GENERAL Safe, economical, and reliable operation of mod- ‘em aiteraft is dependent upon the use of instru- ments. The first aircraft instruments were fuel and oil pressure instruments to wam of engine trouble 0 that the aircraft could be landed before the en- ine failed. As aircraft that could fy over consider- able distances were developed, weather became problem, Instruments were developed that belped to fly through bad weather conditions. Instrumentation is basicaly the science of meas. urement. Speed, distance, altitude, attitude, direo- tion, temperature, pressure, and r.p.m. are measured and these meesurements are displayed on dials {in the cock ‘There are two ways of grouping aircraft instru ‘ments. One is according to the job they perform. ‘Within this grouping they can be classed as flight instruments, engine instruments, and navigation in- struments. The other method of grouping sirraft instruments is according to the principle on which they work. Some operate in relation to changes in temperature or air pressure and some by fhuid pres sure, Others are activated by magnetism and elec- tricity, and others depend on gyroscopic action. ‘The instruments that aid in controlling the in- flight attitude of the aircraft are known as fight instruments, Since these instruments must provide {information instantaneously, they are located on the rain instrument panel within ready visual reference of the pilot. Basic fight instruments in an aircraft are the airspeed indicator, altimeter and the mag- netic direction indicator. In addition, some aircraft ‘may have a rateof-tur indicator, a benk indicator, and an artificial horizon indicator. Flight instru. ‘ments are operated by atmospheric, impact, differ- ental or static pressure or by a gyroscope. Engine instruments are designed to measure the quantity and pressure of liquids (fuel and oil) and .g2ses (manifold pressure), r.pm., and temperature. The engine instruments usually include a tachome- ter, fuel and ofl pressure gages, oil temperature CHAPTER 12 AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS ‘gage, and a fuel quantity gage. In addition some sireraft that are powered by reciprocating engines are equipped with manifold pressure gege(s), cylin der head temperature gage(s), and carburetor air temperature gage(s). Gas turbine powered aircraft will have a turbine or tailpipe temperature gage(s), and may have an exhaust pressure ratio indice: tor). Navigational instruments provide information that enables the pilot to guide the aircraft accu- rately along definite courses. This group of instru- ‘ments includes a clock, compasses (magnetic com- pase and gyroscopic directional indicator), radios, and other instruments for presenting navigational information to the plot, INSTRUMENT CASES ‘A typical instrument can be compered to a clock, fn that the instrument has a mechanism, or works; 4 dial, or face; pointers, or hands; and a cover lass, The instrument mechanism is protetoed by a ‘one; oF two-picee case. Various materials, such as aluminum alloy, magnesium alloy, iron, steel, or plastic are used in the manufacture of instrament ‘aves. Bakelite is the most commonly used plastic. Cases for electrically operated instruments are made of iron or steal; these materials provide a path for stray magnetic force fields that would otherwise interfere with radio and electronic devices. Some instrument mechanisms are housed in tight cases, while other cases have a vent hole. The vent allows air pressure inside the instrament case to vary withthe aircraft's change in altitude. brats Numerals, diat markings, and pointers of instra- ments are frequently coated with luminous paint. Some instruments are costed with luminous calcium sulphide, « substance that glows for several hours ater exposure to light. Other instruments have a Phosphor costing that glows only when excited by a small ultraviolet lamp in the cockpit. Some instra- ‘meats are marked with a combinstion of radioactivesalis, zine oxide, and shellac. In handling these instruments, care should be taken against radium poisoning. The effects of radium are cumulative and can appear after a long period of continued expo- sure to small amounts of radiation. Poisoning usually results from touching the mouth or nose after handling instrument dials or radioactive paint. After handling either, the hands should be kept aviay from the mouth and nose, and yashed thor- ‘oughly with hot water and soap es soon as possible. RANGE MARKINGS Instrument range markings indicate, ata glance, whether a particular eystem or component is opera: ting in a safe and desirable range of operation oF in an unsafe range. Tnstruments should be marked and graduated in sccordance with the Aireralt Specifications or Type Certificate Date Sheets and the specific aircraft maintenance or fight manual. Instrument markings usually consist of colored decaleomanias or paint applied tothe outer edges of the cover glass or over the calibrations on the dal face. The colors gener- ally used as range markings are red, yellow, green, Blue, or white. The maskings are usually in the form ‘A red radial line may be used to indicate maxi- ‘mum snd minimum ranges: operations beyond these ‘markings are dangerous and should be avoided. A blue are marking indicates that operation is permit- ted under certain conditions. A green are indicates the normal operating range during continuous oper- ation. Yellow is used to indicate caution. ‘A white index marker is placed near the bottom of all instruments that have range markings on the cover glass. The index marker is a line extending from the cover glass onto the instrument case. The marker shows if glass slippage has occurred. Class slippage would cause the range markings to be in INSTRUMENT PANELS, With a few exceptions, instruments are mounted fon & panel in the cockpit so that the dials are plainly visible to the pilot or copilot. Instrument panels are usually made of sheet aluminum alloy strong enough to resist flexing. The panels are non- ragnetic and are painted with a nonglare paint to climinate glare or reflection. In aircraft equipped with only a few instruments, ‘only one pane! is nocessary; in some aircraft, addi tional panels are required. Jn such cases the for. 470 ‘ward instrument panel is usually referred to as the “main” instrument panel to distinguish it from ad- 4itional panels on the cockpit ovethead or along the side ofthe flight compartment. On some aircraft the ‘main instrument panel is also referred to as the pilot's or copilot’s panel, since many of the pilots instraments on the left side of the panel are dupli- cated on the right side. ‘The method of mounting instruments on theit respective panels depends on the design of the in- strument case. In one design, the bezel is flanged in ‘such a manner that the instrument can be flush- ‘mounted in its eutout from the rear of the panel Integral selflocking nuts are provided at the rear faces of the flange comers to receive mounting ‘screws from the front of the panel. The flanged type case can also be mounted from the front of the Panel. ‘The mounting of instruments that have flangeless ‘eases is a simpler process. The flangeless case is ‘mounted ftom the front of the panel. A. special expanding type of clamp, shaped and dimensioned to fit the instrument cas, is secured to the rear face of the panel. As actuating screw is connected to the clamp and is accessible from the front of the panel ‘The screw can be rotated to loosen the clamp, per- mittng the instrament to slide freely into the elamp. Alter the instrument is positioned, the screw is r0- tated to tighten the clamp around the instrument Instrument panels are usually shock-mounted to absorb low-frequency, high-amplitude shocks. Shock mounts are used in sets of two, each secured to Batam yy Rubber ‘grommet Su "Bonding Prevne 1241. Section through instrument panel shock.separate brackets. The two mounts absorb most of the vertical and horizontal vibration, but permit the instruments to operate under conditions of minor vibration, A cross sectional view of a typical shock ‘mount is shown in figare 12-1. ‘The type and number of shock mounts to be used for instrument panels are determined by the weight of the unit. The weight of the complete unit is divided by the number of suspension points. For example, an instrument panel weighing 16 Ths. which is supported at four points would require tn shock absorbers, each capable of supporting 4 1s. When the panel is mounted, the weight should deflect the shock absorbers approximately ¥ in. Shock-mounted instrument panels should be free to-move in all directions and have sufficient clear ance to avoid striking the supporting. structure, When a panel does not have adequate clearance, inspect the shock mounts for looseness, cracks, of deterioration. REPAIR OF AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS The repair of aircraft instruments is highly spe- cialized, requiring special tools and equipment, In- strument repairmen must have had specialized train- Sng or extensive onthe-job training in instrument repair, For these reasons, the repair of instruments must be performed by a properly certifiested instru- tment repair facility. However, mechanics are res- onsible for the installation, connection, removal servicing, and fanctional checking of the instru- meats. AIRCRAFT PRESSURE GAGES. Pressure gages are used to indicate the pressure at which engine oil is forced through the hearings, an icone 12-3, Boardon tube pretsre gage. oil pessages, and moving parts of the engine and the pressure at which fuel is delivered to the car- Duretor or fuel control. They are also wsed to meas- ture the pressure of air in de-icer systems and gyro- scope drives, of fuel/air mixtures in the intake man- ifold, and of liquid or gases in several other sy3- tems, Engine Gage Unit ‘The engine gage unit is comprised of three aepe- rate instraments housed in a single case. A typical engine gage unit, containing gages for oil and fuel pressure and oil temperature, is shown in figure 122, ‘Two types of oil temperature gages are available for use in an engine gage unit. One type consists of an clectrical resistance type oil thermometer, sup- plied electrical current by the aireraft dc, power system. The other type @ capillary oil therinometer, is a vapor pressure type thermometer consisting of a bulb connected by a capillary tube to a Bourdon tube. A pointer, connected to the Bourdon tube Yhrough @ multiplying mechanism, indicates on a dial the temperature of the oil ‘The Bourdon tube is an aircraft instrument made ‘of metal tubing, oval or somewhat flattened in cross section (figure 12-3). The metal tubing is closed at ‘one end and mounted rigidly in the instrument case at its other end,‘The fluid whose pressure is to be measured is {introduced into the fixed end of the Bourdon tube by a small tube leading from the fluid system to the instrument, The greater the pressure of the fluid, the more the Bourdon tube tends to become straight. When the pressure is reduced or removed, the inherent springiness of the metal tube causes it to curve beck to its normal shape. If an indicator needle or pointer is attached to the free end of the Bourdon tube, its reactions to changes in the fluid pressure can be observed, Hydraulic Pressure Gage ‘The mechanisms used in raising and lowering the landing gear or flaps in most aircraft are operated by a hydraulic system. A pressure gage to measure the differential pressure in the hydraulic system in- dicates how this system is functioning, Hydraatic pressure gages are designed to indicate either the pressure of the complete system or the pressure of 4am individual unit in the system. ‘A typical hydraulic gage is shown in figure 12-4. ‘The case of this gage contains a Bourdon tube and 4 gear-and-pinion mechanism by which the Bourdon tube's motion is amplified and transferred to the pointer. The position of the pointer on the cai brated dial indicates the hydraulic pressure in pa. ‘The pumps which supply pressure for the opera- tion of an aircrat’s hydranlic units are driven ei- ther by the aircraft's engine or by an electric moter, or both, Some installations use a pressure \ LL XS ooo’ ~ PRESSURE LB.S@, IN, 472 accumulator to maintain a reserve of fluid under pressure at all times. In such eases the pressure gage registers continuously. With other installa. tions, operating pressure is built up only when needed, and pressure registers on the gage only uring these periods Devicing Pressure Gage ‘The rubber expansion boots, which deice the leading edges of wings and stabilizes on some air- craft, are operated by a compressed air system. The de-icing system pressure gage measures the differ fence between prevailing atmospheric pressure and the pressure inside the de-icing system, indicating whether there is sufficient pressure to operate the boots. The gage also provides a method of measurement when adjusting the relie-valve and the regulator of the de-icing system. ‘A typical de-icing pressure gage is shown in figure 12-5. The case is vented at the bottom to keep the interior at atmospheric pressure, aswell as to provide a drain for any moisture which might ssocumalate, DE-ICING PRESSURE Ficuns 12-5, Deicing pressure gage. The pressure-measuring mechanism of the deic- ing pressure gage consists of a Bourdon tube and a sector gear, with a pinion for amplifying the motion of the tube and transferring it to the pointer. The de-icing system pressure enters the Bourdon tube through a connection at the back of the case.‘The range of the gage is typically from zero p.s.i- to 20 pas, with the scale marked in 2-p.si. gradua- tions as shown in igure 12-5. When installed and connected into an aircrat’s Aeicing pressure system, the gage resding always remains at zero unless the de-icing system is opers- ting, The gage pointer will fuctuate from zero pai to approximately 8 ps.i under normal conditions, Decause the de-icer boots are periodically inflated ‘and deflated. This normal fluctuation should not be confused with oscillation. hragm-Type Pressure Gages ‘This ype of pressure gage uses a diaphragm for measuring pressure. The pressure of suction to be measured is admitted to the pressuresensitive dis. phragm through an opening in the hack of the {instrament case (figure 12-6). Daher SSS icone 12-6. Diapragmaype presure gage. An opposing pressure, such as that of the atmos: phere, is admitted through a vent in the case (Sgure 12-6). Since the walls of the diaphragm are very thin, an increase of pressure will cause it to ‘expand, and a docrease in pressure will cause it to contract. Any movement of the diaphragen is trana- {erred to the pointer by means of the rocker shaft, sector, and pinion, which are connected to the front side of the diaphragm. This gage is also a differen- Hial-prescure measuring device since it indicates the ifference between the pressure applied at the vent a3. of the case and the pressure or suction inside the phragra. Suction Gages Suction gages are used on airccaft to indicate the smmount‘of suction that actuates the airdriven gy- roscopic instruments. The spinning rotors of gyros copie instruments are kept in motion by strearas of sir directed against the rotor vanes. These air- streams are produced by pumping air out of the instrument coses by the vacuum pump. Atmospheric pressure then forces air into the cases through fil ters, and it is this air that is directed againat the rotor vanes to turn them. ‘The suction gage indicates whether the vacuum system is working properly. The suction gage case 5 vented to the atmosphere or to the ine of the air filter, and contains a pressuresensitive diaphragm plus the usual multiplying mechanism which ampli- fies the movement of the diaphragm and transfers it to the pointer. The reading of a suction gage indi cates the difference between atmospheric: pressure ‘and the redued pressure inthe vacuum system. Manifold Prossure Gay ‘The manifold pressure gage is sn important in- strument in an aircraft powered by a reciprocating engine. The gage is designed to measure absolute pressure, This pressure is the sum of the air pres- ‘sure and the added pressure created by the super- charger. The dial of the instrument is calibrated in inches of mercury (Ha). When the engine is not running, the manifold Dressure gage records the existing atmospheric pres- sure, When the engine is running, the reading ob- tained on the manifold pressure gage depends on the engine's pam. The manifold pressure gage indi- cates the manifold pressure immediately before the cylinder intake ports, The schematic of one type of manifold pressure age is shown in figure 12-7. The outer shell of the gage protects and contains the mechanism. An open- ing at the back of the case provides for the connec- ‘tion tothe manifold of the engine. ‘The gage contains an anereid diaphragm snd a linkage for transmitting the motion of the dis- phragm to the pointer. The linkage is completely external to the pressure chamber, and thua is not exposed to the corrosive vapors of the manifold, ‘The pressure existing in the manifold enters the sealed chamber through a damping tube, which is a short length of capillary tubing at the rear of theAkitadecompensting aneroid Maniol presoe diaphragm Frome 12-2, Maifld peemore ee ‘ase. This damping tube acts as a safety valve to prevent damage to the instrument by engine back. fire. The sudden surge of pressure caused by back. fire is considerably reduced by the restricted capil lary tubing. ‘When installing a manifold pressure gage, care shoul be taken to ensure that the pointer is vertical when registering 30 in, He. When an engine is not running, the manifold pressure gage reading should be the same as the local barometric pressure. It can be checked against a barometer knowa to be in proper operating condi- tion, In most eases the altimeter in the aircraft can be used, since itis @ barometric instrument. With the aircraft on the ground, the altimeter hands should be set to zero and the instrument panel tapped Tightly a few times to remove any possible frictional errors. The barometer sale on the altime- ter face will indicate local atmospheric pressure when the altimeter hands are at zero. The manifold pressure gage should agree with this presure read- ing. If it does not, the gage should be replaced with «gage that is operating properly. Ifthe pointe fale to respond entirely, the mech- anism is, in all probability, defective. The gage should be removed and replaced. If the pointer responds but indicates incorrectly, there may be roisture in the system, obstruction in the Tines, a leak in the system, or a defective mechanism. When doubt exists about which of ete items ie the cause of the malfunction, the engine should be operated at idle speed and the drain valte (usually located nesr the gage) opened for a:few minutes. ‘This will usually clear the eystam of moistre. To am lear an obstruction, the lines may be disconnected and blown clear with compressed air. The gage rechanism may be checked for leaks by disconnect. ing the line at the engine end and applying sir Pressure until the gage indicates 50 in. Hg. Then the line should be quickly closed. A leak is present if the gage pointer return to atmospheric prossure. fa leak fe evident but cannot be found, the gage should be replaced. PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM ‘Three of the most important flight instruments fare connected into a pitot-static system. These in- struments are the airspeed indicator, the altimeter, and the rate-of-climb indicator. Figure 12-8 shows these three instruments connected to a pitot-static tube head. npc pee newt Prone 12-8. Pitot state system The pitotstatic system head, or pitot-static tube 1s itis sometimes called, consists of two sections. As shown in igure 12-9, the forward section is open at the front end to receive the full force of the impact air pressure. At the back of this section is « baffle plate to protect the pitot tube from moisture and 4irt that might otherwise be blown into it, Moisture can escape through a small drain hole at the bottom of the forward section. ‘The pitot, or pressure, tube leads back to « chamn- ber in the “shark-fin” projection near the rear of the assembly. A riser, or upright tube, leads the ait from this chamber through tubing to the airepeed indicator.sage < ‘The rear, or static, section of the pitot-static tube head is pieroed by small openings on the top and bottom surfaces. These openings are designed and located o that this part of the system will provide accurate measurements of atmospheric pressure in a smc, of still, condition. The static section contains 4 riser tube which is connected to the airepeed indicator, the altimeter, and the rate-of-limb indi ator. Many pitotstatic tubes are provided with heating clements to prevent icing during flight (gure 12-5). Daring ice-forming conditions, the electrical heating elements can be turned on by means of a switch in the cockpit. The electrical circuit foF the heater element may be connected through the igni- tion switch, Thus, in case the heater switch is inad- vertently left in the “on” position, there will be no drain on the battery when the engine is not opera: ting. ‘The pitotstatic tube head is mounted on the out- sido of the aircraft at a point where the air is least likely to be turbulent. It is pointed in a forward direction parallel tothe aircraft’ line of fight. One ‘general type of tube head is designed for mounting on a streamlined mast extending below the nose of the aircrait fuselage. Another type is designed for installation on a boom extending forward of the leading edge of the wing. Both types are shown in figure 12-10, Although there isa slight difference in their construction, they operate identically. Most pitotstatic tubes are manufactured with a tunion connection in both lines from the head, near the point at which the tube head is attached to the mounting boom or mast (figure 12-10). These connections simplify removal and replacenient, and are usually reached through an inspection door in the wing or fuselage. When a pitotstatic tube head fs to be removed, these connections should be dis- connected before any mounting serews and lock- washers are removed. Ficone 12-9, Pitotsttic este head 475 Fuselage 7 ‘nose mounting icone 12-10, Pitotstatic tube heads. In many aircraft equipped with a pitotstatie tube, an alternate aouree of static pressure is pro- vided for emergency wse. A schematic diagram of « typical system is showa in figure 12-11. As shown in the diagram, the allerate source of static pres- sare may be vented tothe interior ofthe aircraft. Another type of pitotstatic system provides fos the location of the pitot and static sources at sepa- a _ (cockpit air) icone 12-11. Pitotstati system with alternate source of state pressure.Pitot line (Schematic diagram of pitot head) Pitot pressure chamber Drain opening Phtot-hest element Frcume 12-12. Pitotatate system with separate sources of prema. "ate positions on the aircraft. This typeof system is iustrated in igure 12-12. Impact pressure is taken from the pitothead (figure 12-12) which is mounted parallel to the longitudinal axis of the aircraft and generally in line with the relative wind. The leading edge of the wing, nose section, or vertical stabilizer are the usual mounting position, since at those points there is usually # minimum disturbance of air due to rmotion ofthe sireraft. Static pressure in this type of pitot-static system is taken from the static line attached to a vent oF vents mounted flush with the fuselage or nose ee tion, On aircraft using a flushmounted static source, there may be two vents, one on exch side of the aieraft. This compensates for any possible vari- ation in static pressure on the vents due to erratic changes in aircraft attitude. The two vents are voually connected by a Y-type fitting. In this type ‘of system, clogging of the pitot opening by ice or int (or failure to remove the pitot cover) affects the airspeed indicator only. AA pitotstatie system used on pressurized, mal- thengine aircraft ia shown in figure 12-13. Three additional units, the cabin pressure controller, the cabin diflerential pressure gage, and the autopilot system are integrated into the static system. Both heated and unheated fushmounted static ports are sed. Abimoters ‘There are many kinds of altimeters in general use today. However, they are all constructed on the same basic principle as an aneroid barometer. They 476 all have pressuresesponsive elements (aneroids) which expand or contract with the pressure change of different flight levels. The heart of an altimeter is its aneroid mechanism (figure 12-14). The expan- ion or contraction of the aneroid with pressure changes actuates the linkage, and the indicating hhands show altitude. Around the aneroid mecha- nism of most altimeters is a devioe called