1 Shafts and couplings

1.1 Introduction
A shaft is a rotating member designed to transmit power or motion. It is used as the axis of
rotation for gears, pulleys, flywheels, crancks, controlling the geometry of their motion.
Compared to the shaft, ax axle is an nonrotating member, which has no torque and is used to
suport rotating wheels.
When we do the shaft sizing, the entire geometry of the shaft is not needed. Instead, is
possible to locate the critical areas and size them to meet the strength requirements. Then, we can
simply size the rest of the shaft to meet the requirements of the shaft-supported elements
After the geometry of the entire shaft is defined, we can make the deflection and slope
analyses. Shaft design puts the consideration of stress first, because, unlike the deflection, which
is a function of the geometry everywhere, the stress is a function of local geometry.

1.2 Shaft materials

Deflection is affected by stiffness, which is constant for all steels. That means that the
only way we can control the rigidity is by the geometric decisions, and not by the materials
decision. The choice of materials and their treatments is made accordingly to the necessary
strength needed to resist the loading stresses. Because fatigue failure is reduced moderately by
strengthening, therefore, a good practice will be to start with an inexpensive, low or medium
carbon steel for the first time. The cost of the material and its processing must be weighed
against the need for smaller shaft diameters. If a shaft serves as the journal of a bearing surface,
then, it`s surface need to be hardened.
The amount to be produced is a prominent factor when it comes to material selection.
Turning is used for low production, while hot or cold forming and casting are used for high
volume production. Properties of the shaft locally depend on its historycold work, cold
forming, heat treatment.

1.3 Shaft layout

In general, the shaft has a stepped cylinder geometry. In order to obtain shear-moment
diagrams and to perform a force analysis, the general layout of a shaft must be specified early in
the design process. Figure 11 shows an
example of a stepped shaft supporting the gear of a worm-gear speed reducer.

Fig.1-1
A vertical worm-gear speed reducer

If there are existing shaft models, then the geometric configuration will be just a revision
of those models, in which a limited number of changes must be made. Otherwise, the shaft
layout may have many solutions.
1.4 Axial layout of componenets
The layout of the housing gives the axial positioning of components. Supporting loadcarrying components between bearings is, in general, better than cantilevered outboard of the
bearings, obeying the rule that, in order to keep deflection minimum, the length of the cantilever
should be kept short. In most cases, we should use only two bearings. Providing more than two
bearings is necessary only for extremely long shafts.
In order to minimize the bending moments and deflections, shafts should be kept short.
There must be a space between components, in order to allow lubricant flow and to provide
acces space for maintenance work.
Positioning the components against a shoulder of the shaft is a primary way in which we
can locate them. This shoulder also provides a minimizing of the deflection and vibration of that
component.

1.5 Supporting axial loads

When the axial loads are not negligible, we have to provide a means of transfering the
axial loads into the shaft, then into the ground through a bearing. This technique is used in helical
or bevel gears, or tapered roller bearings, because they produce axial force components. To allow
greater tolerance on length dimensions and to prevent binding due to temperature change, it is
better that the axial load would be carried only by one bearing. Figures 72 and 73 show
examples of shafts with only one bearing carrying the axial load against a shoulder.

Fig. 7-2
Tapered roller bearings used
in a mowing machine spindle

Fig.7-3
A bevel-gear drive in which
both pinion and gear are
straddle-mounted

Shafts transmit torque from an input gear or pulley, through the shaft, to
an output gear or pulley. In order to support the torsional stress and torsional deflection, the shaft
must be sized according to that. The elements used for transmitting the torque between the shaft
and the gears are:
-Keys
-Splines
-Setscrews
-Pins
-Press or shrink fits

-Tapered fits
In order to protect more expensive components, these devices are designed to fail if the
torque exceeds a certain value.
One of the best ways to transmit torque is through a key that fits in a
groove in the shaft and gear. The advantage of this system is that the assembly and disassembly
are very easy.
Splines are stubby gear teeth formed on the outside of the shaft and on
the inside of the hub of the load-transmitting component. They are more expensive to produce
than the keys, and are used to transfer high torques. They are also useful if we want to connect
two shafts which have relative motion between them, because splines are designed with a loose
likj;
slip fit in order to allow this large axial motion.
Press and shrink fits for securing hubs to shafts are used for torque transfer and for
preserving axial location. The advantage of this method is that it allows disassembly and lateral
adjustments.
Tapered fits between the shaft and the shaft-mounted device are used on the overhanging
end of a shaft. It is important to select a suitable way of transmiting torque in the early stages of
the shaft layout.

1.6 Shaft design for stress

It will be enough if we evaluate the stresses in the shaft in a few critical locations.
Usually, the torque comes into the shaft at one gear and leaves it at another gear. The torsion
stress and the stress due to bending moments will be greatest on outer surface. We neglect the
axial stresses when bending is present in a shaft, because they are very small compared to the
bending moments.
1.7 Shaft stresses
The fluctuating stresses due to bending and torsion are given by the following equations:
a =K f

Ma
M
m=K f m
I
I
C

(1.1)

 a =K f s
where:

Mm

Tm

and

Ta

Kf

and

Kf s

and

Ma

Ta
T
m=K f s m
J
J
C

(0.2)

are the midrange and alternating bending moments;

are the midrange and alternating torques;
are the fatigue stress concentration factors for bending and

torsion;
The equations for several of the commonly used failure curves are summarized below:
o DE-Goodman
1 /3

( {

})

16 n 1
2
2 1 /2
1
2
2 1 /2
d=
4 ( K f M a ) + 3 ( K fs T a ) ] + [ 4 ( K f M m ) +3 ( K fs T m ) ]
[
Se
S ut

(1.3)

o DE-Gerber

( {[

2 1/ 2

( )]

2 B Se
8 nA
d=
1+ 1+
Se
A S ut

1/ 3

})

(1.4)

where:

B= 4 ( K

A= 4 ( K f M a ) +3 ( K f T a )

M m ) +3 ( K fs T m )

o DE-Soderberg
d=

( {

16 n 1
2
2 1 /2
1
2
2 1/ 2
4 ( K f M a ) + 3 ( K fs T a ) ] + [ 4 ( K f M m ) +3 ( K fs T m ) ]
[
Se
S yt

1/ 3

})

(1.5)1.1

When there is a costant bending and torsion in a shaft, equations (1.3-1.5)

can be simplified by setting

Mm

and

Ta

equal to 0.

1.8 Estimating Stress Concentrations

Because shoulders and keyways are usually of standard proportions, we can
estimate the stress concentration factors for the initial design of the shaft.
A typical bearing has a ratio of

D/d

between 1.2 and 1.5. In order to avoid interference with

the fillet radius of the mating component, the fillet radius of the shoulder needs to be sized
properly.

Fig.
Techniques for reducing stress concentration at a shoulder supporting a bearing with a sharp
radius. (a) Large radius undercut into the shoulder. (b) Large radius relief groove into the back of
the shoulder. (c) Large radius relief groove into the small diameter

1.9 Deflections considerations

Because we need the complete geometry information for the entire shaft to make the
deflection analysis in a single point, it is desirable to design the dimensions at critical locations
to handle the stresses, and fill in reasonable estimates for all other dimensions. Because the
deflection analysis is lengthy and tedious to carry out manually, all shaft deflection analysis are
evaluated with the assistance of software.
Once deflections at various points have been determined, if any value is larger than the
allowable deflection at that point, a new diameter can be found from: