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A Review On FAME Production Processes
A Review On FAME Production Processes
A Review On FAME Production Processes
Fuel
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fuel
Review article
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 5 June 2009
Received in revised form 6 August 2009
Accepted 6 August 2009
Available online 27 August 2009
Keywords:
Bio-diesel
Transesterication
Ultrasound
Microwave
Algae
a b s t r a c t
Among the options explored for alternative energy sources, bio-diesel is one of the most attractive. This
paper discussed about the various production processes, few of which are applied at industrial level also,
to produce basically FAME (later can be utilized as bio-diesel after purication) and will be termed as biodiesel in this paper. Transesterication of vegetable oils/fats and extraction from algae are the leading
process options for bio-diesel production on large scale. This paper reviews briey the literature on
transesterication reaction using homogeneous, heterogeneous and enzyme catalysts. Employing also
ultrasound, microwave and supercritical alcohol techniques and also algae based bio-diesel.
2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vegetable oil as diesel fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bio-diesel production via transesterification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.
Homogeneous alkali (base) catalyzed transesterification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.
Homogeneous acid-catalyzed transesterification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.
Heterogeneous acid and base-catalyzed transesterification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.
Enzymatic transesterification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.
Supercritical and subcritical alcohol transesterification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.
Microwave assisted transesterification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7.
Ultrasound assisted transesterification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bio-diesel from algae oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Introduction
Renewable energy sources are developed worldwide, owing to
high oil prices and to limit greenhouse gas emissions. Petroleum
is the largest single source of energy consumed by the worlds population, exceeding coal, natural gas, nuclear, hydro, and renewable.
Limited crude petroleum reserves and other sources are on the
verge of reaching their peak production. The depletion of known
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 2717 241911; fax: +91 2717 241917.
E-mail address: apvyas@nirmauni.ac.in (A.P. Vyas).
0016-2361/$ - see front matter 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2009.08.014
1
2
2
2
2
2
3
4
4
6
7
7
8
Table 1
Average bio-diesel emissions compared to conventional diesel [6].
Emission type
B20 (%)
B100 (%)
20
12
16
12
+2
20
13
50
67
48
79
47
+10
100
80
90
Catalyst
Catalyst amount
(%)
Alcohol wt.%
oil
Reaction
conditions
Ester yield
(%)
Ester conversion
(%)
Ref.
H2SO4
Methanol
1:20
95 C, 10 h
P90
[21]
KOH
Methanol
1:6
98
Pongamia pinnata
Rapeseed oil
KOH
KOH
1
1
Methanol
Methanol
1:10
1:6
Sunower oil
NaOH
Methanol
1:6
1.1
1.5
1.3
3
1
Methanol
1:7.5
Soybean oil
Soybean oil
NaOH
KOH
CH3ONa
H2SO4
H2SO4
65 C, 2 h,
360 rpm
60 C, 1.5 h
65 C, 2 h,
600 rpm
60 C, 2 h,
600 rpm
70 C, 30 min
1:6
1:30
Soybean oil
H2SO4
0.5
n-Butanol
Methanol
Ethanol
Butanol
Methanol
120 C, 60 min
65 C, 50 h
78 C, 18 h
117 C, 3 h
100 C,
3.5 bar,8 h
1:9
[22]
96
92
[23]
[24]
97.1
[25]
85.3
86.0
89.0
[26]
>95
>99
>99
>99
99
[27]
[28,16]
[29]
Table 3
Transesterication of vegetable oil by using various heterogeneous catalysts.
Catalyst
Oil
Alcohol
Molar
ratio
Optimum reaction
condition
Ester
conversion (%)
Ester yield
(%)
Ref.
