"NotesonLasersandLight."
Mathematically,itistheautocorrelationfunctionwhichmeasuresthedegreetowhicha
waveislikeadelayedortimeshiftedversionofitself.Theselfcoherencefunction
asafunctionoftimedelayisdefinedastheautocorrelationofthelightwavefieldu(t).
u(t+)u*(t)dt
Anormalizedversion,thecoherencefunctionhasanenvelopewhichiscalledthe
fringevisibilityV.Here,
ThewidthofthevisibilityViscalledthecoherencelength.Rigorously,onedefinesthe
longitudinalcoherencetimeas
tc| d
FromthefundamentalpropertiesofautocorrelationsandFouriertransforms,the
definitionaboveandfromnumerousexamples,onefinds
tc~
where isthespectral widthofthelight wavefield. Thisyieldthelongitudinal
coherencelengthas
lc=ctc=
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TransverseCoherence
Transverse coherence is measured by examining the maximum separation

distancetwopinholescanbeplacedinabeamandstilldemonstrateinterference.Itcan
beshownthatthetransversecoherencelengthltisapproximatedby
lt~
forasourceofangulardimensionfromtheobserverandofwavelength.Thisis
duetotheinterferencefromdifferentportionsofasourceasseenfromtheobserver.
Clearly, a point source (e.g., a distant light) has a large coherence length. The
coherenceareaisgivenby
2
At~lt ~
whereisthesolidanglesubtendedbythesourceattheobserver.
longitudinalcoherencelengthlc=ctc.Interferencewithadisplacedversionproducesa
measureoftransversecoherenceandyieldsameasureofthecoherenceareaandthe
transverse coherence length lt. Together, one can envision a coherence volume
composedofthecoherencelengthlcandacrosssectionalareagivenbyltxlt.
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EXEN625:Photonics
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SessionIII
III.
PrinciplesofLaserOperation(orOpticswithaLittlePhysics)
A.
Overview
Rememberthatlasersneedthreecomponentsinordertooperate:
Feedback(cavity)
Activemediumoramplifier(atomicsystem)
Pump(e.g.,electricaldischarge,optical,electricalcurrent)
Oneneedstoknowtheoperationalcharacteristicsofthesethreecomponentsor
subsystemstounderstandlaseroperationandoutputproperties.
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B.
AtomicSystem
1.
Energylevels
Eachatomicelementhasdiscreteenergylevelsasshownbelow.
Thisatomicsystemscanabsorboremitlightwhentheatommakesatransitionfrom
one level to another. The frequency of emission or absorption is related to the
differenceinenergylevelsby:
E=E1Eo=hf
where
34
h=6.6x10
(MKSunits)=Plank'sconstant
f=frequency(Hz)
TheprobabilityofagiventransitionismeasuredbythetransitionlifetimeIf
islarge,atransitionissaidtobeforbidden.Theupperlevelofforbiddentransitions
6
arecalledmetastablestates.Typically~10 sforallowedtransitions.
Selectionrules(fromquantummechanics)canbeusedtodetermineiftransitionsare
allowedorforbidden.Transitionlifetimescanalsobecalculated.
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2.
AbsorptionandEmission
Three types of processes shown below are possible for twolevel atomic
systems. In the first,an incoming photon excites the atomic system from alower
energystateintoahigherenergystate. Thisiscalled stimulatedabsorption. Inthe
second, an atomic system spontaneously goes to a lower energy state through the
emissionofaphoton.Thisiscalledspontaneousemissionorfluorescence.Inthethird,
anincomingphotonproducesasecondcoherentphotonbyreducingtheenergystateof
thesystem. Thisiscalled stimulatedemission andisresponsibleforlaseraction. In
eachcase,therelationhf=E 1Eolinksthedifferenceinenergywiththefrequencyof
therelevantphoton.
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EXEN625:Photonics
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3.
EinsteinRelations
W10=A N =rateofspontaneousemissionfrom
10
level1tolevel0
where
N =#atomsinlevel1
1
A =coefficientofspontaneousemission
10
W01=B N =rateofstimulatedabsorptionfrom
01
level0tolevel1
where
N =#atomsinlevel0
0
B =coefficientofstimulatedabsorptionfrom
01
level0tolevel1
=energydensityperunitfrequencyof
ofincomingphotons
W10=B N =rateofstimulatedabsorptionfrom
10
level1tolevel0
where
N =#atomsinlevel1
1
B =coefficientofstimulatedabsorptionfrom
10
level1tolevel0
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=energydensityperunitfrequencyof
ofincomingphotons
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4.
SimulatedandSpontaneousProcesses
Inthermalequilibrium,thepopulationsofthetwoenergylevelsaregivenbythe
Boltzmandistribution
==e
hf/kT
where
hf=E1Eo
23
k=Boltzman'sconstant=1.380x10
T=temperature(indegreesKelvin)
(MKSunits)
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5.
RelationofGaintoPopulation
Sinceanactiveorgainmedium(i.e.,theamplifier)istheatomicsystem,awave
whichtravelsthroughthesystemneedstoextractenergyfromtheatoms. Thus,the
intensityincreasesas
z
I(z)=I e
o
whereisthegainconstant.
Itcanbeshownthatthisconstantisproportionaltothepopulationdifferencebetween
thetwoatomiclevelsandgivenbytherelation
=g(f)
where
g(f)isthelineshapefunction
(powerspectraldensityofabsorptionoremissionline)
N1=N1perunitvol.
No=Noperunitvol.
n=refractiveindexofatomicsystem
f=resonantfrequencyofsystem=(E1Eo)/h
c=speedoflight
ispositive,andthereforethereisgain,onlyifthereisapopulationinversion
givenbytheconditionN1>No.
C.
Pumps
1.
PopulationInversion
Anymethodthatcanproduceapopulationinversioniscalledapump.Forany
energy level i, the Boltzman distribution giving the number density in the ith level
dividedbythenumberdensityinthegroundstateisgivenby
==e
(EiEo)/kT
<1.
Therefore,N islessthanN underequilibriumconditions.

i
Typicalmethodsinclude:
Electricaldischarge
Optical
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EXEN625:Photonics
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Electricalcurrent
Chemicalreaction
Mechanical(i.e.,gasdynamic)
Most pumps are either two or three level configurations (see Notes on Lasers and
Light).
2.
LineShapeandLineWidth
Experimentallyishasbeenfoundoutthatemissionandabsorptiontakeplaceovera
rangeoffrequencies, f,ratherthanatasinglediscretefrequency. Themeansthe
energy levels are "smeared." The lineshape function g(f) describes the frequency
dependenceoftheemissionorabsorption,properlynormalizedsothatitsintegralover
allfrequenciesisunity.
3.
Typesofbroadening
Lifetime
Collision
Doppler
The atomic system, due to one or more of these broadening mechanisms, as a