the bi- metal yoke. As the name implies, this device is com. posed of two metals and performs the function of compensating for the effect that temperature has on the metals of the aneroid mechaniem. The presentation of altitude by altimeters in eur- rent use varies from the multipointer type to the drum and single pointer, and the digital counter and single pointer types, ‘The dial face ofthe typical altimeter is graduated with numerals from zero to 9 inclusive, as shown in figure 12-15. Movement of the aneroid element is transmitted through a gear train to the three hands ‘on the instrument face. These hans sweep the cali brated dial to indicate the altitude of the aircraft. ‘The shortest hand indicates altitude in tens of thou- sands of feet; the intermediate hand, in thousands cof feet; and the longest hand, in hundreds of feet in 20-R, increments. A barometric scale, located at the tight of the instrument face, can be set by a knob located at the lower left of the instrument case. The Darometric scale indicates barometric pressure in inches of mercury. ince atmospheric pressure continually changes, the barometric scale must be reset to the local station altimeter setting before the altimeter will indicate the correct altitude of the aircraft aboveFlash anounted Slated tie tube Static vent dein valve fa ose geur wel Alineter indicator ‘Aispeed indicator Cabin Cabin To altemate ‘Rate-f-clinb indicator ‘ontrller ferential pressure gage Copllot’s instrument ptot tube Flush-mounted contro pane! ME Static system (CEI) Pitot preseure system Foote 12-13, Schematic of typical pittstaic sytem on presinized multi-ngiaeairrat. sea level. When the setting knob is tuned, the barometric scale, the hands, and the aneroid ele- ‘ment move to align the instrument mechanism with the new altimeter setting. Two setting marks, inner and outer, indicate bar- lometric pressure in feet of altitude. They operate in conjunction with the barometric scale, and indica tions which can be placed on the barometric seal the setting marks are used when the barometric pressure to be read is outside the limits of the seal. am7Ver Sede icons 12-14 Mecheniam of senshive alimeter. Ficus 12-15, Sensitive alimeter ‘Altimeter Errors Alkimeters are subject to various mechanical er rors, A common one is that the sale is not correctly ‘oriented to standard pressure conditions. Alimeters should be checked periodically for scale errors in akitude chambers where standard conditions exist. ‘Another mechanical error is the hysteresis error. ‘This error is induced by the aircraft maintaining = siven altitude for an extended period of time, then suddenly making a large altitude change. The te- sulting lag or drift in the altimeter is caused by the clastic properties of the materials which comprise the instrument. This erzor will eliminate itself with slow climbs and descents or after maintaining a new altitude for a reasonable period of time. 478 In addition to the errors in the altimeter mecha- ‘nism, another error called installation error affects the accuracy of indications. The error is caused by the change of alignment of the static pressure port with the relative wind. The change of alignment is ‘caused by changes in the speed of the aircraft and in the angle of attack, or by the location of the static port in a disturbed pressure field. Improper {installation or damage to the pitotstatic tube will also result in improper indications of altitude Rato-of-Climb Indicators The ratecof-climb, or vertical velocity, indicator (figure 12-16) is a sensitive differential pressure sage that indicates the rate at which an aircraft is climbing or descending. The rate-ofclimb indicator {is connected to the static system and senses the rate of change of static pressure. ‘The rate of altitude change, as shown on indicator dial, is positive in a climb and negative Ficune 12-16, Typical rateofclinb iadlestor.‘when descending in altitude. The dial pointer moves in either direction from the zero point, depending fon whether the aircraft is going up or down. In level flight the pointer remains at zero. ‘The operation of a climb indicator is Mlustrated in figure 12-16. The case of the instrument is air- ight except for « small connection through a re- stricted passage to the static line of the pitotstatic system. Inside the sealed case of the rate-of-limb indice- tor is a diaphragm with connecting linkage and gearing to the indicator pointer. Both the dia- phragm and the case receive air at atmospheric Dreasure from the static line. When the aircraft is on the ground or in level light, the pressures inside the diaphragm and the instrument case remain the same and the pointer is at the zero indication. When the aiteraft climbs the pressure inside the iaphragm decreases but, due to the metering action of the restricted passage, the case pressure will re main higher and cause the diaphragm to contract. ‘The diaphragm movement ctuates the mechanise, causing the pointer to indicate a rate of climb. Whea the aircraft levels of, the pressure in the instrument case is equalized withthe pressure in the phragm returns to its neutral position and the pointer returns to zero. In a decent, the pressure conditions ate re versed, The diaphragm pressure immediately be- comes greater than the pressure in the instrument case, The diaphragm expands and operates the pointer mechanism to indicate the rate of descent, When the aircraft is climbing or descending at constant rate, a definite ratio between the dia- ‘phragm pressure and the case pressure is msin- tained through the calibrated restricted passage, which requires approximately 6 to 9 sec. to equalize the two pressures, causing a lag in the proper read- ing. Any sudden or abrupt changes in the sireraf’s attitude may cause erroneous indications due to the sudden change of sirflow over the static ports, The instantaneous rate-of-climb indicator is more recent development which incorporates accel- ion pumps to eliminate-the limitations asso- ciated with the calibrated leak. For example, during an abrupt climb, vertical acceleration causes the ‘pumps to supply extra air into the diaphragm to stabilize the pressure diflerential without the usual lag time. During level fight and