Sunower
Methanol
53:1
65 C, 30 min
100
[30]
Sunower
Methanol
53:1
100
[30]
5
3
2
4
6.5
6.0
3
10
2.5
3
Soybean
Soybean
Soybean
Karanja
Palm
Soybean
Jatropha
Rapeseed
Soybean
Soybean
Waste oil
Methanol
Methanol
Ethanol
Methanol
Methanol
Methanol
Methanol
Methanol
Methanol
Methanol
Methanol
20:1
12:1
12:1
12:1
12:1
15:1
12:1
12:1
6:1
15:1
9:1
Room temperature,
2.2 h
120 C, 1 h
65 C, 1.5 h
75 C, 3 h
65 C, 8 h
65 C, 3 h
65 C, 7 h
70 C, 6 h
65 C, 1 h
70 C, 8 h
65 C, 8 h
200 C, 5 h
87
84
92.5
63.0
96.0
92.0
98.6
95.0
91.8
94.8
90.0
[33]
[36]
[36]
[37]
[38]
[39]
[40]
[41]
[42]
[31]
[43]
7.5
3
Soybean
WCO
Methanol
Methanol
15:1
18:1
65 C, 9 h
200 C, 10 h
67.0
98.0
[44]
[45]
3
8
Soybean
Soybean
Methanol
Methanol
10:1
12:1
65 C, 8 h
65 C, 3 h
85.6
95
[46]
[47]
SO24 /TiO2SiO2
MgAl hydrotalcites
(ZS/Si) zinc stearate immobilized on
silica gel
KOH/NaX zeolite
CaO
molecules) with an alcohol (polar molecule) is usually a heterogeneous (two liquid phases) reaction at conventional processing temperatures because of the incomplete miscibility of the non-polar
and polar components. Under supercritical conditions, however,
the mixture becomes a single homogeneous phase, which will
accelerate the reaction because there is no interphase mass transfer to limit the reaction rate. Another positive effect of using supercritical conditions is that the alcohol is not only a reactant but also
an acid catalyst [73,74].
A reaction mechanism of vegetable oil in supercritical methanol
is presented by Kusdiana and Saka [74]. It is assumed that an alcohol molecule directly attacks the carbonyl atom of the triglyceride
because of the high pressure. In the supercritical state, depending
on pressure and temperature, hydrogen bonding would be signicantly decreased, which would allow methanol to be a free monomer. The transesterication is completed via a methoxide transfer,
whereby the fatty acid methyl ester and diglycerides are formed. In
a similar way, diglyceride is transesteried to form methyl ester
and monoglycerides which is converted further to methyl ester
and glycerol in the last step. The presence of water in the reaction
system does not affect the yield of methyl esters under supercritical alcohol transesterication [74].
Methanol, ethanol, 1-propanol, 1-butanol, or 1-octanol were
used to study the transesterication of rapeseed oil at temperatures of 350 C (rapeseed oil to alcohol molar ratio 42:1) and reported >90% yield of methyl esters was achieved [75,76]. On the
other hand, it took 8 min for ethanol, 1-propanol, and 1-butanol
to obtain the same yield of the corresponding alkyl esters, and even
longer for 1-octanol. In the case of ethanol, 1-propanol, and 1-butanol about 814 min of supercritical treatment was necessary to
achieve almost complete conversions of triglycerides to fatty acid
alkyl esters, while for 1-octanol, 20 min was required to obtain
the same yield.
Synthesis of bio-diesel by supercritical methanol has a drawback with the high cost of apparatus due to the high temperature
and pressure, which are not viable in the large scale practice in
industry [77]. So, researches have focused on how to decrease
the severity of the reaction conditions. Co-solvents, such as carbon
dioxide [75,76,79], hexane [77,78], propane [80] and calcium oxide
[81] and subcritical alcohol [79,82] with small amount of catalyst,
added into the reaction mixture can decrease the operating temperature, pressure and the amount of alcohol. The supercritical
methanol method with co-solvents like hexane and condensed
CO2 can improve the product yield [77]. A 98% yield of methyl esters was observed in 20 min at the subcritical condition (160 C)
with 0.1 wt.% potassium hydroxide and methanol to oil ratio of
24 [78]. Table 5 shows the work carried out for bio-diesel production from various feedstocks under different conditions using
supercritical alcohol.