2
10
characteristiclinewidthontheorderof10 10 Hz.
D.
LaserCavities,OutputandDesign
1.
IdealCavity
Anidealcavityisoneformedbyplaneparallelmirrors.Thefieldarrangesitself
sothatanintegralnumberofhalfwavelengthsfittheinthecavityoflengthL.This
means,
L=m
(m=0,1,2,3,...)
whereisthewavelengthinthegainmedium(= /n).
o
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Thismeansthatthelongitudinalmodespacinginfrequencyisgivenby
f=
andthetransmissioncoefficientisunityatthesediscretefrequencies.
2.
LaserCavities
Clearly,anidealcavitywillnotletanylightoutforuse.Therefore,onecausesoneor
bothmirrorstobecomepartiallyreflectingsothattheopticalfieldcanleakoutina
usablelasercavity.AsseenfromouranalysisoftheFabryPerotcavity,thiscausesthe
outputtransmissiontotakeonacharacteristicfrequencyorlinewidth,f .
l
ThecavityfinesseFisdefinedtobe
F==
FromtheFabryPerotanalysisthiswasfoundtoberelatedtothe(intensity)reflection
coefficientRofthemirrorsby
F=.
3.
LasingCondition
Theconditionforlasingoroscillationisthattheroundtripjourneyofawavereplicates
thewave. Thisselfconsistentconditioncanbeseenbyexaminingalasercavityof
lengthL,with(intensity)mirrorreflectancesofR andR filledwithagainmediumof
1
gainconstant.
Clearlythisequationyieldstheselfconsistencyconditionforlasing.Whencombined
withourpreviousresultforoscillationwefindthetwonecessaryconditionsforlasing.
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LasingConditions:
L=m
(m=0,1,2,3,...)
(Cavitycondition)
2()L
1=R R e
1
4.
(Selfconsistencycondition)
CavityStability
Themirrorsofacavityareslightlycurvedtopreventabeamfromwalkingoutofthe
cavityafterseveralbounces.Thisleadsustothestabilityconditionforcavities.
StabilityCondition:
0<g g <1
1 2
where
g =1L/R
1
g =1L/R
2
Note:
Iftheconfigurationisconfocal,thebeamspotsizeatthemirrorsis
minimum
Onetypicallywantsalargespotsizetominimizebeamdivergence
Thisrequiresnearplanarmirror(whicharehardtoadjust)
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V.
LaserTypesandModificationsandTheirApplications(orOpticswithaFewPictures)
(SeeVUgraphs)
A.
HeNeLaser
B.
NobleGasLaser
C.
CO2Laser
D.
DyeLasers
E.
SemiConductorLasers
F.
IntegratedOpticalLasers
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SessionIV
VI.
FiberandGuidedWaveOptics(orOpticswithMirrors)
A.
Opticalfibers
(Fordetails,see"Designer'sGuidetoFiberOptics,"chapterstwoandthreeofthe
bookOpticalCommunicationSystemsandadditionalhandoutsonfiber
optics.)
1.
BasicPrincipalsofOperation
a.
RayPicture
Intheraypicture,wetreatlightastravelingalongstraightraypaths.
Reminders:
IndexofRefraction:
n=
Ifnvarieswithfrequencyorwavelength,the
materialissaidtobedispersive.
n>1(usually)
CriticalAngle:
Thecriticalanglecforwavesatobliqueincidenceisgiven
by
sinc=
forn2<n1.
Typically,thecladding(n2)andcore(n1)refractiveindicesare
withinafewpercentofeachotherwhichlimitsthecriticalangletorays
o
neargrazing.Forexample,ifn2=1.46andn1=1.48,c=80.6 .
Notethatrayswhichtraveldownthecenteroftheguidetravelashorterpath
thanthosewhichtraveldownthefibermakingthemaximumnumberof
bounces.
Example:
ForanaxialdistanceLalongthefiber,thestraightraywilltakea
time[n1L/c]totraversethefiberlengthwhilethemostobliqueraywill
takethetime[n1L/csinc=n1L/n2c].Thetimedifferenceisgivenby
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T=n
wheren=n1n2.
b.
ModalPicture
Analternativepictureofwavepropagationinfibersisthemodalpicture
inwhichthewavelikecharacteristicsoflightareused. A mode issimplya
spatialdistributionofanopticalfield(e.g.,theelectricfield)oropticalintensity.
Infibersandwaveguides,themodesrepresentthetransversedistributionofan
opticalfieldoropticalintensity.Thepriceonepaysisintheuseofindustrial
strengthmathematics.
Severalimportantresultsareobtainedfromthemodalpicture.
Theopticalfieldhasanexponentiallydecayingportionoutsidethecore
Eachmodecanbethoughtofasthesumoftworaystravelingwith
agivenanglewithrespecttothefiberaxis
NormalizedfrequencyVisgivenby
V=
wheredisthecorediameterandisthewavelength.
Onlyasinglemode(anaxialray)canpropagateforV<2.405
instepindexfibers.
Theapproximatenumberofpropagatingmodesisgivenby
2
N=V /2
2.
forstepindexfibers.
Dispersion
Dispersionisthespreadingofpulsesastheytraversealengthofoptical
fiber. Thiscanbeduetothepropagatingofdifferentmodes(orequivalently
differentrays)orcanbeduetodispersivematerial.
a.
Modaldispersion
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From our previous discussion, rays which travel at different

angles or modes which travel with different velocities lead to modal
dispersionormultipathtimedispersiongivenby
modal
wheren=n1n2.
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Foruncladstepindexglassfibersthisleadsto(n2=1.00andn1=1.50)
modal
=2.5x10
s/m=2.5s/km
whileforcladstepindexfibersthisleadsto(n2=1.46andn1=1.48)
11
modal
=6.76x10
s/m=67.6ns/km
whichismuchlessthantheuncladcase.
b.
Materialdispersion
Asdiscussedpreviously,thevariation ofrefractive indexwith
wavelength or frequency leads to material dispersion to the various
travelvelocitiesofdifferingfrequencieswithinapulse. Thiseffectis
typicallymuchsmallerthanmodaldispersionandcanbequantified.The
mathematicsissomewhatmorecomplicatedthanthatgivenpreviously
formodaldispersionbutleadstothesimpleexpression
=| |
2
material
TypicalvaluesforGaAslightemittingdiodesources(is
material
=2.5ns/km
while for laser sources which have a narrower spectral output

