WIRELESS TECHNOLOGY IN DAY-TO-DAY LIFE

PROJECT REPORT

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DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

AMRITA SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

ETTIMADAI

COIMBATORE-641105

MARCH 2009
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INTRODUCTION
Wireless communication is the transfer of information over a distance without
the use of electrical conductors or "wires".[1] The distances involved may be short (a few
meters as in television remote control) or long (thousands or millions of kilometers for
radio communications). When the context is clear, the term is often shortened to
"wireless". Wireless communication is generally considered to be a branch of
telecommunications.

It encompasses various types of fixed, mobile, and portable two way radios,
cellular telephones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), and wireless networking. Other
examples of wireless technology include GPS units, garage door openers and or garage
doors, wireless computer mice, keyboards and headsets, satellite television and cordless
telephones.
Wireless operations permits services, such as long range communications, that are
impossible or impractical to implement with the use of wires. The term is commonly used
in the telecommunications industry to refer to telecommunications systems (e.g., radio
transmitters and receivers, remote controls, computer networks, network terminals, etc.)
which use some form of energy (e.g. radio frequency (RF), infrared light, laser light,
visible light, acoustic energy, etc.) to transfer information without the use of wires.[2]
Information is transferred in this manner over both short and long distances.

The term "wireless" has become a generic and all-encompassing word used to
describe communications in which electromagnetic waves or RF (rather than some form
of wire) carry a signal over part or the entire communication path.
Wireless networking is one of several ways to connect the computers in your
home. It creates a network by sending radio-frequency signals between your computers to
share information.
Wireless networking technologies take the concept of "no new wires" one step
further. In a wireless network, all of the computers in your home broadcast their
information to one another using radio signals. This can make networking extremely east,
especially if you have computers all over house. It also makes it a whole lot simpler to
move computers around.

HISTORY
The term "Wireless" came into public use to refer to a radio receiver or
transceiver (a dual purpose receiver and transmitter device), establishing its usage in the
field of wireless telegraphy early on; now the term is used to describe modern wireless
connections such as in cellular networks and wireless broadband Internet. It is also used
in a general sense to refer to any type of operation that is implemented without the use of
wires, such as "wireless remote control" or "wireless energy transfer", regardless of the
specific technology (e.g. radio, infrared, ultrasonic) that is used to accomplish the
operation.
David E. Hughes, eight years before Hertz's experiments, induced electromagnetic waves
in a signaling system. Hughes transmitted Morse code by an induction apparatus. In
1878, Hughes's induction transmission method utilized a "clockwork transmitter" to
transmit signals. In 1885, T. A. Edison used a vibrator magnet for induction transmission.
In 1888, Edison deploys a system of signaling on the Lehigh Valley Railroad. In 1891,
Edison attains the wireless patent for this method using inductance (U.S. Patent
465,971 ).
In the history of wireless technology, the demonstration of the theory of electromagnetic
waves by Heinrich Rudolf Hertz in 1888 was important.[3][4] The theory of
electromagnetic waves were predicted from the research of James Clerk Maxwell and
Michael Faraday. Hertz demonstrated that electromagnetic waves could be transmitted
and caused to travel through space at straight lines and that they were able to be received
by an experimental apparatus.[3][4] The experiments were not followed up by Hertz. The
practical applications of the wireless communication and remote control technology were
implemented by Nikola Tesla.
The Wireless Ethernet Compatibility Alliance (WECA) has gone in a completely
different drection from HomeRF. Targeted more at office use than home networks, Wi-Fi
(for "wireless fidelity", like Hi-Fi for "high fidelity" in audio equipment) is essentially a
seal of approval that says the manufacturer's product is compliant with a variation of the
IEEE 802.11 specification known as IEEE 802.11b. This specification drops FHSS and
focuses on DSSS because of the higher data rate it can attain. Under 802.11b, devices
communicate at a speed of 11 Mbps whenever possible. If signal strength or interference
is disrupting data, the devices will drop back to 5.5 Mbps, then 2 Mbps and finally down
to 1 Mbps. Though it may occasionally slow down, this keeps the network stable and
very reliable.
The Wireless Ethernet Compatibility Alliance (WECA) has gone in a completely
different drection from HomeRF. Targeted more at office use than home networks, Wi-Fi
(for "wireless fidelity", like Hi-Fi for "high fidelity" in audio equipment) is essentially a
seal of approval that says the manufacturer's product is compliant with a variation of the
IEEE 802.11 specification known as IEEE 802.11b. This specification drops FHSS and
focuses on DSSS because of the higher data rate it can attain. Under 802.11b, devices
communicate at a speed of 11 Mbps whenever possible. If signal strength or interference
is disrupting data, the devices will drop back to 5.5 Mbps, then 2 Mbps and finally down
to 1 Mbps. Though it may occasionally slow down, this keeps the network stable and
very reliable.
The Wireless Ethernet Compatibility Alliance (WECA) has gone in a completely
different drection from HomeRF. Targeted more at office use than home networks, Wi-Fi
(for "wireless fidelity", like Hi-Fi for "high fidelity" in audio equipment) is essentially a
seal of approval that says the manufacturer's product is compliant with a variation of the
IEEE 802.11 specification known as IEEE 802.11b. This specification drops FHSS and
focuses on DSSS because of the higher data rate it can attain. Under 802.11b, devices
communicate at a speed of 11 Mbps whenever possible. If signal strength or interference
is disrupting data, the devices will drop back to 5.5 Mbps, then 2 Mbps and finally down
to 1 Mbps. Though it may occasionally slow down, this keeps the network stable and
very reliable.

Photo courtesy Nexland

The ISB Wavebase by Nexland allows you to connect
wireless devices to your fast Internet connection.
Here are the advantages of Wi-Fi:
• It's fast (11 Mbps).
• It's reliable.
• It has a long range (1,000 ft / 305 m in open areas, 250 to 400 ft / 76 to 122 m in
closed areas)
• It's easily integrated into existing wired-Ethernet networks.
• It's compatible with original 802.11 DSSS devices.
Here are the disadvantages:
• It's expensive.
• It requires an access point.
• It can be difficult to set up.
• Speed can fluctuate significantly.
Wi-Fi offers Ethernet speeds without the wires, but you pay for it. Access points vary
greatly in cost, from about $300 to $1,400. Most access points have an integrated
Ethernet controller to connect to an existing wired-Ethernet network. It also has an omni-
directional antenna to receive the data transmitted by the wireless transceivers. Apple
sells an inexpensive ($299 list) and easy-to-configure access point called Airport. Airport
has to be connected to an Apple computer (iMac, PowerMac, iBook), but it will accept
signals from any 802.11b-compatible wireless-network card, whether its PC or Mac-
based.
Bluetooth is a standard developed by a group of electronics manufacturers that allows
any sort of electronic equipment -- from computers and cell phones to keyboards and
headphones -- to make its own connections, without wires, cables or any direct action
from a user. Bluetooth is intended to be a standard that works at two levels:
• It provides agreement at the physical level -- Bluetooth is a radio-frequency
standard.
• It also provides agreement at the next level up, where products have to agree on
when bits are sent, how many will be sent at a time and how the parties in a
conversation can be sure that the message received is the same as the message
sent.
The companies belonging to the Bluetooth Special Interest Group, and there are more
than 1,000 of them, want to let Bluetooth's radio communications take the place of wires
for connecting peripherals, telephones and computers.
There are already a couple of ways to get around using wires. One is to carry information
between components via beams of light in the infrared spectrum. Infrared refers to light
waves of a lower frequency than human eyes can receive and interpret. Infrared is used in
most television remote control systems, and with a standard called IrDA (Infrared Data
Association) it's used to connect some computers with peripheral devices. For most of
these computer and entertainment purposes, infrared is used in a digital mode -- the
signal is pulsed on and off very quickly to send data from one point to another.
Infrared communications are fairly reliable and don't cost very much to build into a
device, but there are a couple of drawbacks. First, infrared is a "line of sight" technology.
For example, you have to point the remote control at the television or DVD player to
make things happen. The second drawback is that infrared is almost always a "one to
one" technology. You can send data between your desktop computer and your laptop
computer, but not your laptop computer and your PDA at the same time.
These two qualities of infrared are actually advantageous in some regards. Because
infrared transmitters and receivers have to be lined up with each other, interference
between devices is uncommon. The one-to-one nature of infrared communications is
useful in that you can make sure a message goes only to the intended recipient, even in a
room full of infrared receivers.
The second alternative to wires, cable synchronizing, is a little more troublesome than
infrared. If you have a Palm Pilot, a Windows CE device or a Pocket PC, you know about
synchronizing data. In synchronizing, you attach the PDA to your computer (usually with
a cable), press a button and make sure that the data on the PDA and the data on the
computer match. It's a technique that makes the PDA a valuable tool for many people, but
synchronizing the PDA with the computer and making sure you have the correct cable or
cradle to connect the two can be a real hassle.
Bluetooth is intended to get around the problems that come with both infrared and cable
synchronizing systems. The hardware vendors, which include Siemens, Intel, Toshiba,
Motorola and Ericsson, have developed a specification for a very small radio module to
be built into computer, telephone and entertainment equipment. From the user's point of
view, there are three important features to Bluetooth:
 • It's wireless. When you travel, you don't have to worry about keeping track of a
briefcase full of cables to attach all of your components, and you can design your
office without wondering where all the wires will go.
• It's inexpensive.
• You don't have to think about it. Bluetooth doesn't require you to do anything
special to make it work. The devices find one another and strike up a conversation
without any user input at all.
Bluetooth communicates on a frequency of 2.45 gigahertz, which has been set aside by
international agreement for the use of industrial, scientific and medical devices (ISM). A
number of devices that you may already use take advantage of this same radio-frequency
band. Baby monitors, garage-door openers and the newest generation of cordless phones
all make use of frequencies in the ISM band. Making sure that Bluetooth and these other
devices don't interfere with one another has been a crucial part of the design process.
BEHIND THE NAME
Harald Bluetooth was king of Denmark around the turn of the last millennium. He
managed to unite Denmark and part of Norway into a single kingdom then introduced
Christianity into Denmark. He left a large monument, the Jelling rune stone, in memory
of his parents. He was killed in 986 during a battle with his son, Svend Forkbeard.
Choosing this name for the standard indicates how important companies from the Baltic
region (nations including Denmark, Sweden, Norway and Finland) are to the
communications industry, even if it says little about the way the technology works.
Avoiding Interference
One of the ways Bluetooth devices avoid interfering with other systems is by sending out
very weak signals of 1 milliwatt. By comparison, the most powerful cell phones can
transmit a signal of 3 watts. The low power limits the range of a Bluetooth device to
about 10 meters, cutting the chances of interference between your computer system and
your portable telephone or television. Even with the low power, the walls in your house
won't stop a Bluetooth signal, making the standard useful for controlling several devices
in different rooms.
With many different Bluetooth devices in a room, you might think they'd interfere with
one another, but it's unlikely that several devices will be on the same frequency at the
same time, because Bluetooth uses a technique called spread-spectrum frequency
hopping. In this technique, a device will use 79 individual, randomly chosen frequencies
within a designated range, changing from one to another on a regular basis. In the case of
Bluetooth, the transmitters change frequencies 1,600 times every second, meaning that
more devices can make full use of a limited slice of the radio spectrum. Since every
Bluetooth transmitter uses spread-spectrum transmitting automatically, it’s unlikely that
two transmitters will be on the same frequency at the same time. This same technique
minimizes the risk that portable phones or baby monitors will disrupt Bluetooth devices,
since any interference on a particular frequency will last only a tiny fraction of a second.

When Bluetooth-capable devices come within range of one another, an electronic

conversation takes place to determine whether they have data to share or whether one
needs to control the other. The user doesn't have to press a button or give a command --
the electronic conversation happens automatically. Once the conversation has occurred,
the devices -- whether they're part of a computer system or a stereo -- form a network.
Bluetooth systems create a personal-area network (PAN), or piconet, that may fill a room
or may encompass no more distance than that between the cell phone on a belt-clip and
the headset on your head. Once a piconet is established, the members randomly hop
frequencies in unison so they stay in touch with one another and avoid other piconets that
may be operating in the same room.
An Example
Let’s take a look at how the Bluetooth frequency hopping and personal-area network
keep systems from becoming confused. Let’s say you’ve got a typical modern living
room with the typical modern stuff inside. There’s an entertainment system with a stereo,
a DVD player, a satellite TV receiver and a television; there's a cordless telephone and a
personal computer. Each of these systems uses Bluetooth, and each forms its own piconet
to talk between main unit and peripheral.
The cordless telephone has one Bluetooth transmitter in the base and another in the
handset. The manufacturer has programmed each unit with an address that falls into a
range of addresses it has established for a particular type of device. When the base is first
turned on, it sends radio signals asking for a response from any units with an address in a
particular range. Since the handset has an address in the range, it responds, and a tiny
network is formed. Now, even if one of these devices should receive a signal from
another system, it will ignore it since it’s not from within the network. The computer and
entertainment system go through similar routines, establishing networks among addresses
in ranges established by manufacturers. Once the networks are established, the systems
begin talking among themselves. Each piconet hops randomly through the available
frequencies, so all of the piconets are completely separated from one another.
Now the living room has three separate networks established, each one made up of
devices that know the address of transmitters it should listen to and the address of
receivers it should talk to. Since each network is changing the frequency of its operation
thousands of times a second, it’s unlikely that any two networks will be on the same
frequency at the same time. If it turns out that they are, then the resulting confusion will
only cover a tiny fraction of a second, and software designed to correct for such errors
weeds out the confusing information and gets on with the network’s business.
Most of the time, a network or communications method either works in one direction at a
time, called half-duplex communication, or in both directions simultaneously, called
full-duplex communication. A speakerphone that lets you either listen or talk, but not
both, is an example of half-duplex communication, while a regular telephone handset is a
full-duplex device. Because Bluetooth is designed to work in a number of different
circumstances, it can be either half-duplex or full-duplex. The cordless telephone is an
example of a use that will call for a full-duplex (two-way) link, and Bluetooth can send
data at more than 64,000 bits per second in a full-duplex link -- a rate high enough to
support several human voice conversations. If a particular use calls for a half-duplex link
-- connecting to a computer printer, for example -- Bluetooth can transmit up to 721
kilobits per second (Kbps) in one direction, with 57.6 Kbps in the other. If the use calls
for the same speed in both directions, a link with 432.6-Kbps capacity in each direction
can be made.
Here are some specification details from the Bluetooth Web site
• The devices in a piconet share a common communication data channel. The
channel has a total capacity of 1 megabit per second (Mbps). Headers and
handshaking information consume about 20 percent of this capacity.
• In the United States and Europe, the frequency range is 2,400 to 2,483.5 MHz,
with 79 1-MHz radio frequency (RF) channels. In practice, the range is 2,402
MHz to 2,480 MHz. In Japan, the frequency range is 2,472 to 2,497 MHz with 23
1-MHz RF channels.
• A data channel hops randomly 1,600 times per second between the 79 (or 23) RF
channels.
• Each channel is divided into time slots 625 microseconds long.
• A piconet has a master and up to seven slaves. The master transmits in even time
slots, slaves in odd time slots.
• Packets can be up to five time slots wide.
• Data in a packet can be up to 2,745 bits in length.
• There are currently two types of data transfer between devices: SCO
(synchronous connection oriented) and ACL (asynchronous connectionless).
• In a piconet, there can be up to three SCO links of 64,000 bits per second each. To
avoid timing and collision problems, the SCO links use reserved slots set up by
the master.
• Masters can support up to three SCO links with one, two or three slaves.
• Slots not reserved for SCO links can be used for ACL links.
• One master and slave can have a single ACL link.
• ACL is either point-to-point (master to one slave) or broadcast to all the slaves.
• ACL slaves can only transmit when requested by the master.

WIRELESS ENERGY TRANSFER

Wireless energy transfer or wireless power transmission (also known as the Tesla
Effect) is the process that takes place in any system where electrical energy is transmitted
from a power source to an electrical load, without interconnecting wires in an electrical
grid. Wireless transmission is ideal in cases where instantaneous or continuous energy
transfer is needed, but interconnecting wires are inconvenient, hazardous, or impossible.
Though the physics of both are related, this is distinct from wireless transmission for the
purpose of transferring information (such as radio) through waves, where the percentage
of the power that is received is only important if it becomes too low to successfully
recover the signal. With wireless energy transfer, the efficiency is a more critical
parameter and this creates important differences in these technologies.
The most common and the most viable form of wireless power transfer is carried out
using Inductive Power Transfer. The other viable technologies for Wireless Power are
based on Microwaves and Lasers.
Size, distance, and efficiency
The size of the components is dictated by the distance from transmitter to receiver, the
wavelength and the Rayleigh Criterion or Diffraction limit, used in standard RF (Radio
Frequency) antenna design, which also applies to lasers.
The Rayleigh Criterion dictates that any beam will spread (microwave or laser) and
become weaker and diffuse over distance, The larger the transmitter antenna or laser
aperture, the tighter the beam and the less it will spread as a function of distance (and
vice versa). Smaller antennae also suffer from excessive losses due to side lobes.
Then the power levels are calculated by combining the above parameters together, and
adding in the gains and losses due to the antenna characteristics and the transparency of
the medium through which the radiation passes. That process is known as calculating a
link budget.
Ultimately, beamwidth is physically determined by diffraction due to the dish size in
relation to the wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation used to make the beam.
Microwave power beaming can be more efficient than lasers, and is less prone to
atmospheric attenuation caused by dust or water vapor losing atmosphere to vaporize the
water in contact.
Resonant induction
"Resonant inductive coupling" has key implications in solving the main problem
associated with non-resonant inductive coupling and electromagnetic radiation;
specifically, the dependence of efficiency on transmission distance. Electromagnetic
induction works on the principle of a primary coil generating a predominantly magnetic
field and a secondary coil being within that field so a current is induced in the secondary.
This results in a relatively short range due to the amount of power required to produce an
electromagnetic field. Over greater distances the non-resonant induction method is
inefficient and wastes much of the transmitted energy. This is where the resonance comes
in and helps efficiency dramatically by "tunneling" the magnetic field to a receiver coil
that resonates at the same frequency. Unlike the multiple-layer secondary of a non-
resonant transformer, such receiving coils are single layer solenoids with closely spaced
capacitor plates on each end, which in combination allow the coil to be tuned to the
transmitter frequency thereby eliminating the wide energy wasting "wave problem" and
allowing the energy used to focus in on a specific frequency increasing the range.
Beginning in the early 1960s resonant inductive wireless energy transfer was used
successfully in implantable medical devices [13] including such devices as pacemakers and
artificial hearts. While the early systems used a resonant receiver coil later systems [14]
implemented resonant transmitter coils as well. These medical devices are designed for
high efficiency using low power electronics while efficiently accommodating some
misalignment and dynamic twisting of the coils. The separation between the coils in
implantable applications is commonly less than 20 cm. Today resonant inductive energy
transfer is regularly used for providing electric power in many commercially available
medical implantable devices.[15]
Wireless electric energy transfer for experimentally powering electric automobiles and
buses is a higher power application (>10kW) of resonant inductive energy transfer. High
power levels are required for rapid recharging and high energy transfer efficiency is
required both for operational economy and to avoid negative environmental impact of the
system. An experimental electrified roadway test track built circa 1990 achieved 80%
energy efficiency while recharging the battery of a prototype bus at a specially equipped
bus stop [16] [17]. The bus could be outfitted with a retractable receiving coil for greater coil
clearance when moving. The gap between the transmit and receive coils was designed to
be less than 10 cm when powered. In addition to buses the use of wireless transfer has
been investigated for recharging electric automobiles in parking spots and garages as
well.
Some of these wireless resonant inductive devices operate at low milliwatt power levels
and are battery powered. Others operate at higher kilowatt power levels. Current
implantable medical and road electrification device designs achieve more than 75%
transfer efficiency at an operating distance between the transmit and receive coils of less
than 10 cm.
In November 2006, Marin Soljačić and other researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology applied the near field behaviour well known in electromagnetic theory to a
wireless power transmission concept based on strongly-coupled resonators.[18][19][20] In a
theoretical analysis,[21] they demonstrate that, by designing electromagnetic resonators
that suffer minimal loss due to radiation and absorption and have a near field with mid-
range extent (namely a few times the resonator size), mid-range efficient wireless energy-
transfer is possible. The reason is that, if two such resonant objects are brought in mid-
range proximity, their near fields (consisting of so-called 'evanescent waves') couple
(evanescent wave coupling) and can allow the energy to tunnel/transfer from one object
to the other within times much shorter than all loss times, which were designed to be
long, and thus with the maximum possible energy-transfer efficiency. Since the resonant
wavelength is much larger than the resonators, the field can circumvent extraneous
objects in the vicinity and thus this mid-range energy-transfer scheme does not require
line-of-sight. By utilizing in particular the magnetic field to achieve the coupling, this
method can be safe, since magnetic fields interact weakly with living organisms.