3.6. Microwave assisted transesterication
The use of microwave heating as a tool for preparative chemistry is continuing to grow. By using microwave irradiation it is often
possible to reduce reaction times signicantly as well as improve
product yields. An alternative energy stimulant, microwave irradiation can be used for the production of the alternative energy
source, bio-diesel [90]. Microwave irradiation activates the smallest degree of variance of polar molecules and ions such as alcohol
with the continuously changing magnetic eld. The changing electrical eld, which interacts with the molecular dipoles and charged
ion, causes these molecules or ions to have a rapid rotation and
heat, is generated due to molecular friction [90]. The preparation
of bio-diesel using microwave offers a fast, easy route to this valuable biofuel with advantages of a short reaction time, a low oil/
methanol ratio, an ease of operation a drastic reduction in the
Source of enzyme
a
(%)
Oil
Solvent
Conversion
(%)
Yield
(%)
Ref.
Candida antarctica
1.6
4
Methanol
Methanol
t-Butanol
t-butanol
4:1
4:1
50 C, 24 h
40 C, 12 h
95
88
[56]
[57]
Polypropylene
ep100
-
10
Methanol
Hexane
4.5:1
40 C, 48 h
91
[59]
15
Soybean
Ethanol
7.5:1
96
[60]
10
Jatropha
Ethanol
4:1
31.5 C,
7h
40 C, 10 h
92
[61]
20
Palm
Ethanol
18:1
[62]
10
Propan-2-ol
4:1
Acrylic resin
Candida antarctica
30
Jatropha
Karanja
Sunower
Soybean
58 C,
<24 h
50 C, 8 h
98
Acrylic resin
Pseudomonas
uorescens
Thermomyces
lanuginosus
Chromobactrium
viscosum
Pseudomonas
uorescens
Candida antarctica
Cotton seed
Waste cooking palm
oil
Sunower oil
12:1
40 C, 10 h
92
[63]
[66]
MacroporousAcrylic resin
Toyonite-200 M
Candida antarctica
10
Jatropha
Methyl
acetate
Ethyl acetate
92.8
91.7
93.4
-
11:1
40 C,12 h
91.3
[67]
Candida antarctica
Pseudomonas
uorescens
Candida antarctica
3
9.4
Rapeseed
Sunower
Methanol
1-Propanol
t-Butanol
4:1
3:1
35 C, 12 h
60 C, 20 h
95
91
[69]
[70]
Soybean
Methanol
[Emim][TfO]
4:1
50 C,12 h
80
[71]
Celite-545
POS-PVA
Acrylic resin
Amount of enzyme used (wt.% of oil): a, acyl acceptors: b, alcohol to oil molar ratio: c, optimum reaction conditions: d.
Table 5
Supercritical alcohol transesterication reaction conditions.
Vegetable oil
Molar
ratio
Alcohol
Temperature and
pressure
Reaction
time
Reactor type
Conversion
(%)
Yield
(%)
Ref.
Sunower oil
Rapeseed oil
Hazelnut kernel oil
40:1
42:1
41:1
Methanol
Methanol
Methanol
40 min
240 s
300 s
96
95
95
[6]
[83]
[84]
Jatropha oil
Soyabean oil
Coconut oil, palm
kernel oil
Cottonseed oil
40:1
40:1
42:1
Methanol
Methanol
Methanol
40 min
25 min
400 s
8 mL SS reactor
5 ml reaction vessel made of Inconel-625
100 ml cylindrical autoclave made of 316
stainless steel
11 mL reactor of SS 316
75 ml tube reactor
Tubular ow reactor
>90
9596
96
[85]
[86]
[87]
41:1
Methanol
230 C, NA
8 min
Autoclave
[88]
300 C, NA
60 min
8.8 ml SS reactor
98
(Methanol)
75
(Ethanol)
60.30
[89]
Ethanol
Palm oil
45:1
Methanol
Table 6
Comparison of energy consumption for the preparation of bio-diesel using conventional and microwave heating [96].