(onefinds
material
=0.25ns/km
insilica( =0.021).
Inanycase,thesevaluesareseentobefromsomewhatlesstoa
lotlessthanthemodaldispersionvaluesfoundabove.Thismeansthat
ultimately, material dispersion will provide the fundamental limit to
dispersionandthatthiswillbedependentuponthetypeofsourceused.
c.
Waveguidedispersion
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Raysassociatedwithdifferentfrequenciesandmodestravelat
slightlydifferentangles.Alternatively,differentfrequencymodessee
differentrefractiveindicesdependingontheamountofthemodeoutside
theguidingorcoreregion.Thisleadstowaveguidedispersionwhichis
presentevenifbothmodalandmaterialdispersioncouldbeeliminated.
This dispersion becomes apparent when wavedivision multiplexing
(WDM)isusedtoincreasethecapacityofafiberopticsystem.Itcanbe
decreasedbymakingtheindexofthecladdingapproachtheindexofthe
core.
d.
Dispersioneffectsanditsreduction
DispersionlimitsthebitrateBorbandwidthfofpulseswhich
canbetransmitted.Tofirstorderwefind(usingFouriertransformsto
makeitrigorous)
B~2f~.
Often, the quantity f L will be quoted as the bandwidthdistance
productofthefiber.
Toreducemodaldispersion:
Cladfiberwithrefractiveindexclosetothatofthecore
MakethefibersinglemodebycausingV<2.405so
thatmodaldispersioniseliminated
Usegradedindexfiberstominimizeraypathdifferences
(thisworksformeridionalraysbutnotforskewrays)
Toreducematerialdispersion:
Usematerialwithsmallvariationofrefractiveindex
Usespectrallynarrowsources
Operatesourceatornearthepointofinflectioninthe
n()vs.curve("wavelengthofzeromaterialdispersion")
Asanalternative,onecanusesolitarywavefibersinwhichthe
effectsofmaterialdispersionareoffsetbynonlinearities.
d.
Multipledispersioneffects
Multipledispersioneffectsaremostoftenfound(unlessthefiber
isoperatedsinglemode).Inthiscase,thetimedelaysaddastherootof
the sum of the squares so that for modal and material dispersion
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(assuming one can neglect waveguide dispersion), one finds the total
delayT|
total
total
representedby
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3.
AttenuationLosses
Losscancomethroughabsorption,scatteringorfiberbending
a.
Absorption
Absorptionlossesinglassescancomefromthreefactors:
intrinsicabsorptionofthebasicmaterial
impurityabsorption
atomicdefectabsorption
i.
Intrinsicabsorption
This is due to charge transfer bands in the ultraviolet and
vibrationormultiphononbandsinthenearinfrared. Formostglasses,
theultravioletbandsareagreaterproblem.Typically,absorptionfrom
thissourceislessthan1dB/km.
ii.
Impurityabsorption
Metal ions (e.g., Fe, Cu, V and Cr) are typical sources of
impurityabsorption.Inaddition,OHradicalsprovideattenuationatthe
rateofapproximately1dB/km/ppm.
iii.
Atomicdefect
Atomicdefectabsorptionisinducedbyastimulus(e.g.,thermal
historyorintenseradiation).
b.
Scattering
Scattering losses in fibers can come about through Rayleigh
scattering(theblueskyeffect)andradiationlosses.
i.
Rayleighscattering
Materialsscatterlightduetofrozeninthermalfluctuationswhich
willprovideafundamentallimittheattenuationwhenallothersources
areeliminated.Thesefluctuationsscatterpropagatinglightbacktoward
4
thesourceoroutofthefiber.Thelossisproportionalto andsocan
beminimizedbyusinglargerwavelength(i.e.,smallerfrequencies)in
whichthefluctuationsarenolonger"seen"bythelightwave.
ii.
Radiationlosses
For cladding of finite thickness, some of the exponentially
decayingportionofthemodewillbeabsorbedbythejacket. Thisis
especiallytrueformodesinwhichthethereisconsiderablepowernear
the periphery of the core. This can be decreased by increasing the
claddingandkeepingthecladdinglowloss.
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c.
Bendinglosses
Ifthefiberisbent,rayswhichwouldusuallybecaptureddueto
totalinternalreflectioncannowescapethefiber.Therefore,tightturns
shouldbeavoided.
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SessionV
4.
OtherElementaryAspectsofSystemLosses
Therearemanysourcesoflossinanyfibersystemasoneproceedsfrom
thesourcetothefiberandontothereceiver.Lossisgivenasaratioofoutput
toinputpowersoroftengivenindecibels(dB).Thelatterallowslossestobe
addedupbyaddingthetotaldBloss.TofindthelossindB,usethefollowing
relation:
LossorGain(dB)=10log
10
(outputpower/inputpower)
Thismeansthat3dBindicatesalossofhalfthepower.
a.
NumericalAperture
The numericalaperture (NA)definestheacceptanceconehalf
angleofthefiber.FromSnell'slawandthecriticalangleexpressionit
isexpressedas
NumericalAperture:
NA=sin==
forstepindexfiberswheren=n1n2and
n=(n1+n2)/2
b.
c.
PackingFraction
(~1.1dB)
Reflection
FresnelreflectionproducesalossindBof
2
10log
1 [] (~0.2dB)
10
d.
Areamismatch
Iftheareaofthesourceislargerthanthefiberarea,thereisno
method which can be used to recover the light (e.g., a lens will not
work).
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e.
Profileofsources
Notallofthelightleavingthesourcemakesiscapturedbythe
fiberduetothenumericalaperture.ForLambertiansourceswherethe
intensityprofileisgivenbyI()=Io cosbeingtheanglefromthe
sourcenormal,thetotalpowerPoisgivenbyintegratingoverallforward
directions. However,onlytheamountofpowerPfrom =0to =
canbecapturedbythefiber.Thus,thelossisgivenby
2
=NA =2nn
forastepindexfiber.
Asbefore,thiscanbeplacedindBtoyieldalossof
10log 2nn(~12dB).
10
4.
Sources
Sources should be high power, to overcome attenuation, and spectrally
narrowtoavoiddispersion.
a.
Spectralwidth
b.
LEDandLasers
5.
Receivers
a.
PINPhotodiodes
b.
AvalanchePhotodiodes
c.
Receiverlosses
6.
SystemsConsiderations
a.
Coupling
b.
Multiplexing
c.
Modulation
d.
Moresystemlosses
7.
CablesandSplicing
a.
Bundles
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b.
8.
Connectionlosses
UseasLightTransportersandImagingBundles
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B.
ThinFilmIntegratedOptics
C.
ApplicationstoOpticalCommunications
D.
DesignProject
VII.HolographyandOpticalSignalProcessing
(SeechapterfromIntroductiontoFourierOpticsbyJ.Goodman)
A.
RecordingaHologram
IlluminatetheobjectofinterestandrecordthescatteredlightwaveSandthereference
lightwave R onfilm. Thefilmtransmittance t isproportionaltotheintensityofthe
incidentlightwhichisequaltotheabsolutevaluesquaredofthesumofRandS.
.
Calculations give us the following results (R and S are complex and given by an
amplitudeandphase)forthefilmtransmittancetafterilluminationanddeveloping.
Scatteredlightwave=S
Referencelightwave=R
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2
Intensityof(S+R)=|S+R| =SS*+RR*+SR*+S*R
Transmittanceoffilm=t~Intensity=SS*+RR*+SR*+S*R
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B.
ViewingaHologram
After the film is developed, the same reference beam that was used originally to
illuminatetheunexposedfilmisusedagaintoilluminatethedevelopedfilm.Thelight
whichisemittedfromthisfilmistheproductofthetransmittance tandthereference
lightwaveR.
Toreconstructtheimage,illuminatethedevelopedhologramwiththeoriginalreference
beam.ThelightwaveavailableistheproductofRandt.
Lightwavefromfilm=Rt=R(SS*+RR*+SR*+S*R)
2
=R|S| +R|R| +S|R| +S*R
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Thefirsttermisverysmallsince|S|<<|R|.Thesecondtermisaconstantwithrespect
theimage.Itrepresentsthelightwhichtravelsstraightthroughthedevelopedfilmdue
tothereferencebeamandcarriesnoinformationregardingtheoriginalobject. The
thirdtermisthereconstructedimage. Itisproportionaltotheoriginalobjectfield S
timesaconstantwhichonlychangestheoverallintensityofthiswavefield.Therefore,
theexact(uptoamultiplicativeconstant)originalwavefieldisreproducedbythefilm.
Thisisthedesiredholographicimage.Thisgivestheviewertheillusionofseeingthe
originalobject. Thefourthtermisasecond(unwanted)imagecreatedontheviewer
sideofthefilm.
C.
Applications
1.
Nondestructiveevaluationandtesting
2.
Imaging
SessionVI
VIII.
FourierTransforms
A.
IntroductiontoFourierTransforms(F.T.'s)
1.
WhyFourierTransforms?
2.
Applications
B.
FourierTransformsFundamentals
1.
Systemrequirements
2.
Signalrequirements
3.
BasicIdea
a.
PhysicalnotionhowtoinventaFouriertransform
b.
Fouriertransformpair
F[g(t)]=G()=g(t)exp(it)dt
F1[G()]=g(t)=G()exp(it)
OR
F[g(t)]=G(f)=g(t)exp(ift)dt
F1[G(f)]=g(t)=G(f)exp(ift)df
(Note:f=/2=cyclicfrequency
=2f=radianfrequency.)
5.
HandyFormulae:
a.
DeMoivre'sTheorem
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n
n in
z = (cosn+isinn)= e
b.
Euler'sIdentities
i
=cosisin
+i
cose
+i
sine
5.
+e
DeltaFunction
a.
Def:
(t)dt=1
and
(t)=0fort0
b.
Properties
i)
g(t)(ta)dt=g(a)
1
ii)
iii)
iv)
(at)=|a| (t)
g(t)'(t)dt=g'(0)
(t)=(t)[evenfunction]
v)
'(t)='(t)[oddfunction]
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e.
AUsefulRelation
it
d(t)
it
e
dt(
Replaceby2ftoget:
(t)1
1(f)
C.
d.
Candidates
Gaussianfunction
Rectangleorpulsefunction
Tianglefunction
Lorentizian
e.
Combfunction
comb(t/T)==|T|
FourierTransformPropertiesI
1.
Linearity
F[ag(t)+bh(t)]=aG(f)+bH(f)
2.
Scaling
F[g(at)]=G(f/a)
3.
Shifting
F[g(ta)]=G(f)ei2fa
4.
Modulation
F[g(t)e+i2fot]=G(ffo)
5.
ConvolutionandProducts
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F[g(t) h(t)]=G(f)H(f)
whereg(t) h(t)g(t')h(tt')dt'
Note:Theinverseholdsaswell,
F[g(t)h(t)]=G(f)H(f)
6.
CrossCorrelationandAutocorrelation
F[g(t) h(t)]=G(f)H*(f)
whereg(t) h(t)R g(t')h*(t't)dt'=crosscorrelation
gh
Ifg(t)=h(t),autocorrelationresults,
F[g(t) g(t)]=G(f)G*(f)=|G(f)|2=powerspectraldensity
whereg(t) g(t)R
gg
7.
g(t')g*(t't)dt'=autocorrelation
Differentiation
F[]=(i2f)nG(f)
8.
PowerSeries
F[(it)ng(t)]=[]
9.
Applications
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10.
Content,VariationandWiggliness
Consideranaperiodicfunctiong(t).Thecontent,variationand
wigglinessofthisfunctionaregivenbythefollowingrelations:
content=g(t)dt
variation=dt
wiggliness=dt
ItcanbeshownthatifG(f)istheF.T.ofg(t),
|G(f)|<
content
variation/|(2f)|
wiggliness/|2f|2
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D.
FourierTransformPropertiesII
1.
Parseval'sTheorem
2
g(t)| dt=G(f)| df
2.
F.T.'sofPeriodicFunctions
Def:
If g(t+T) = g(t) for all t, then g(t) is a periodic function with
periodT.
Forg(t)periodic,wewriteitintermsofitsFourierseriesas
g(t)=
wherefo=and
G =dt
n
ItsF.T.isgivenas
F[g(t)]=
3.
Moments
nthmomentofg(t)=tng(t)dt=[]
4.
UncertaintyRelations
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5.
SomeUsefulF.T.Pairs
g(t)G(f)
AA(f)
A(t) A
rect(t/T) |T| sinc(Tf)
Acos(2fot) [(ffo)+(f+fo)]
Asin(2fot) [(ffo)(f+fo)]
(t/T) |T| sinc (Tf)
comb(t/T) |T| comb(Tf)
2 2
t
f /
e
e

e t|
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E.
FourierSeries
1.
Periodicfunctions
2.
Intuitivemeaningofseries
3.
Coefficients
4.
RelationbetweenFourierseriesandFouriertransforms
F.
WhittakerShannonSamplingTheorem
A bandlimited signalwithnospectralfrequencycomponents abovea
maximum frequency f (Hz) is uniquely specified by its (exact) values at
M
uniformintervalslessthanapart.Thesamplingrate(insec.)isknownasthe
Nyquistrate.
1.
Reasonableness
2.
Proof
3.
Imperfectsamplingandinaccuracies
a.
Finitesamplewidth
b.
Finitenumberofsamples
c.
Discretizationerrors
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IX.
TwoDimensionalFourierTransformsandOpticalSignalProcessing
A.TwoDimensionalSpatialFunctions
1.
ConceptofSpatialFrequency
Inthetimedomain,tandfarecalledconjugatevariablesandareshownas,
tf
Likewise,inthespatialdomainxandf aretheconjugatevariables.Here,
x
x f (wheref isthespatialfrequencyincyclespermeter)
x
Thiscanbeextendedtotwodimensionssothat,
x,y f ,f
x y
2.
TwoDimensionalFourierTransforms
Ifg(x,y)isatwodimensionalfunctionwithspatialcoordinatesxandy,
F[g(x,y)]=G(fx,fy)=g(x,y)exp[ifxx+fyy)]dxdy
F1[G(fx,fy)]=g(x,y)=G(fx,fy)exp[ifxx+fyy)]dfxdfy
wherefxandfyare spatialfrequenciesalongxandy.(Spatialfrequencyisthenumber
ofvariationsorcyclesperunitlength.)
Ifg(x,y)=g(x)g(y),g(x,y)isseparableandonecantaketwoonedimensionalFourier
transforms.
Forexample,
rect(x/X)rect(y/Y)|X||Y|sinc(Xfx)sinc(Yfy).
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EXEN625:Photonics
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B.
CircularSymmetry{(x,y,)(r,and(fx,fy)(,)}
ThisproducestheFourierBesselpairforandindependence
F[g(r)]=G()=2rg(r)J (2r)dr
0
F1[G()]=g(r)=2G()J (2r)d
0
Example:Circularapertures
circ(r)=jinc()
Likewise,scalingandothertheoremsholdsothat,
2
circ(r/a)a =a jinc(a)
C.
TwoDimensionalSampling
1.
MethodsofSamplingandSamplingRate
2.
SpaceBandwidthProductandInformationContent
D.
FourierTransforms(F.T.'s)andOptics
1.
Diffraction
The diffracted optical field (x,y,z) is given in terms of integration or
summationovertheaperture(inthez=0 +plane)oftheaperturefield0(x',y',0).This
isknownas Huygen'sprinciple. Herek(=2)isthewavenumberoftheincident
waveandistheangleoftheobserverwithrespecttothezaxis.
(x,y,z)=cos0(x',y',0)exp[i]dx'dy'
Inthefarfieldthisexpressionbecomes
(x,y,z)=CF[0(x',y',0)]
where
|f =x/r,f =y/r
x
C=cos
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Note:
Intensity=I(x,y,z)=|(x,y,z)|
SpotSizex=
Beamwidth=
Example: Findthefarfieldpatternforatwodimensionalsquareapertureof
sideLasshownabove.
Solution:
0(x',y',0)=rect[x'/L]rect[y'/L]
(x,y,z)=CF[0(x',y',0)]
|f =x/r,f =y/r
x
=C|L| sinc[Lfx]sinc[Lfy]
|f =x/r,f =y/r
x
=C|L| sinc[Lx/r]sinc[Ly/r]
Clearlythefirstzeroalongthexaxisinthefarfield
isatLx/r=1orx=isthewidthofthemain
diffraction
spot.
Thisrigorouslyconfirmstheprevious
resultsuptoanumericalfactor.
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2.
Lenses
Lensesgenerallyhavetwopurposes,imagingandtakingthe(twodimensional)
Fouriertransform.TheyarecharacterizedbytheirfocallengthFwhichisthedistance
fromalenstoitsminimumspotsizewhenilluminatedbyaplanewavesource.
ImagingLaw
Forimaging,theobjectdistancedo,theimagedistancedi andthefocallengthofthe
lensFarerelatedby
+=
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F.T.Law
Alensbringsthefarfieldregiontothebackfocalplaneofthelens.Therefore,
onecanwriteatthefocalplaneofalens(replacerwith F inthepreviousresultfor
aperturediffraction)
(x,y,F)=CF[0(x',y',0)]
where
|f =x/F,f =y/F
x
C=cos
for an incident field 0(x',y',0) before the lens. This means that twodimensional
transparenciesplacedinfrontofalenswillhavetheiropticaltwodimensionalFourier
transformappearonefocallengthbehindthelenswhenthetransparencyisilluminated
bycoherent(e.g.,laser)light.
Thef#ofalensisameasureofhow"powerful"itis,thatisitisameasureof
howmuchitcanbendtheraysofincidentlight.
where
f#=1
F=focallengthoflens
D=diameteroflens
[Note: Iff#issmall,lensis"powerful"butdistortionsmayoccurduetolackofdepth
offield.]
3.
Filtering
These two fundamental properties of lenses, their ability to both image and
performanopticalFouriertransform,canbecombinedtogiveaccesstotheFourier
planeofanobject,andthereforeallowfilteringtotakeplace,andtosimultaneously
imagesothattheimageisafilteredversionoftheobject. Bothhighandlowpass
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operationscanbeeasilyobtainedbyusinganapertureorastop,respectively,inthe
Fourierplane.Aonelensoratwolensconfigurationcanbeused.
[SeehandoutsonopticalFouriertransforms,fromTheAtlasofOpticalTransforms,for
examplesofspatialfilteringusingoptics.]
E.
CoherentandIncoherentImaging
Forimagingconfigurations,alenscanbethoughtofasalinearsystemwithan
impulseresponse.Sincehighspatialfrequenciespropagateatlargeanglestotheoptical
axis,notallspatialfrequenciesinanobjectortransparencywillbepassedbyalensof
finitediameter.Therefore,theimpulseresponseofalenswilltendtosmearanimage
ofagivenobject.Inthespatialfrequencydomainwecaneasilyrepresentthisbythe
transferfunctionofthesystem. ThistransferfunctionH(f x,fy)or H(fx,fy)differsfor
coherentandincoherentsystems,respectively. Theyareshownnextandaresimple
functionsofthescaledpupilfunctionP(x,y)oftheaperture.
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CoherentSystemTransferFunction
H(fx,fy)=P(d fx,d fy)
i
whereP(x,y)isthepupilfunctionoftheaperture.Itisdefinedbythesimpleequation
P(x,y)=
x,yintheapertureorlens
x,youtsidetheapertureorlens
Therefore,foralensofradiusa,P(x,y)=circ(/a)=circ(r/a).Theimpulseresponse,
1
h(x,y)=F {H(fx,fy)},providestheresolutionlimitofthissystem.
IncoherentSystemTransferFunction
H(fx,fy)=H(fx,fy)H(fx,fy)=P(d fx,d fy)P(d fx,d fy)
i
Oneimmediately notices thefollowingdifferences betweencoherentandincoherent