steady-rate climbs and descents, the instrument operates on the same 479 principles as the conventional rate-of—~«—__ Freone 12-78 Basie autopilot oyster. “Most moder autopitots can be deseribed in terms of their three major channels: (1) The rudder, (2) aileron, and (3) the elevator channels. ‘The rudder channel receives two signals that de- termine when and how much the rudder will move. The fist signal is 2 course signal derived from a ‘compass system. As long as the aircraft remains on the magnetic heading it was on when the autopilot ‘was engaged, no signal will develop. But any devis- tion causes the compass system to send a signal to the rudder channel that is proportional to the angu- lar displacement of the aircraft from the preset heading. ‘The second signal received by the rudder channel is the rate signal, which provides information any- time the aircraft is turning about the vertical axis, ‘This information is provided by the turo-and-bank indicator gyro. When the aircraft attempts to turn off course, the rate gyro develops a signal propor- tional to the rate of tum, and the course gyro develops a signal proportional to the amount of displacement. The two signals are sent to the rudder channel of the amplifier, where they sre combined and their strength is increased. The amplified signal then sent to the rudder servo. The servo will tum the rudder in the proper direction to return the aircraft to the selected magnetic heading, As the rudder surface moves, a followup signal is developed which opposes the input signal. When the two signals are equal in magnitude, the servo stops moving. As the aircraft arrives on course, the course signal will each a zero value, and the rud- der will be returned to the streamline position by the followup signal. ‘The aileron channel receives its inpot signal from 1 transmitter located in the gyro horizon indicator. ‘Any movement of the aircraft about its longitudinal axis will cause the gyro-sensing unit to develop signal to correct for the movement. This signal is amplified, phase-detected, and sent to the aileron servo which moves the aileron control surfaces to correct for the error. AAs the aileron surfaces move, a followup signal builds up in opposition to the input signal. When the two signals are equal in magnitude, the servo stops moving. Since the ailerons are displaced from streamline, the aircraft will now start moving back toward level fight with the input signal becoming smaller and the followup signal driving the control surfaces back toward the streamline postion. When the aircraft has returned to level flight in roll atti- tude, the input signal will again be zero, At the ‘same time the control surfaces will be streamlined, and the fllowap signal will be 2er0. The elevator channel circuits are similar to those of the aileron channel, with the exception that the 512Falowap raster Sl [Alien sevomotar}-o—— = Aisconnnet Rudder sevonctor }o>- =~ Ficene 12-74 Astoplot block diagram levator channel detects changes in pitch attitude of the aireraft. The circuitry of all three channels can be followed by referring to the block diagram in figure 12-74, ‘The foregoing autopilot system description was ‘used to show the function of simple autopilot ‘Most autopilots are far more sophisticated; how- ever, many of the operating fundamentals are simi- lay, Autopilot systems are capable of handling « variety of navigational inputs for automatic Aight control. BASIC AUTOPILOT COMPONENTS ‘The components of atypical autopllot system are IMastrated in figure 12-75, Most systems consist of four basic types of unit, plus various switches and susiliary units. The four types of basic units are: (1) The sensing elements, (2) command elements (8) output elements, and (4) the computing ele- meat. Command Elements "The command unit (Right controller) is manually operated to generate signals which cause the air- craft to climb, dive, or perform coordinated turns. ‘Additional command signals can be sent to the au- topilot system by the aiteraf’s navigational equip rent. The automatic pilot is engaged or disengaged ‘ectrically or mechanically, depending on system design. While the automatic pilot system is engaged, the tana operation of the various knobs on the con- troller (figure 12-76) maneuvers the aircraft, By operating the pitch trim wheel the eireraft can be 513 sade to climb or dive. By operating the turn knob, the aircrait can be banked in either direction. The engage switch in used to engage and disengage the autopilot. In addition, most eystems have a discon- ‘nect switch located on the control wheel(s). This site, operated by thumb pressure, can be used to disengage the autopilot system should a malfanetion occur in the system, One type of autonaatic pilot system has an engag- ing control that manually engages the clutch mechs: nism of the servomotor to the cable drum. A means of electrically disengaging the clutch is provided through a disconnect switch located on the control wheel(s). Sensing Elements ‘The directional gyro, tura-and-bank gy70, at tude gyro, and altitude control are the sensing ele- ‘ments. These units sense the movements of the air- craft, and automatically generate signals to Keep these movements under control Computer or Amplifier ‘The computing element consists of an amplifier or computer. The amplifier receives signals, determines what action the signals are calling for, and ampli- fies the signals reosived from the sensing elements. Tt passes these signals to the rudder, sileron, or levator servos to drive the control surfaces to the position ealled for. ‘Ourpor Elements ‘The output elements of an autopilot system are the servos which actuate the control surfaces. TheFicune 12-75. Typical euopilet system components inajority of the servos in use today are ether elec- operate the primary flight controls, One servo oper. tric motors or electro/poeumstic tervos. ‘ates the ailerons, a second operates the rudder, and ‘An aircraft may have from one to three servos to third operates the elevators. Each servo drives its 516Fieve 12-76, Typical autopilot controller. associated control surface to follow the directions of the particular auiomatic pilot channel to which the servo is connected. ‘Two