Photon noise

black (no reflection)

p (watts ) = nsn2 hf

TK
Area A
Ster.

number of states
in cavity in B

Calculation of the number of electromagnetic modes = m:

2kT
1
1
W Hz 1m 2ster 1
Recall, for hf << kT, kT W Hz mode
2
2kT
2
2 modes
= 2(f c )
Therefore
kT =
f (T )
2
2
2
m ster

Therefore
Lec 09.6- 1
1/11/01

m = 2(f c )2 A propagation modes

L1

Photon noise
Therefore

m = 2(f c )2 A modes

p (watts ) = nsn2 hf

Each mode has 2B degrees of freedom

(2B samples sec-1 times sec) (Nyquist sampling)
Each energy state ( = hf) has 2 degrees of freedom
(sin t, cos t)
Therefore number of states ns @ hf in B:
degrees states
ns = (# modes in A )

mode degree
= (m )(2B )(1 2 ) = 2(f c )2 A(2B )(1 2 )
Lec 09.6- 2
1/11/01

L2

Photon noise
ns = 2(f c )2 AB

p = nsn2 hf

photons state = n =

n2 = n + n

1
ehf kT 1

2
f
Therefore p = 2 AB n + n (hf )2 2 W " quantum limit"
c

If boxcar h(t) has = 0.5 sec, 1-Hz post-detection bandwidth,

yields units of W Hz -1 2 (NEPR )
2

2
f
NEPR (f ) = 4 A B n + n (hf )2 W Hz 1 2
c
Noise-equivalent power due to radiation noise
Lec 09.6- 3
1/11/01

L3

Photon noise
2

2
f
(
)
NEPR f = 4 A B n + n (hf )2 W Hz 1 2
c
Noise-equivalent power due to radiation noise

(B )

NEPR for a blackbody, all frequencies

NEPR = 4A

hf 2 c

12

2
n + n df

12

SB 4

NEPR = 4 A(4kT )
T

where n(f ) =

1
ehf kT 1

[WHz 1 2 ]

Where SB Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67 10-8 Wm-2K-4

and Hz-1 refers to the detector output bandwidth
Lec 09.6- 4
1/11/01

L4

Photon noise
12

SB 4

NEPR = 4 A(4kT )
T

WHz 1 2

Where SB Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67 10-8 Wm-2K-4

Recall: blackbodies radiate

Pr = A SB T 4 watts (small ) , Pr = ASB T 4 if = 2

Therefore:

NEPR = [Pr 16kT ]1 2 WHz 1 2

for = 2

Therefore minimize T,A

NEPR = 4 ASBkT 5
A
Lec 09.6- 5
1/11/01

= 4

4 10 16 WHz 1 2
for A = 10 6 , T = 4K
L5

Bolometer noise analysis

Bolometers first
convert photons
to heat

(ster)
Area A
hf
p

R = f(T)

Rbias >> R
B (Hz) vo

Responsivity S

heat, Gt conductivity
Tb

cold bath

R, Rb produce Johnson noise

Radiated photons have shot noise, i.e. radiation noise
Phonon noise arises from shot noise in phonons
carrying heat to the cold bath
NEP = 4kTbR S2 + 16AkT5SB + 4kGt Tb2
Johnson noise
Lec 09.6- 6
1/11/01

W Hz-12

Photon shot noise Phonon shot noise

L6

Optical Superheterodynes
s(t) = signal

Radiometer
output

photodetector mixer

(photons s-1)

i.f . f

P photons/sec
(laser L.O.)

Let signal s( t ) =

vm(t)

( )2

h(t)

vo

communication signal

2
2S cos s t E(t ) , s (t) = S

local oscillator p( t ) =

2P cos o t

Both are coherent lasers

D = dark photons/sec
Mixer output (L.O. 0) = S + D counts/sec, where quantum efficiency

( 2So cos s t ) (volts)

= constant [(S + P + SP cos i.f .t ) + D] where i.f. = s o

v m ( t ) = constant

Lec 09.6- 7
1/11/01

We want P >> S, SP >> D

N1

Optical Superheterodyne CNR

(
= constant [(S + P +

vm ( t ) = constant 2So cos st

)2

(volts)

) ]

SP cos i.f .t + D where i.f. = s o

We want P >> S, SP >> D

Let " constant" = 1 so v m ( t ) units are counts sec

v mix ( t ) v m [signal] + v m [noise]

v m [signal] SP cos i.f .t

Conveys information in S(t), i.f .

counts sec
v m [rms noise] 2P
=
Hz

2D if D >> P )

v o = 2SP cos 2 i.f .t

Lec 09.6- 8
1/11/01

P
, = 0.5 sec for Hz

<
Conveys information in s(t) for ~

2
<< i.f .