systems:
Inbothcoherentandincoherentsystems,onehasacutofffrequencyduetothe
finitediameterofalens
In coherent systems, the cutoff frequency is lower than for the incoherent
counterpartandtheresponsebelowcutoffisflat
Inincoherentsystems,theresponsebelowthecutofffrequencyisnotflatbutthe
cutofffrequencyistwiceaslargeasforthecoherentcase
Otherfactors,suchasspeckle,maybeofimportance.Thisleadsonetoconsider
thebenefitsofincoherentorpartiallycoherentimaging.
73
EXEN625:Photonics
Winter1998
Example:
ExaminetheresolutionofanopticalsystemwhichisilluminatedbyaHeNe
laser(=0.6328m).Theobjectisabarpatternandtheimageisobserved1
meter from the lens. Here the bar pattern transparency t(x,y) is a series of
stripes1mmwideon2mmcenters,each10cminheight.
a.
Findthe(minimum)radiusaofthelenssothattheimagedbarpatternis
justresolvedalongx.
b.
Givearoughsketchofthisjustresolvedimage.
Solution:
Thebarpatternisgivenby
t(x,y)=[rect(x/103)comb(x/2x103)]rect(y/0.1)
Theimpulseresponseh(xi,yi)ofthelensofradius a forcoherentillumination
(HeNelaser)isthejincfunctionfoundbytherelations
h(xi,yi)=F{P(dix,diy)}|f =x
x
i
f =y
y
i
h(xi,yi)={}2
alongtheimagecoordinates(xi,yi).
Therefore,thewidthofthemainpeakisgivenby
=1.22
or
xi=
74
EXEN625:Photonics
Winter1998
Forresolution,onerequiresthatthewidthofthejincfunctionbeaboutthewidth
ofthebarsothat xi =103. Thisimplies a =103. Therefore,a1mm
radiuslenswouldjustresolvethisbarpatternalongx.
75
EXEN625:Photonics
Winter1998
F.
1.
SampleConfigurations
2.
FineSortingTheMatchedFilter
Hereoneusesaparticularfiltertofindobjectswhichhaveaspecifiedshapeor
texture.Forexample,thismaybeusedincharacterrecognition.
Itcanbeshownthatthecorrectfiltertouseforadesiredsignalg(x,y),givena
noisespectraldensitySn(fx,fy),is{G*(fx,fy)/Sn(fx,fy)}.
3.
GrossSortingDiffractionPatternSampling
Here one uses Fourier domain sampling to provide clues suitable for gross
sortingofimages.Thistechniqueisusefulwhenobjectsaretobeclassifiedintoseveral
bins according to general characteristics rather than detailed characteristics. For
example,thismaybeusedforclassificationofradarimageryintourbanandruralareas.
SomemethodofsamplingtheFourierdomain,suchasaringwedgedetector,deals
withonlyasmallamountofthetotalinformationavailable.
[See reprint, C. P. Miles and D. L. Jaggard, "The Use of Optical Fourier
Transforms to Obtain Pleomorphism, Size and Chromatic Clumping in Nuclear
Models,"Anal.Quant.CytologyJ.3,149156(1981).]
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EXEN625:Photonics
Winter1998
Photonics
ReviewProblems
These are problems selected to provide a review of the lecture material. Specific
assessmentswillbegivenattheendofeachclass.
DueSessionII
0.
a.Cometoclassandgiveabriefpresentationandleadabriefdiscussiononsomeaspectofthe
useofopticalcommunicationsorlasersinyourindustry.Thisisnottobeexhaustivebutyou
shouldplanontwoorthreeminutesforyourpresentationandquestions.
b.
Findanarticledescribinganewinventioninoptics.Readandbepreparedtogivea
summary.
1.
Problem13(pg.33)fromthetextFiberOpticCommunications.
2.
3.
4.
Wespenttimediscussingtheamplitude,phaseandfrequencyofopticalsignals.Whatuseis
polarization(i.e.,theorientationoftheelectricfield)inopticalcommunications?(Seechapter
3ofyourtextifyouneedfurtherdiscussionofpolarization.)
5.
Themoonisonequartermillionmilesaway.Whatisthediameterofanexpandedargonion
laser(=0.5145m)beamforadivergenceof1rad?Whatisthesurfaceareaonthemoon
illuminatedbysuchalaserbeamoriginatingfromearth?
6.
Howcouldoneuseastackofplates(e.g.,microscopeslides)topolarizeabeamoflightwhich
isinitiallyunpolarized?Showyourconfiguration.Howmanyplateswouldyouneed?
7.
CalculatetheBrewsterangleandthecriticalangleforaGaAsairinterface. Therefractive
indexofGaAs(galliumarsenide)is3.655.
8.
9.
10.
a.
b.
77
EXEN625:Photonics
Winter1998
11.
DueSessionIII
Whatisthelongitudinalcoherencelengthofasource(HeNe)withwavelength0.6328mand
awavelengthspreadof10
13
m.
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EXEN625:Photonics
Winter1998
12.
Aswelearned,alaserneedsafeedbackmechanism,anamplifyingoractivemediumanda
pumpinordertooperate.Indesktopsizedorlargerlasers,thefeedbackmechanismisoftena
resonantcavityconstructedformedbyapairofdielectricmirrorswhichdeterminethespectral
outputofthelaser.
Supposeonewantedtobuildaverysmalllaserusingintegratedcircuittechnologyinwhicha
pnjunctionformstheactivemediumwhichispumpedbyacurrentsource. Theproblem
remainsofconstructinganappropriateresonantcavity.
Considerasmalllaserwhichistobecome integrated intoasystemsuchthatits outputis
channeleddirectlyintoathinfilmwaveguideortransmissionline.Inthiscase,thelaserregion
and the guiding region are to be deposited (or diffused)onto the same substrate andit is
difficulttodepositamirrorinsuchaconfiguration. Describetheconstructionofaresonant
cavityforsuchalaserifthethislaseristobeintegratedintoathinfilmwaveguide.Inthis
case,layersofmaterialcanbedepositedwithdifferentrefractiveindicesandtheircomposition
canbevariedalongthelongitudinalaxisofthelaseroracrossit.Lasersofthistypecanbe
replicatedandcloselyspacedsuchthattheyformalaserarrayonachipofconsiderablepower.
Sketchyoursolutionandbepreparedtodiscussitinclass.
13.
Athinslitofwidth1mmisilluminatedbyaplanewaveofaHeNelaser.Atadistanceof5m
whatisthewidthofthemaindiffractionpeak?
14.
Considerthedesignofacavitywhichwillbeusedasaspectrumanalyzerwithalineormode
9
spacingof10 Hzandalinewidthof106 Hz. Whatshouldbethelengthandthemirror