Laser

With a laser beam centered on its panel of photovoltaic cells, a lightweight model plane
makes the first flight of an aircraft powered by a laser beam inside a building at NASA
Marshall Space Flight Center.
In the case of electromagnetic radiation closer to visible region of spectrum (10s of
microns (um) to 10s of nm), power can be transmitted by converting electricity into a
laser beam that is then pointed at a solar cell receiver. This mechanism is generally
known as "PowerBeaming" because the Power is Beamed at a receiver that can convert it
to usable electrical energy.
Its drawbacks are:
1. Conversion to light, such as with a laser, is moderately inefficient (although
quantum cascade lasers improve this)
2. Conversion back into electricity is moderately inefficient, with photovoltaic cells
achieving 40%-50% efficiency.[26] (Note that conversion efficiency is rather
higher with monochromatic light than with insolation of solar panels).
3. Atmospheric absorption causes losses.
4. As with microwave beaming, this method requires a direct line of sight with the
target.
There are also a few unique advantages of Laser based energy transfer that outweigh the
disadvantages.
1. collimated monochromatic wavefront propagation allows narrow beam cross-
section area for energy confinement over large ranges.
 2. compact size of solid state lasers-photovoltaics semiconductor diodes allows ease
of integration into products with small form factors.
3. ability to operate with zero radio-frequency interference to existing
communication devices i.e. wi-fi and cell phones.
4. control of Wireless Energy Access, instead of omnidirectional transfer where
there can be no authentication before transferring energy.
These allow laser-based Wireless Energy Transfer concept to compete with conventional
energy transfer methods.
The Laser "PowerBeaming" technology has been mostly explored in military weapons[27]
[28] [29]
and aerospace [30] [31] applications and is now being developed for commercial and
consumer electronics Low-Power applications. Wireless energy transfer system using
laser for consumer space has to satisfy Laser safety requirements standardized under IEC
60825.
To develop an understanding of the trade-offs of Laser "a special type of light wave"
based system:[32][33][34][35]
1. Propagation of a laser beam [36] [37] [38] (on how Laser beam propagation is much
less affected by diffraction limits)
2. Coherence and the range limitation problem (on how spatial and spectral
coherence characteristics of Lasers allows better distance-to-power capabilities
[39]
)
3. Airy disk (on how most fundamentally wavelength dictates the size of a disk with
distance)
4. Applications of laser diodes (on how the laser sources are utilized in various
industries and their sizes are reducing for better integration)
Geoffrey Landis [40] [41] [42] is one of the pioneers of Solar Power Satellite [43] and Laser-
based transfer of energy especially for Space and Lunar missions. The continuously
increasing demand for safe and frequent space missions has resulted in serious thoughts
on a futuristic Space elevator[44] [45] that would be powered by Lasers. NASA's Space
elevator need wireless power to be beamed to it, for it to climb a tether [46].
NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center has demonstrated flight of a lightweight
unmanned model plane powered by a laser beam [47]. This concept allows a periodic
recharging using Laser beam and an unlimited time in air.

WITRICITY
WiTricity, a portmanteau for wireless electricity, is a term which describes wireless
energy transfer, the ability to provide electrical energy to remote objects without wires.
The term was coined initially in 2005 by Dave Gerding and later used for the project of a
MIT research team led by Prof. Marin Soljačić in 2007
Overview
WiTricity is based on strong coupling between electromagnetic resonant objects to
transfer energy wirelessly between them. The system consists of transmitters and
receivers that contain magnetic loop antennas critically tuned to the same frequency. Due
to operating in the electromagnetic near-field, the receiving devices must be no more than
about a quarter wavelength from the transmitter (which is a few meters at the frequency
used by the example system). In their first paper, the group also simulated GHz dielectric
resonators.
Unlike the far field wireless power transmission systems based on traveling EM waves,
WiTricity employs near field inductive coupling through magnetic fields,[clarification needed]
which interact far more weakly with surrounding objects, including biological tissue. In
particular, it is based on using 'strongly-coupled' resonances to achieve a high power-
transmission efficiency. Aristeidis Karalis, referring to the team's experimental
demonstration, says that "the usual non-resonant magnetic induction would be almost 1
million times less efficient in this particular system".[2] The researchers suggest that the
exposure levels will be below the threshold for FCC safety regulations, and the radiated-
power levels will also comply with the FCC radio interference regulations.
It is not known exactly why this technology had not been developed. Researchers
attribute it to various reasons ranging from the limitations of well-known physical laws,
to simply a lack of need. Only recently have modern consumers obtained a high number
of portable electronic devices which currently require batteries and plug-in chargers.[2]
Experimental demonstration
The MIT researchers successfully demonstrated the ability to power a 60-watt light bulb
wirelessly, using two copper coils of 60 cm (24in) diameter that were 2m (7ft) away, at
roughly 45% efficiency.[3] The coils were designed to resonate together at 10MHz and
were oriented along the same axis. One was connected inductively to a power source, and
the other one to a bulb. The setup powered the bulb on, even when the direct line of sight
was blocked using a wooden panel.
Applications
This technology can potentially be used in a large variety of applications, including
consumer, industrial, medical and military. Its aim is to reduce our dependence on
batteries.
Further applications for this technology include transmission of information — it would
not interfere with radio waves and thus could be used as a cheap and efficient
communication device without requiring a license or a government permit.

Wireless security is the prevention of unauthorized access or damage to computers using

wireless networks.