N2

Optical Superheterodyne CNR

Let " constant" = 1 so v m ( t ) units are counts sec

v mix ( t ) v m [signal] + v m [noise]
v m [signal] SP cos i.f .t

Conveys information in S(t), i.f .

P
counts sec

=
0.5
sec
for
v m [rms noise] 2P
=
,
Hz

Hz

2D if D >> P )

v o = 2SP cos 2 i.f .t

vo

rms noise

2PB

<
Conveys information in s(t) for ~

2
<< i.f .

B for P >> S, P >> D

Define CNR Carrier-to-Noise Ratio for v m ( t ) = 2SP 4PB

B = S 16B

We assume > 1/B so provides additional noise smoothing

Lec 09.6- 9
1/11/01

CNR ~
< S 4

(best we could do is CNR 1

for 4 photons/bit)
N3

Optical Superheterodynes, Comparisons

1) Radio total-power radiometer:
CNR = TA TRMS = TA

B TR for TR >> TA

radio expression



Optical superheterodyne CNR =
S 16B = (kTAB hf ) 16B
N
 

photons sec

Therefore TR = 4hf/k if CNR (radio) = CNR (optical)

This is 4 times radio quantum limit if i.f. noise etc. is negligible
(Note: PA kTAB in optical)
Thus optical superheterodynes can approach quantum limit

Lec 09.6- 10
1/11/01

N4

Optical Superheterodynes, Comparisons

2) Optical non-superheterodyne if D >> S; then
v o sig = S (gain normalized )
v onoise = 2DB

CNR = S 2D

versus CNRS.H. = S 16B

Therefore a superheterodyne is better if Bi.f . < D 8

i.e. the worse D is, the higher B can be before L.O. shot
noise dominates (assuming no mixer or i.f. excess noise)

Lec 09.6- 11
1/11/01

N5

Antennas

Basic Characterization
Professor David H. Staelin

Lec 09.6- 12
1/11/01

Uses of Antennas
In
Antennas
Out

Signal
Processor

Transducer
Electromagnetic
Environment
Transducer

Antennas couple electromagnetic radiation and transmission lines

for transmission and reception
We have studied: hf << kT
hf >> kT
hf kT
All bands use antennas

Lec 09.6- 13
1/11/01

Radio
Optical
IR

A1

Antennas Characterization
y

Side Lobes
G(f,,)

PT
Transmitter
Power

PTR [W ] =

4 Pd

P(f , , ) W ster -1 radiated power

Main Lobe

" total radiated power"

Radiation efficiency:

R PTR PT

Gain (over isotropic):

P(f, , )

= RD(f , , )
G(f , , )
PT 4

Directivity (over isotropic):

P(f, , )

D(f , , )
PTR 4

Antenna pattern:
Lec 09.6- 14
1/11/01

t (f , , )

G(f, , ) D(f, , )
1
Go
Do
A2

Antenna Example

P Wm 2 = G(, )

PT
4R

P(Wm-2)

Target

R(meters)

Moon

3 108

10-5

Jupiter

1012

10-12

Antares

3 1016

10-21

MIT Haystack antenna @ =1 CM; Go 73 dB

Assume it radiates 1MWatt radar pulses
Assume kTB 1.4 10-23 10K 1Hz 10-22
Watts(say TR 10 and we use 1Hz CW radar)
Then P(Wm-2) received on Antares is comparable
to receiver noise power kTB
Lec 09.6- 15
1/11/01

A3

Receiving Properties of Antennas

Characterized by Effective Area A(f, , ):
I(f,,)
Pr(f)

Power spectral density received:

Pr (f ) = A (f , , ) [I(f , , ) ]f (W )

[(

[m2 ]

flux density S Wm 2Hz 1

)]

f, are source bandwidth, solid angle

Lec 09.6- 16
1/11/01

Recall: Radiation intensity I(f,,) received

from blackbody at temperature T is:
2kT
I(f , , ) =
Wm 2Hz 1ster 1
2

A4

Receiving System Example

Recall 1-MW radar on Antares 10-21 W/m2 on earth (GT = 73 dB)