reflectancesofthiscavity?
15.
ThecavityofanArIonlaseris0.5mlong.
9
a.
Supposetheactivegasusedintheselasershasaspectralwidthof1.5GHz(=1.5x10
Hz). Howmanycavitymodescanoscillateorlase? Whatistheapproximatelongitudinal
coherencelengthofthislaser?
b.
Explainhowonecouldincreasethecoherencelengthofthelaseroutputbyintroducing
asecondshortcavityoflengthDinsidethelasercavity.
16.
17.
GroupMiniProjectdue(seepg.62).
DueSessionIV
79
EXEN625:Photonics
Winter1998
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
Usingthe Designer'sGuide toFiber Optics handout,designafiberoptic link suitable for

maximumdistancebetweenrepeatersusingtheproductsgiveninthetables.Choosesource,
fiberandreceiver.Notefrequencyofoperationandtakeintoaccountalllossesofthesystem.
Listandcalculate,orestimate,alllosses.Providethetotallossfromsourcetoreceiverfora10
kmlink.
23.
Repeatthepreviousproblemforasystemwhichistohavethelargestbandwidthover10km
withoutregardtoattenuation.Findthemaximumbitrateforthisopticallink.
24.
TheproductsgivenintheDesigner'sGuidetoFiberOpticsaresomewhatdated.Basedonyour
readingofotherinformation (e.g.,seeOptical CommunicationSystems, oryourtext Fiber
OpticCommunication),whatwouldbeamorerealisticestimateforthetotallossfromtosource
toreceiverforproblem22.basedonrecenttechnologyandamorerealisticestimateforthe
maximumbitrateforproblem23.basedonrecenttechnology?
Bepreparedtodiscusstheresultsoftheabovethreeproblemsinclass.
25.
Understandtheoperationofadistributedfeedback(DFB)laser.
26.
ReadthearticleLightwaveCommunications:TheFifthGenerationbyE.Desurvireandother
materialonsolitonfibertransmissionanderbiumdopedfibersinyourcoursematerial. Be
preparedtodiscussthispaperinclass.
Inparticular,considerthefollowingissues:
i.
Whatarethefivegenerationsoflightwavecommunications?
ii.
Whatdefinesthe"fifthgeneration?"
iii.
Whatarethemajorelementsofthelightwavecommunication
systemofthefuture?
iv.
Whatistheroleofbasicsciencetothistechnology?
v.
Howlongdidittaketogofromthebasicsciencetoaprototype?
Howmuchlongerwillittaketoplacethissysteminoperation?
vi.
Howcanredundancybeputintothesecommunications
systemsifusedfortransatlanticlinks?
80
EXEN625:Photonics
Winter1998
vii.
viii.
ix.
x.
27.
Whatpolicyissuesareatstake?
Whatsociologicalissuesneedtobeaddressed?
Whatistheeconomicbenefitofsuchsystems?
Whatistheeffectivedispersionofsuchsystemsandhowdoes
itcomparewithconventionalfiberopticcommunicationssystems?
Sketchadesignforafibersensor.Thatis,designasystemwhereafiberisusedtomeasure
somequantityofinterestsuchaspressure,temperature,ormagneticfield.
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EXEN625:Photonics
Winter1998
28.
Workingroupstoconsideroneofthefollowingproblems.
Bepreparedtodiscussyoursolutionsandleadtheclassinadiscussionofyourideas.Develop
appropriatesketchesofimplementationandconsiderlimitations,bothscientificandpractical.
ProblemNo.1
Itisdesiredtofindimperfectionsincontinuouslymovingsectionsofclothasitisbeing
manufactured. How would you use optics to perform an automatic examination? (Of
particularinterestaremissingthreadsanddoublethreads.)
ProblemNo.2
USpapercurrencycanbeeasilycounterfeitedusingrecentlydevelopedcolorcopiers
and computerized methods of scanning and printing. How could one prevent such
counterfeiting at a relatively low cost? (It is desired that the methods used are relatively
inexpensiveanddonotgreatlyaltertheappearanceofthemoney.)
ProblemNo.3
Aroboticvisionsystemisdesiredtoobtainaccurate images inamanufacturing
environment. Suggestmethodsbywhichasinglesensorcanbeautomaticallyfocusedona
desiredobject(similartotheautomaticfocusingsystemsinmoderncameras).Howcanone
getstereoscopicimages?Whatadvantagesmightthisprovideforaroboticsvisionsystem?
29.
Prepareabriefoverviewofyourphotonicsfinalproject.
Useafew(<4)VUgraphsandhandoutsasdesired.(Thispresentationwillformpartofyour
photonicsprojectgradesincethiswillbeyouronlyoralpresentationonthismaterial.Youwill
have4minutesforpresentationand1minuteforquestions.)
30.
31.
Problems520and521(pg.139)fromthetextFiberOpticCommunications.
32.
33.
Estimate the total cost for placing a single transAtlantic optical fiber from New York to
London. Include material and installation costs and itemize. Note the type of fiber and
estimatethebitrateforthislinkassuminganappropriatesource.(Aftermakingyourestimate,
ifyouhaveaccesstotheactualcost,includethataswell.)
DueSessionV
82
EXEN625:Photonics
Winter1998
34.
DuringoursessionnextProgramweekend,wewilldiscusstheuseofFouriertransformsfor
opticalsignalprocessing.ReadsectionVIIIofthecoursenotesPhotonicsanddothefollowing
problemsinpreparationforclass.
a.
Sketchthefunctiong(x)=rect(x/L)andfindandsketchitsFourier
transformG(fx).[Remember,rect(x)=1/2for|x|<1/2,and
rect(x)=0for|x|>1/2.]
b.
Considernowthetwodimensionalproblemg(x,y)=rect(x/a)rect(y/b).Findits two
dimensionalFouriertransformG(fx,fy).
c.
SupposeaHeNelaser(=0.6328m)planewaveilluminatesasquare aperture of
size3mmx3mm.Adistance5mawayitsdiffractionpattern(thatisthe intensity which is
proportionaltotheFouriertransformofthefield,absolutevalue squared) is viewed on the
wall.Whatisthewidthofthemainlobeofthe
diffraction pattern, from null to null,
observedonthewall?Whatistheintensityof
the first (largest) sidelobe relative to the
mainlobemaximumvalue?Whatisthe
expression for the intensity as a function of
coordinatesxandy?(Hint:usethe Fouriertransformrelationforopticsgiveninthenotes.)
d.
Twosquareaperturesofsize3mmx3mmareplacedadistance6mmapart
along
the x' axis in the plane z = 0. Find an expression for the far field amplitude
(x,y,z)(i.e.,theFouriertransform).Makeasketchofthefarfieldasafunction of
[x/z]giventhaty=0.Thatis,sketch(x,0,z)asafunctionofx,showingthe important
quantitiessuchaszerocrossings.(Hint:usetheFouriertransform
relation for optics
giveninthenotesandremembertheshifttheoremandtheEuler identities.)
35.
Abandlimitedsignalg(x,y)isrecordedinadegradedwaybyalaserprinter.Therecordingis
f(x,y)isgivenby:
f(x,y)=
whereandpareknown(realandpositive)numbers.
Giventhefunctionf(x,y),canonerecoverg(x,y)?Ifsohowandnotelimitations.Ifnot,why
not?Assumethatthemaximumspatialfrequencyoftheimageis200linespermillimeteralong
boththexandyaxis.Useplotsandequationsandexplainyourmethodofreconstruction.
DueSessionVI
83
EXEN625:Photonics
Winter1998
36.
Atwodimensionalsquaremicrowaveantennaarrayisdesignedforoperationinthefarfield
(i.e.,Fraunhoferzone). Thearrayconsistsofonehundredtwentyone(121)0.1cmsquare
apertureswithcentertocenterspacingof10cmonaregular1111grid.Eachapertureis
driven by atimeharmonic source with constant amplitude and phaseacross each aperture
opening.
10
a.
Forasourceat10GHz(=1 10 Hz),sketchtheapproximatefarzoneradiation
powerorintensitypatternalongoneoftheprincipalaxes.Indicateallimportantwidths,zero
crossingsandheights. Whatisthebeamwidthbetweennulls? Whatistheratioofhighest
sidelobeleveltothemainbeamwidthlevel?
b.
Usingthegeometrystatedinthefirstparagraphwithallelementsdriveninphase,what
isthehighestfrequencythatcanbegeneratedbythesourceforthisarraysuchthatonlyone
mainlobeappearsintheentirehalfplaneinfrontofthearray?
37.
Describeanopticaldiffractionpatternsamplingsystemforcontinuouslymonitoringthequality
ofclothasitismanufactured.Thechallengeisindetectingmissinglinesofthreadanddouble
linesofthreadinotherwisenormalmaterial. Sketchtheopticalsourceandopticalsensing
systemshowingallrelativelocationsanddimensions.Indicatethemethodfordeterminingthe
presenceorabsenceofdefectsandbesuretoindicatethesensorgeometryandappropriate
diffractionpatterndimensionsandsensordimensions.Explainhowyoursystemworksusing
thenecessaryanalyticalandqualitativedescriptors.
38.
DescribeanopticaldiffractionpatternsamplingsystemforthemonitoringofSAR(synthetic
aperture radar)imagery. Theimages arecontained onrolls of35mmfilm andareradar
picturesofterrainfromtheMiddleEast.Themaximumresolutionofthefilmisapproximately
200linespermillimeter.Itisdesiredtoautomaticallyindicateregionsof:
i)
Unoccupiedsandyareas
ii)
Inhabitedruralareas
iii)
Cities
iv)
Farmland
v)
Roads
39.
Photonicsfinalprojectdue.
84
EXEN625:Photonics
Winter1998
SampleGroupMiniProjectI
After considering the article on tacky lasers, please prepare the following group
(approximatelyfivepeoplepergroup)presentationforournextmeeting. Electonememberofthe
grouptobetherepresentative(seeitem4.below).
Considerthefollowingitems.
1.
Whatdifferentiatesthetackylaserfromwhatisalreadyavailable?
Whatarethefundamentallimitationsonitsoperationandusefulness?
Howcanyougetadditionalinformationifneeded?
2.
Findthebestnewapplicationforthetackylaserassumingthatwithintwoyears
thelaserwillbereliable(lifetimeofseveralthousandhours),canbeexcited
using current (rather than by light), and can operate at room temperature.
Rememberthecommentsofyourclassmatesraisedinourclassdiscussionlast
weekendandthis.
3.
Forthisapplication,estimatethetimeandcostofbringingthenewserviceor
producttothemarketplace.Whatistheadvantageofyourserviceorproductas
comparedtowhatisavailable?Whatisthemarket?Howlongwillittaketo
breakeven?Whatarethepotentialrisks?Whatassumptionshaveyoumade?
4.
Prepareseveraloverheadtransparenciesforapresentationtotherestoftheclass
whowillactasasourceofventurecapital(besuretobringalongyourcheck
books!)andwillaskquestions. Beabletoexplainyourentireidea(technical,
market,financing)infiveminutesorless.Submitacopyofthetransparencies
tomebeforeyourtalkandincludeallnamesofparticipantsonthetitlepage.
5.
Ashortgroupreportisoptionalandmaybesubmittedonlyifmaterialisneeded
inadditiontothepresentationforabasicunderstandingofyourconcept.
SeeR.E.Slusher,SemiconductorMicrolasersandTheirApplications,Optics&PhotonicsNews,pp.817(February
1993).
85
EXEN625:Photonics
Winter1998
86
EXEN625:Photonics
Winter1998
SampleGroupMiniProjectII
Inyourgroup,considerthesolutiontotheproblemofcounterfeitdocuments(e.g.,money,
stamps,stockorbondcertificates,transcripts).
Decide:
1.
What problem are you solving? Are you considering currency or general
documents?
2.
Identifythekeyissues.
3.
Findtheconstraints(e.g.,technical,practical,financial,publicacceptance).
3.
Whatsolutionscanyouquicklygeneratetoaddressthekeyissues? Consider
bothhightechandlowtechsolutions.
4.
Canyoufindoneortwohighpotentialcandidatesolutions? Whataretheir
strengthsandweaknesses?
87
EXEN625:Photonics
Winter1998
SampleGroupMiniProjectIII
Youhave read a paper describing the fifth generation ofoptical communications systems.
Whatisthesixthgeneration? Areweinitnow? Ifso,whatareitscharacteristics? Ifnot,what
technologicalorbusinessbreakthroughsareneeded?
Decide:
1.
Whatistheroleofnonlinearopticsinsixthgenerationsystems?
2.
Whatrole,ifany,doallglasssystemsplayaroleinsixthgenerationsystems?
3.
Whatisthetimetableforyoudefinitionofasixthgenerationsystem>
4.
Whatarethenontechnicalissuestobedecided?
88
EXEN625:Photonics
Winter1998
LaboratoryDemonstration
1.
BeamExpanderandCollimatedBeam
Howisthebeamexpanderconstructed?
Howcanthefocallengthofthesmallerlens(objective)bedetermined?
Howcanonecheckifthebeamisreallycollimated?
Isthelaserbeampolarized?
Howdoestheexpandedbeamchangethespreadingorbeamdiffraction?
2.
TotalInternalReflectionandCriticalAngle
Whataresomeapplicationsoftotalinternalreflection?
Istotalinternalreflectionpolarizationsensitive?
Whathappensifafingerprintisappliedonareflecting
surfaceoftheprism?
Howcouldthiseffectbeusedasasensor?
3.
BrewsterAngle
IstheBrewsteranglepolarizationsensitive?
IftheBrewsterangleismeasuredtobe57.2whatistherefractiveindex
ofaglassslide?
WouldyouexpecttheBrewsterangleofaglassslidetobe39.2?Why?
Doesreflectionalwaystendtopolarizeunpolarizedlight?
4.
DiffractionPatternsandOpticalFourierTransforms
Whenthesmallsquareapertureisplacedinthecollimatedbeam,whatintensity
patterndoyouexpect?Why?Whataboutacircularaperture?
Usingarulerandtheintensitydiffractionpattern,howcanyoufind
thewavelengthofthesource?
Whathappenstothelaserbeamwhenthepinholeisremoved?
Whatisthepurposeofthepinhole?Howdoesitwork?
5.
OpticalFibersandFiberCoupling
Whyisthelightguidedbytheglassfibers?
Whydoeslightappearoutsideofthefiberattheconicaltransitionregion?
Whycanyouseethelightinsidethefiber?
Whydoescouplingoccurwhenadropofwaterisappliedtothefiberjunction?
6.
LightScattering
Isthewhitelightinitiallypolarized?
89
EXEN625:Photonics
Winter1998
Isthescatteredlightpolarized?Whyorwhynot?
Ishighorlowfrequencylightscatteredmoreefficientlybythemilkparticles?
Ishighorlowfrequencylightleftinthebeam?
Shouldoneusesmallorlargewavelengthlighttoavoidsmallparticlescattering
inopticalfibers?
90
EXEN625:Photonics
Winter1998
GuidelinesforOralPresentations
Inthisclass,oralpresentationswilloftenrepresenttheworkofagroupandwillberestrictedin
timetoallowallgroupstopresenttheirideas.Mostoften,overheadtransparencies(i.e.,VUgraphs)
willbeausefulaid.Slides,videoclipsanddemonstrationsmayalsobehelpful.
Fromseeingandhearinganumberofpresentations,Imakethesuggestionsbelow.
1.
Makeanoutlineofyourmostimportantideasbeforeputtingtogetheryourpresentation.
Besureyouandyouraudiencebothknowthemainpointofyourtalkatthebeginning
andendofyourpresentation.
2.
Staywithinthetimerestriction.Distillyourideastotheirclearestrepresentation.Have
youraudiencewantingmoreinformationnotless.
3.
AnexcellentruleofthumbistolimitthenumberofVUgraphstooneperminuteor
less. Startwithatitleslide,nextprovideanoutlineoroverviewifyouhavefifteen
slidesormore,andendwithconclusions. Keepyourmainpresentationtothemain
points.Inmostpresentations,thereisnoneedtobeexhaustiveortorepresentallofthe
thingsthatyoutriedbutdidnotwork.Backupslidescanprovidetechnicalorfinancial
detailsandbeusedtoanswerquestions.
4.
Forpresentationsoflessthantenminutes,itismosteffectivetohaveasinglepresenter
representagroup.Choseyourbestcommunicatortopresentthematerialandhaveall
membersofthegroupavailabletoanswerquestions.
5.
VUgraphsshouldhavelargeprint,lotsofopenspace,andnotmorethanfivebullets
per page. Do not use pages from a technical report reproduced on transparencies.
Theseareunreadable.Foroverheadsuseblackletteringonalightbackgroundformost
readable slides. For slides or electronic presentations, light lettering on a dark
backgroundiseasiertoread.
6.
For technical or financial material, a picture or graph is often the most useful and
efficientformatforsummarizingdataorpresentingcompletelynewideas.Tableswith
alotofdataareoftenconfusing.Colorisoftenusefultoconveyadditionalinformation.
Keepyourviewgraphsclean.
7.
Start your talk with something that connects to the background of your audience.
Remembertosequentiallytalkwithanumberofpeopleinyouraudience,completing
eachideabeforemakingeyecontactwiththenextperson.Eyesthatdartorscanthe
audienceconveyalackoftrustworthiness.
91
EXEN625:Photonics
Winter1998
8.
Practiceyourtalkandinvitefeedbackfromafriendlygroupbeforeyourpresentation.
Dontendsentenceswithanupwardpitchofyourvoice.Thismakesyoursentences
appearstobetentativeandunderminesyourcredibility.
9.
Controlannoyinghabitssuchaspacing,jinglingchangeinyourpocket,playingwith
jewelry or hair. Know where to place your hands when you speak. Avoid most
mechanicalpointers. Havetheoverheadprojectorononlywhenpresentingmaterial
fromthatslideoroverhead.Forotherdiscussion,turnofftheprojector.
92
EXEN625:Photonics
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PhotonicsFinalProjectGuidelines
Due:BeginningofNextEMTMTerm
Yourfinalprojectpapershoulddiscussthetechnicalaspectsandapplicationsofanareaof
photonics discussed in class (e.g., lasers, optical fibers, thinfilm optical devices, optical
communicationssystems,opticalsignalprocessing)oranotherareaofrecentoremergingimportance
in photonics of your own choosing. The report should also discuss previous and competitive
technologies,andthepotentialuseofthetechnologyyouchoose.Itisthiscombinationoftechnical
andbusinessaspectsthatmakethemostsuccessfulfinalproject. Youmayalsoincludemarketor
potentialmarketaspectsofyourchoice.
Thefollowinglistisrepresentativeofappropriatetopics:
1.
Useofsolitarywavefibersinopticalcommunications
2.
Principalsandapplicationsoffibersensors
3.
Methodsofopticalpatternrecognition
4.
Principalsofoperationandapplicationsofintegratedopticallasers
5.
Syntheticapertureradar(SAR)andits(opticalorother)signalprocessing
6.
Comparisonofsatelliteandfibercommunicationsforlongdistance
communicationanddatatransfer
7.
Opticalneuralnetworksand/orcomputers
8.
Integratedopticaldevicesforsignalprocessingorcommunications
9.
Roboticvision:automatedopticalinspectionofcircuitboardsorothermanufactured
parts
10.
Industrialusesofholographyfornondestructiveevaluationandtesting
11.
Openopticallinksforlineofsightcommunication
12.
Infraredimagingdevices
13.
Medical/dentalphotonics
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EXEN625:Photonics
Winter1998
14.
Electroopticaldevicesandsystems
15.
Allglassopticalfibernetworks:theirconfiguration,operationandperformance
94
EXEN625:Photonics
Winter1998
Atypicalfinalprojectreportwillmostlikelyincludediscussionsofthefollowing:
1.
Previoustechnologyanditslimitations
2.
Brieftrajectoryofthephotonictechnologycoveredinyourreport
3.
Comparisonofreportedtechnologywithcompetingtechnologies
andtheirlimitations,advantagesortradeoffs
4.
Scientificbasisforphotonictechnology,scientificbreakthroughsand
fundamentalscientificlimitations
5.
Quantitativetechnicalanalysisofphotonicdeviceorsystem
(Thismayincludeasketchorblockdiagram,andadiscussion
ofoperationandanalysis.)
6.
Applicationsandfutureuse
7.
Marketandbusinessconsiderations
AsuitablestartingplaceformanyphotonictechnologieswouldbeScientificAmericanwhich
periodicallycoversthesetopicsinanexcellentnonmathematicalmanneroranindividualinyour
organization whoworksinthearea. Likewise, LaserFocus World andsimilartradejournals are
useful.Additionaltechnicalinformationcanoftenbefoundinrecenttextbooks(usuallyeasiertoread)
andrevieworotherarticlesinjournals(usuallymorechallengingtoread)suchasProceedingsofthe
IEEE,JournaloftheOpticalSocietyofAmerica,AppliedOptics,IEEEProceedingsonLightwave
TechnologyorotherreferencesfoundintheMooreSchoolLibrary.TheIEEEPressoftenpublishes
excellentcollectionsofpapersonphotonics.Pleaseincludeanappropriatebibliographyofallmaterial
usedforyourreport.Callmeat(215)8988241ifyouhavetroublelocatingbackgroundmaterialore
mail<jaggard@seas.upenn.edu>.ThomasWu<xwu@ee.upenn.edu>willalsobeabletohelp.
Thisisamajorportionofyourpaperandshouldbespecificandincludeasamplecalculationofdeviceorsystem
characteristics.Lengthyanalyses,ifneeded,canbeplacedinanappendixwithallrelevantresultsplacedinthebodyof
thereport.Summarizefindingswithappropriategraphs,chartsortables.
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EXEN625:Photonics
Winter1998
Thereportshouldbethefocusedworkofanindividualor(preferably)atwopersonteam.If
theworkisdonebyateam,pleasesubmitasingleintegratedreport. Limitthescopeofyourtopic
suchthatthereportofanindividualdoesnotexceed1520pagesandateamreportdoesnotexceed
3040pages.(Here,lessismore!)
Afewhintsfrompastexperiencemaybeinorder.
1.
Keepthescopeofyourreportlimited.
2.
Be sure to identify what is your contribution and what portions are the
contributions of others. Notations in the text should identify where each
referenceisused. Iffiguresandtablesaretakenfromotherwork,besureto
identifythemthroughareference.
3.
Keep an appropriate balance between technical and business aspects of the