types of electric motor-operated servos are in general use, In one, a motor is connected to the servo output shaft through reduction gears. The motor starts, stops, and reverses direction in re- pponse to the commands of the gyros or controller. The other type of electric servo uses a constantly running motor geared to the output shaft through to magnetic elutches. The latches are arranged 80 that energizing one cluch transmits motor torque to turn the output shaft in one direction; energizing the other clutch turns the shaft in the opposite direction. ‘The clectro/pneumatic servos are controlled by lectrical signals from tho autopilot amplifier and actuated by an appropriate air pressure source. The source may be a vacuum system pump or turbine ‘engine bleed sir, Each servo consists of an eleciro/ magnetic valve assembly and an output linkage as- sembly. FLIGHT DIRECTOR SYSTEMS A Hight director system is an instrument system consisting of electronic components that will com- pute and indicate the aircraft attitude required to stain and maintain a preselected flight condition. “Command” indicatora on the instrument indicate how much and in what direction the attitude of the aircraft must be changed to achieve the desired result, The computed command indications relieve the operator of many of the mental, calculations required for instrument fight, such as interoeption angles, wind drift correction, and rates of climb and descent. A flight director system has several components; the principal ones are the gyroscope, computer, and the cockpit presentaton.The gyro detects deviations from a preselected aircraft attitude. Any force ex- certed against the gyroscope is electrically transmit. ted to the computer, which in turn, sends a com- pated signal tothe Bight indicator, telling the oper- ator what must be done with the controls. When using a fight director system, the operator is, in a sense, acting as a servo, following orders given by the command indicators. ‘The computers used in the various types of flight director systems are basically the same; however, the numbers and types of functions available will vary between systems because of the mission of « ponticular aircraft, the limited aircraft space availa ble for installation, and the excessive cost of fame- tions not absolutely required. The instrument panel presentations and operating methods vary considerably between different ays- tems. Command indications may be presented by several different symbols, such 2s bar-type command indicators with differeot types of movements, Phantom aircraft symbol, or two-lement crossbar indicators. ‘Many flight director systems are equipped with an “altitude-hold” function, which permits selection of a desired altitudes the fight director computes the pitch attitude necessary to maintain this particu: Jar altitude. A Slight director greatly simplifies problems of aerial navigation. Selection of the VOR function electronically links the computer to the omnirange receiver. After selection of the desired omnicourse, the flight director will direct the bank attitude nec. ‘essary to intercept and maintain this course. Flight director systems are designed to offer the greatest assistance during the instrument approach phase of flight. ILS locelizer and glide slope signals are transmitted through the reccivers.to the com- puter, and are presented as command indications, With the altitade-hold fanction, level fight can be maintained during the mancuvering and procedure turn phase of the approach. Once inbound on the localizer, the command signals ofthe flight director ‘are maintained in a centered or zero condition. Compensation for wind drift is automatic. Inter- ‘ception of the glide slope will cause # downward Indication of the command pitch indicator. Any de- 515Viation from the proper glide slope path will cause fly-up or fy-down indication on the flight director th command symbol. When altitude hold is being used, it automatically disengages when the glide ‘slope has been intercepted. ‘A light director system not only shows the pres- ‘ent situation, but also predicts the future conse- ‘quences of this situation, For example, a momentary change in attitude is detected by the computer, end ‘command symbol movement is made to correct this condition possibly before an altitude error ean re- sult. Thus, greater precision is achieved with less ‘mental effort on the part of the aircraft operator. AUTOPILOT SYSTEM MAINTENANCE The information in this section does not apply to ‘any particular autopilot system, but gives general information which relates to all autopilot systems. Maintenance of an autopilot system consists of vis- ‘ual inspection, replacement of components, cleaning, lubrication, and an operational checkout of the sys- With the autopilot disengaged, the fight com trols should function smoothly. ‘The resistance ‘offered by the autopilot servos should not affect the control of the aircraft. The interconnecting mechs- nism between the autopilot system and the fight control system should be correctly aligned and smooth in operation. When applicable, the op- rating cables should be checked for tension. coht eran check span are tat cuit is functioning properly. An autopilot see ates eee emer stallations, after replacement of an autopilot compo- nent, or whenever a malfunction in the autopilot system is suspocted. After the aircraft's main power switch has been turned on, allow the gyros to come up to speed and the amplifier to warm up before engaging the auto- pilot. Some systems aro designed with safeguards that prevent premature autopilot engagement. While holding the control column in the normal flight position, engage the system using the engeg- ing control (switch, handle). ‘After the system is engaged, perform the opera- tional checks specified for the particular aircraft. In ‘general, the checks consist of: (1) Rotate the tum knob to the left; the left ‘adder pedal should move forward, and the control column wheel should move to and the control column wheel should move slightly aft. (2) Rotate the turn knob to the right; the Tight rudder pedal should move forward, and the control column whee should move to the right. The control column should inove slightly aft. Return the tun knob to the center position; the flight controls should return to the level-Bight position. (3) Rotate the pitch-trim knob forward; the ‘control column should move forward. (4) Rotate the pitch-trim knob aft; the control column should move aft. If the sireraft has a pitch-trim system installed, it should function to add downtrim as the control ‘column moves forward, and add uptrim as the column moves aft, Many pitchrim systems have an ‘automatic and a manual mode of operation, The above action will occur only inthe automatic mode. ‘Check to see if it is possible to manually override or overpower the autopilot system in all control Positions. Center all the controls when the opera- tional checks have been completed. Disengage the autopilot system and check for freedom of the control surfaces by moving the con- trol columns and rudder pedals. Then re-engage the system and check the emergency disconnect release circuit. The autopilot should disengae each time the release button is actuated. ‘When performing maintenance and operational checks on a specific autopilot system, always follow the procedure recommended by the sircralt or equipment manufacturer. Annunciater System Instruments are installed for two purposes, one to display current conditions, the other to. notify of unsatisfactory conditions.” Colored scales are used; usuelly green for satisfactory; yellow for caution or borderline conditions; red, for unsatis factory conditions, As aireraft have become more complex with many systems to be monitored, the need fora centralized warning system became ‘apparent. “The necesity to coordinate engine and fight controls emphasized this need. What evolved isan amnunciator or master warning system (figure 1277). Certain system failures are immediately cated on an annunciator panel on the main ment panel. A master caution light and a Tight indicating the faulting system fash on. “The master ight may be reset to “OF,” but the indicating Hight will remain “On” until the fault is corrected or the ‘equipment concerned is shut down. By resetting, the master eaution light is ready to warn of a sub- 516SYSTEM © ATANUMBER INDICATION ‘Avera Fuel 800 Fuel Prose Low Engine Fuel 7300 Fuel Presure Low Electrical 400 Inverter Out Generator 2400 Generator 2400 ‘Starting 000 Engine Of 7300 Landing Gear 3200 Landing Gear 3200 Landing Gear 3300 ‘Air Conditioning 3100 ‘Ait Conditioning 2100 CCabia Pretsre High Cabin Pressure Low Flight Control 3700 Speed Brake Extended ‘Stabfhzer 3500 Not Set for Takeoff Engine Exhamst 7800 ‘Thrust Reversal Pressore Low Avs Power 400 APU Exhaust Door ‘Not Open Doors 5200 Cabin Door Unlocked Doors $200 argo Door Unlocked Navigation 3400 Mach Trin Compute Electrical 00 Normal Bus Tie Open Auto Flight 200 ‘Avia Pilot OFF Hydrate 2900 Hidhaulie Presure Low Faowarning 2600 APT Compartment Overheated Prevne 12-77. Waring in annancitor system. sequent fault even before correction of the initial fault. A press to test light is available for testing the cireuits in this system. One late model business jet has the sensing de- vices divided into groups, according to their method ‘of operation. The fast group responds to heat and uses bimetallic strips set at predetermined tempers trex The second group’ responds To. pressure changes snd ses flexible chamber that moves then pressurized. The third group consists of Imechanealy operated svitches and/or contacts on relay. An annuncator sytem may include any or al of the following indications or others as applicable Aural Warning System Airoraft with retractable landing gear use an aural warning system to alert the orew to an unsafe condition. A bell will sound if the throttle is re- tracted and the landing gear is not in a down and locked condition (figure 12-78). ‘Aural waming systems range in complexity from the simple one just described to that system necessary for safe operation of the most complex transport aircraft. A typical transport aircraft hes am aural warn: ing system which will alert the pilot with audio signals to: An abnormal takeoff condition, landing condition, pressurization condition, mach-speed con- dition, an engine or wheel well fire, calls from the crew call system, and calls from the secal system. Shown in Agure 12~78 are some of the problems which trigger warning signals in the aural warning system. For example: a continuous horn sounding during landing would indicate the landing gear is not down and locked when flaps are lese than full up and the throttle is retarded. The corrective action would be to raise the flaps and advance the throttle, (See foure 12-78 on next page) si7STAGE OF WARMING WARMING CAUSE OF WARNING SIONAL CORRECTIVE orenarion "StSTEAE ONAL kor ATIOS ACTON Tanding Landing gear Contmuous ‘Landing gear out dow and bcked ‘abe fos An 6 hom tthon fae are ls than fll wp ‘Aasence throttle tnd ole vended tlle fn fight Mach waning hater Eula apord ach Deseo seed it Nt st Biter rel tints. eset Tiel! “Flight contol Interment ‘Thies we vanced od any Comet the svat Atist00 bare of owing condone ext Orpen ee ‘ay rier 1. Speed bats ae wot down oni 2, Hap ae nt theo ange 3 Autry power echanst doo open 4 Sabie int th tht sting. Infght Preston Intent om If cabin pres becomes equal Comet the 21K 00 sine ti peso cain ‘hod [ltd a Se of ockrenee. ‘ay cogs Fin warning Ont bol Any tse cman or 1 Lower he beat AA Bo Betyg ot ie een whe: lg ml hor se Be FA oe Digs er my cnmpret Sane Tiigiwrtag yeie maaiel psu nay be Bietpecre Bi Rerwang qenn * SW par be ie ted the FAW ball ete ut sone ote Svan sre day sage Gammunicatns ih chine Any tne cpt’ all ton Teles baton of Sine coma ken maa ake Roped or rearward coin tend. in pull button ont. sore pend ‘ay sage Communications Tow one Blow Whenever a pal has buen reg ret bot oa ‘eu yea’ hime or wecned by at HF or VF com SE ee con Bin ao SARE lp che, union sem end dcded by the socal” *NOTE: Sccal system is the Selective Calling System: Each sireaft i assigned a particular four tone audio combination for Wontifiation ing stem. spot, A ground ston wil key the (Peed the Spel wl te ecoled by the bee Froune 12-78, Ancal warning system sie I whenever contact with that particular aicra ‘decoder aod the erew alerted by the socal warn-