Reaction conditions
Energy consumption
(kJ/L)a
Conventional heatingb
Microwave, continuous-ow at a 7.2 L/min
feedstock ow
Microwave, continuous-ow at a 2 L/min feedstock
owc
Microwave heating, 4.6 L batch reactione
94.3
26.0
60.3 (92.3)d
90.1
Table 7
Microwave assisted transesterication.
Oil/triolein
Catalyst
a (%)
Alcohol
Microwave conditions
Reaction conditions
c (%)
d (%)
Ref.
Cottonseed oil
KOH
1.5
Methanol
1:6
7 min, 333 K
92.4
[90]
Rapeseed oil
KOH
Methanol
1:6
5 min, 323 K
93.7
[92]
1
1
1
5
Methanol
Ethanol
Methanol
Methanol
1:6
1:6
1:6
1:6
40 W
220 W
40 W
25 W
3 min, 313 K
30 min
25 min
05 min
1 min, 323 K
93.7
[95]
Methanol
1:12
200 W
60 min, 338 K
94
95
95
95
98
98
NaOH
SiO2/50% H2SO4
SiO2/30% H2SO4
Al2O3/50% KOH
KOH
NaOH
H2SO4/C
Castor oil
Triolein
Castor oil
[97]
[98]
Catalyst amount (wt.% of oil): a, oil to alcohol molar ratio: b, ester yield: c, ester conversion: d.
Table 8
Ultrasound assisted transesterication.
Oil/
triolein
Catalyst
Catalyst
wt.% of oil
Alcohol
Oil to alcohol
molar ratio
Ultrasonic
frequency (kHz)
Source of
ultrasound
Reaction conditions
Ester
yield (%)
Ester
conversion (%)
Ref.
Na
NaoH
0.5
n-Propanol
1:6
28
Ultrasonic cleaner
(1200 W)
25 C, 20 min
92
[102]
Triolein
NaOH
Ethanol
1:6
40
40
25 C, 20 min
25 C,<20 min
88
98
[108]
Triolein
KOH
Methanol
1:6
40
25 C, 10 min
>90
[111]
Soybean
NaOH
1.5
Methanol
NA
24
60 C, 20 min
97
[112]
Frying oil
Fish oil
C2H5ONa
0.8
Ethanol
1:6
20
60 C, 60 min
98.2
[113]
Ultrasonic cleaner
(1200 W)
Ultrasonic cleaner
(1200 W)
Ultrasonicator
(200 W)
Ultrasonic probe
molar ratio. Table 8 shows the work carried out for bio-diesel production from various feedstocks under different conditions using
ultrasound irradiation.
Table 9
Comparison of some sources of bio-diesel and oil content of some microalgae [116].
a
b
Crop
Corn
Soybean
Canola
Jatropha
Coconut
Oil palm
Microalgaea
Microalgaeb
-Botryococcus braunil
-Chlorella sp.
-Crypthecodinium cohnii
-Cylindrotheca sp.
-Dunaliella primolecta
-Isochrysis sp.
-Monallanthus salina
-Nannochloris sp.
-Nannochloropsis sp.
-Neochloris oleoabundans
-Nitzschia sp.
-Phaeodactylum tricornutum
-Schizochytrium sp.
-Tetraselmis sueica
172
446
1190
1892
2689
5950
136,900
58,700
5. Conclusions
2575
2832
20
1637
23
2533
>20
2035
3168
3554
4547
2030
5077
1523
Table 10
Leading the algae-based fuel industry, laboratories, and universities in the US [117].
Company
Research afliation
Status
Funding
Bioreactor
Bioreactor
Massachusetts Institute of
Technology
PetroAlgae (www.petroalgae.com)
Solix Biofuels
(www.solixbiofuels.com)
LiveFuel (www.livefuels.com)
Bioreactor
Bioreactor
Pond
Innifuel (www.innifuel.com)
Pond
Algae Biofuels
(www.petrosuninc.com)
Energy Farms (www.tgoiltech.com)
Pond
R&D
R&D, looking into FischerTropes
processing
R&D
Pond
Nanoforce Technologies
Bioreactor
or pond?
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