project.
4.
Atypicalpaperoutlinemightlooklikethis:
TitlePage
Title
Name(s)
ExecutiveSummary
I.
IntroductionandHistory
II.
GeneralScientific/TechnicalBackgroundandBasisofOperation
III.
Applications
IV.
CompetingTechnologiesandMarketConsiderations
V.
Conclusions
Bibliography
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Photonic S

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Photonic S

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UniversityofPennsylvania

Acomparisonof diffraction and refraction fortypicalopticalwavesisuseful.

spot.Thisrigorouslyconfirmstheprevious results up to a numerical

Transverse coherence is measured by examining the maximum separation

Therefore,N islessthanN underequilibriumconditions.

The atomic system, due to one or more of these broadening mechanisms, as a

From our previous discussion, rays which travel at different

while for laser sources which have a narrower spectral output

=R|S| +R|R| +S|R| +S*R

rect(t/T) |T| sinc(Tf)

(t/T) |T| sinc (Tf)

comb(t/T) |T| comb(Tf)

Oneimmediately notices thefollowingdifferences betweencoherentandincoherent

spacingof10 Hzandalinewidthof106 Hz. Whatshouldbethelengthandthemirror

Usingthe Designer'sGuide toFiber Optics handout,designafiberoptic link suitable for

Keep an appropriate balance between technical and business aspects of the

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