Radio
Antares

Earth
R = 3 1016 m

Received power = A (f, , ) [I(f, , )d] B = 10 17 W from Antares

say 10 4 m2

S
10 21Wm 2Hz 1

Suppose kTB = 10-22W (recall above) then SNR = 105

Audio at 104Hz SNR = 10 (commercial opportunity?)
Lec 09.6- 17
1/11/01

A5

Relation Between A(f, ,) and G(f, ,)

Go

Ao
G(,)

A(,)

G(, ) A (, )
=
We later prove (using reciprocity) that
Go
Ao

Lec 09.6- 18
1/11/01

C1

Receiving Properties Deduced from

Reciprocity and Thermodynamics
d

Principle of detailed balance

TB(f, , )
P(f, , )

TK

Zo

Zo

Reciprocity + thermal equilibrium says that within d,

power out = power in

Antenna radiates P(f, , ) W Hz -1ster 1 into d, so

power out = P(f, , )ddf = (kTdf 4 )Gd(watts )
Antenna receives from d:
power in =
Lec 09.6- 19
1/11/01

1 2kTB (, )
df d A (f, , )[watts ]
2
2

One
polarization

Wm-2Hz-1ster-1
C2

Receiving Properties Deduced from

Reciprocity and Thermodynamics
Antenna radiates P(f, ,) [W Hz-1 ster-1] into d, so
power out = P(f, ,) d df = (kTdf/4) Gd (watts)
Antenna receives from d:
1 2kTB (, )
power in =
df d A (f, , )[watts ]
2
One
2
polarization

Wm-2Hz-1ster-1

In thermal equilibrium T = TB(f, , ); then equating

radiation and reception (detailed balance) yields
G(f , , ) =

4
2

A (f , , )

This assumes hf << kT and that powers superimpose, i.e., that the
TB (1, 1 ) signal E(t ) is uncorrelated with that for TB (2 , 2 )

Lec 09.6- 20
1/11/01

C3

Antennas Used to Provide a Radio Link

Pt

Wm 2 at receiver

Pr

Pr =
r

Gain = GT

Gr =

Ar

Pt
4r

Gt A r Watts

isotropic

m2 effective area

2
Note: Pr as r 0!, so this relation requires r > r minimum

Let Pr = Pt at rmin and At = Ar = D2 (m2) [D aperture diameter in practice]

Then

Gt A r
4 r 2min

= 1=

A t Ar
2r 2min

D4
2r 2min

Therefore rmin = D2 in practice we want r > 2D2

This zone where r ~

> 2D2 is called the " far field" of the aperture
Lec 09.6- 21
1/11/01

C4

Definition of Antenna Temperature TA(K)

kTA W Hz

(m2 ) (Wm 2Hz1ster 1)

) = 4 A(, ) I(, )d

Received power
spectral density

for a specific polarization

2kTB 1
Since I =
for thermal radiation, single polarization
2
2

Therefore

Lec 09.6- 22
1/11/01

TA =

1
2

A (, )TB (, ) d

1
=
G(, )TB (, ) d

For TB
uncorrelated
in angle

C5

Observing Small Thermal Sources TB(,,f)

Limiting case:
TA S

Go TBS A o TBS
1
G(, ) TB (, ) d =
=
=

4
4 S
2
Go/2

Go

small source, << B

TB, s
average source TB source solid angle
TAS is due to source (assume zero background)

Physical interpretation (for S << B):

Define A , " beam solid angle" so that Go A

Go

Gd = 4r

Go = 4r A

Then TA S S r TB
A
Coupling coefficient r

s, TBS

TAS
Lec 09.6- 23
1/11/01

Geometric coupling ratio =

S
A
C6

Ways to Characterize Small Thermal Sources

Limiting case:
TA S

Go TBS A oTBS
1
G(, ) TB (, ) d =
=
=

4 S
4
2

1. TB (, , f ) (for each of 2 polarizations)

2. TBS average brightness temperatur e

3. S(f ) Wm 2Hz 1 =

I(f , , ) d f(antennas )
if source small, S << A

Units of S : 1 " jansky" = 10 26 Wm 2Hz 1

Lec 09.6- 24
1/11/01

C7