Wireless networks are very common, both for organizations and individuals. Many laptop
computers have wireless cards pre-installed. The ability to enter a network while mobile
has great benefits. However, wireless networking has many security issues.[1] Hackers
have found wireless networks relatively easy to break into, and even use wireless
technology to crack into wired networks. As a result, it's very important that enterprises
define effective wireless security policies that guard against unauthorized access to
important resources.[2]
The risks to users of wireless technology have increased as the service has become more
popular. There were relatively few dangers when wireless technology was first
introduced. Crackers had not yet had time to latch on to the new technology and wireless
was not commonly found in the work place. However, there are a great number of
security risks associated with the current wireless protocols and encryption methods, and
in the carelessness and ignorance that exists at the user and corporate IT level.[3] Cracking
methods have become much more sophisticated and innovative with wireless. Cracking
has also become much easier and more accessible with easy-to-use Windows or Linux-
based tools being made available on the web at no charge.
Some organizations that have no wireless access points installed do not feel that they
need to address wireless security concerns. In-Stat MDR and META Group have
estimated that 95% of all corporate laptop computers that were planned to be purchased
in 2005 were equipped with wireless. Issues can arise in a supposedly non-wireless
organization when a wireless laptop is plugged into the corporate network. A cracker
could sit out in the parking lot and gather info from it through laptops and/or other
devices as handhelds, or even break in through this wireless card-equipped laptop and
gain access to the wired network
Wi-Fi versus Bluetooth
Wi-Fi and Bluetooth are designed to coexist in the network, and although they certainly
have overlapping applications, each has its distinct zones of advantage.
The biggest differences between Wi-Fi and Bluetooth are

_ Distance: Bluetooth is lower powered, which means its signal can only go short
distances (up to 30 feet). 802.11 technologies can cover your home, and in some cases
more, depending on the antenna that you use.
Note: New software for Bluetooth devices is enabling the creation of mesh networks in
the home, where interconnected Bluetooth devices can create a large mesh network that
can be interconnected to the Internet — thereby creating a network similar to an 802.11b
network in the home, for instance.
_
Application: Bluetooth is designed as a replacement of cables: that is, trying to get rid
of that huge tangle of cables that link your mouse, printer, monitor, scanner, and other
devices on your desk and around your home. In fact, the first Bluetooth device was a
Bluetooth headset, eliminating that annoying cable to the telephone that got in the way of
typing. New cars are also becoming outfitted with Bluetooth so that you can use your cell
phone in your car, with your car’s stereo speakers and an onboard microphone serving as
your hands-free capability.
RADIO WAVES
Radio waves are electromagnetic waves occurring on the radio frequency portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
Radio waves were first predicted by mathematical work done in 1865 by James Clerk
Maxwell. Maxwell noticed wavelike properties of light and similarities in electrical and
magnetic observations. He then proposed equations that described light waves and radio
waves as waves of electromagnetism that travel in space. In 1887, Heinrich Hertz
demonstrated the reality of Maxwell's electromagnetic waves by experimentally
generating radio waves in his laboratory. Many inventions followed, making practical the
use of radio waves to transfer information through space.
Nikola Tesla and Guglielmo Marconi are credited with inventing systems to allow radio
waves to be used for communication

IEEE US
Per IEEE Std 521-2002. Reaffirmed standard of 1984; originally dates back to WWII.
Band Frequency range Origin of name
HF band 3 to 30 MHz High Frequency
VHF
30 to 300 MHz Very High Frequency
band
Ultra High Frequency
UHF
300 to 1000 MHz Frequencies from 216 to 450 MHz were sometimes called P-
band band: Previous, since early British radar used this band but
later switched to higher frequencies.
L band 1 to 2 GHz Long wave
S band 2 to 4 GHz Short wave
C band 4 to 8 GHz Compromise between S and X
X band 8 to 12 GHz Used in WW II for fire control, X for cross (as in crosshair)
Ku band 12 to 18 GHz Kurz-under
K band 18 to 27 GHz German Kurz (short)
Ka band 27 to 40 GHz Kurz-above
V band 40 to 75 GHz
W band 75 to 110 GHz W follows V in the alphabet
mm band 110 to 300 GHz

FUTURE
Many of us firmly believe that wireless technology is to computing what the PC was to
computing back in the 80’s, nothing short of a revolution. On the other hand, just like
many other emerging technologies before it, this one is not without its share of
challenges.
On one side, we have the visionaries, the evangelizers, preaching the benefits of mobile
data access and, specifically, wireless connectivity. There are more than a few early
adopters, who have successfully mobilized business applications and are reaping the
benefits. On the other hand there are a few who are not so sure the promised return on
investment is really there, or remain yet to be convinced that the technology is ready for
their specific enterprise requirements.
So then, what is the future for wireless technology?
Will we be able to access applications and data anywhere, at anytime, updating data in
real-time, securely, efficiently, effectively, affordably? Will we see the end of messy
wires protruding from computers, printers, modems, scanners, projectors and other
peripherals? Will we be able to walk up to a wireless printer at an Airport, turn on our
Pocket PC, tablet or laptop and print that proposal or presentation we need, perfectly
formatted, regardless of the operating system or application we are running and printer
drivers we may have in our device? Will we be able to create a mobile version of our
existing SAP, Siebel, Oracle or SQL-based application, without fuss, without it costing a
fortune, and run it over a 1XRTT or GPRS network, securely, dependably? Will we be
able to make and receive phone calls, or manage our email and calendar from a hand-held
device, using voice over Wireless LAN or unified messaging technology while connected
to a WiFi network at an Airport, convention center or coffee shop?
Let us analyze the situations outlined above for a moment. Wireless access anytime,
anywhere? Is it real? Answer: not today. Maybe “most of the time, from most places”,
but “anytime, anywhere”? Not yet, not for a while. And if anyone is telling you
otherwise, they either do not understand the question, or do not know much about
mobility and wireless solutions.
Is it possible for corporate files and applications to be accessed and updated in real-time,
securely, efficiently, effectively and affordably? Answer: yes. Sophisticate wireless
application gateways, middle-ware, “no-coding-required” application design tools, XML-
libraries, single-login for multiple applications, encryption and secured access
functionality make it possible today. It is only getting easier, cheaper and faster to
wirelessly enable existing and/or create new mobile applications. To get close to the
“anytime, anywhere” dream, there are reliable technology solutions available that allow
users to wirelessly and securely access and download data from a server to a device,
create or change information while not on line, and then re-connect and synchronize back
with the server. Very effective when users need to access data or create transactions deep
within a building or basement, or in areas outside cellular coverage. Add the right
hardware and software technology to a well-defined business plan and a properly
organized and executed systems integration strategy and you have the recipe for success
in wireless.
Are we going to see the end of messy wires protruding from computers, printers,
modems, scanners, projectors and other peripherals? Answer: it depends. Subject to the
inherent restrictions of battery life, the near future reality is one of devices totally
interconnected without wires. Blue-tooth and 802.11b printers, projectors, printers and
access devices, for example, make it possible. Unfortunately, the power cord is not going
away anytime soon.
What about voice over WLAN and unified messaging? Well, technology solutions are
available today to make and receive phone calls, manage email and calendar and run
other applications from one device while walking un-tethered within a WiFi hotspot. Not
only that, technology is available to allow users to walk away from an 802.11 network
and automatically connect to a GPRS or 1XRTT network, seamlessly maintaining the
same IP session. Imagine the possibilities once 3G networks start delivering consistent
bandwidth. Wireless printing from any device? Coming soon to an Airport, Convention
Center, Hotel or Coffee Shop near you.
Availability isn’t everything
Now, the fact that all this is available, reliable and surprisingly affordable does not mean
that it should be deployed, just to keep up with the pace of technology.
One of the problems with the whole wireless and mobility story is that in many cases
technology objectives have overtaken business objectives. As a result, wireless and
mobility projects have been implemented without solid planning, business cases, proper
cost/benefit analysis and obviously without executive management buying into or fully
supporting the project. Many still think wireless and mobility is about devices and
networks rather than systems integration. Not unlike what has happened many times over
in the IT world, the results have been predictable. Without executive management
support, projects are soon abandoned or, worse yet, crash and burn, with the associated
casualties and personal embarrassment making big news.
Sadly, this situation has hampered the implementation of wireless and mobility solutions
in areas that could have substantial benefits for corporations, institutions or the public at
large. The wireless industry is not without blame, at times being guilty of over-
simplifying the work of implementing a wireless LAN or WAN. Setting up a wireless
LAN is often advertised as being as simple as purchasing a few Access Points, plugging
them into an existing Ethernet LAN and turning on WEP encryption (or sometimes not
even that). Or purchasing a few Sierra Wireless cards, installing them into a laptop, tablet
or Pocket PC, instantly creating a ready-made wireless environment. At first sight, the
perceived benefits are immense. Imagine being able to access your intranet, search the
web for information from wherever the network allows you to connect and access all
those web-enabled applications your IT department has built over the years. Until
someone finds out, usually at the worst moment or in the worst possible way that
corporate security, networking and other key guidelines have been ignored and a threat to
corporate data has been created. Or that after the initial $50 dollar a month, unlimited
access incentive plan has expired, usually after the first six months, the cost jumps to
$500 or $600 per month in wireless data charges, or that making a voice call using a
GSM or 1XRTT service costs substantially more than a regular cellular voice call.
what is the future of wireless?
Well, although the road has been bumpy, the future is bright. Some may think that
deployment of wireless LAN/WAN solutions has stalled. I would beg to differ. It is only
starting. Many are waiting for wireless LANs to “become more secure”. Well, many are
still waiting for the Internet to become more secure also. Others are taking full advantage
of proven IT design, implementation and support techniques, reliable technology and
common sense procedures and guidelines to deploy wireless networks that are as secure
as any wired environment. And the list of success stories, corporations and institutions
realizing important productivity gains as a result of deploying wireless technology keeps
growing.

InfraRed Devices and Drivers

Infrared and IrDA connections in palmtops and computers.
IrDA was designed for cheap, bidirectional, short range, fairly directional point to point
connections. Initially up to 115.2kbps via additions to an RS232C serial port, and latter
up to 4 Mbps. They use baseband return to zero inverted modulation. The 4 Mbps scheme
uses a 4 pulse position modulation scheme of two bits per pulse.
Remote controls for TVs and similar are totally different. They use approximately 40 kHz
signals and pulse width modulation, with a variety of protocols. They are customised for
low speed, wide angle, one way, long range connections. These are not IrDA compliant.
You can find one piece receiver transmitter packages for remote signals at low cost, and
drive these from TTL. IrDA can't normally do TV remote control signals, and are shorter
range, but you can often fake the signals in software. Infrared connections for keyboards
and the like do not have to follow any standard, as the manufacturer supplies both ends of
the connection.

Uses

A roof mounted Wi-Fi antenna

A Wi-Fi antenna

A Wi-Fi enabled device such as a PC, game console, mobile phone, MP3 player or PDA
can connect to the Internet when within range of a wireless network connected to the
Internet. The coverage of one or more interconnected access points — called a hotspot —
can comprise an area as small as a single room with wireless-opaque walls or as large as
many square miles covered by overlapping access points. Wi-Fi technology has served to
set up mesh networks, for example, in London.[1] Both architectures can operate in
community networks.

In addition to restricted use in homes and offices, Wi-Fi can make access publicly
available at Wi-Fi hotspots provided either free of charge or to subscribers to various
providers. Organizations and businesses such as airports, hotels and restaurants often
provide free hotspots to attract or assist clients. Enthusiasts or authorities who wish to
provide services or even to promote business in a given area sometimes provide free Wi-
Fi access. Metropolitan-wide Wi-Fi (Muni-Fi) already has more than 300 projects in
process.[2] There were 879 Wi-Fi based Wireless Internet service providers in the Czech
Republic as of May 2008.[3][4]

Wi-Fi also allows connectivity in peer-to-peer (wireless ad-hoc network) mode, which
enables devices to connect directly with each other. This connectivity mode can prove
useful in consumer electronics and gaming applications.

When wireless networking technology first entered the market many problems ensued
for consumers who could not rely on products from different vendors working together.
The Wi-Fi Alliance began as a community to solve this issue — aiming to address the
needs of the end-user and to allow the technology to mature. The Alliance created the
branding Wi-Fi CERTIFIED to reassure consumers that products will interoperate with
other products displaying the same branding.

Many consumer devices use Wi-Fi. Amongst others, personal computers can network to
each other and connect to the Internet, mobile computers can connect to the Internet from
any Wi-Fi hotspot, and digital cameras can transfer images wirelessly.

Routers which incorporate a DSL-modem or a cable-modem and a Wi-Fi access point,

often set up in homes and other premises, provide Internet-access and internetworking to
all devices connected (wirelessly or by cable) to them. One can also connect Wi-Fi
devices in ad-hoc mode for client-to-client connections without a router. Wi-Fi also
enables places which would traditionally not have network to be connected, for example
bathrooms, kitchens and garden sheds. The "father of Wi-Fi", Vic Hayes, stated that
being able to access the internet whilst answering a call of nature was "one of life's most
liberating experiences".

As of 2007 Wi-Fi technology had spread widely within business and industrial sites. In
business environments, just like other environments, increasing the number of Wi-Fi
access-points provides redundancy, support for fast roaming and increased overall
network-capacity by using more channels or by defining smaller cells. Wi-Fi enables
wireless voice-applications (VoWLAN or WVOIP). Over the years, Wi-Fi
implementations have moved toward "thin" access-points, with more of the network
intelligence housed in a centralized network appliance, relegating individual access-
points to the role of mere "dumb" radios. Outdoor applications may utilize true mesh
topologies. As of 2007 Wi-Fi installations can provide a secure computer networking
gateway, firewall, DHCP server, intrusion detection system, and other functions.

[edit] Advantages and challenges

A keychain size Wi-Fi detector.

[edit] Operational advantages

Wi-Fi allows local area networks (LANs) to be deployed without wires for client devices,
typically reducing the costs of network deployment and expansion. Spaces where cables
cannot be run, such as outdoor areas and historical buildings, can host wireless LANs.

Wireless network adapters are now built into most laptops. The price of chipsets for Wi-
Fi continues to drop, making it an economical networking option included in even more
devices. Wi-Fi has become widespread in corporate infrastructures.

Different competitive brands of access points and client network interfaces are inter-
operable at a basic level of service. Products designated as "Wi-Fi Certified" by the Wi-Fi
Alliance are backwards compatible. Wi-Fi is a global set of standards. Unlike mobile
telephones, any standard Wi-Fi device will work anywhere in the world.
Wi-Fi is widely available in more than 220,000 public hotspots and tens of millions of
homes and corporate and university campuses worldwide.[5] Wi-Fi Protected Access
encryption (WPA and WPA2) is not easily cracked if strong passwords are used. New
protocols for Quality of Service (WMM) make Wi-Fi more suitable for latency-sensitive
applications (such as voice and video), and power saving mechanisms (WMM Power
Save) improve battery operation.

[edit] Limitations

Spectrum assignments and operational limitations are not consistent worldwide. Most of
Europe allows for an additional 2 channels beyond those permitted in the U.S. for the 2.4
GHz band. (1–13 vs. 1–11); Japan has one more on top of that (1–14). Europe, as of
2007, was essentially homogeneous in this respect. A very confusing aspect is the fact
that a Wi-Fi signal actually occupies five channels in the 2.4 GHz band resulting in only
three non-overlapped channels in the U.S.: 1, 6, 11, and three or four in Europe: 1, 5, 9,
13 can be used if all the equipment on a specific area can be guaranteed not to use
802.11b at all, even as fallback or beacon. Equivalent isotropically radiated power (EIRP)
in the EU is limited to 20 dBm (100 mW).

[edit] Reach
See also: Long-range Wi-Fi

Wi-Fi networks have limited range. A typical Wi-Fi home router using 802.11b or
802.11g with a stock antenna might have a range of 32 m (120 ft) indoors and 95 m (300
ft) outdoors. Range also varies with frequency band. Wi-Fi in the 2.4 GHz frequency
block has slightly better range than Wi-Fi in the 5 GHz frequency block. Outdoor range
with improved (directional) antennas can be several kilometres or more with line-of-
sight.

Wi-Fi performance decreases roughly quadratically as the range increases at constant

radiation levels.

Due to reach requirements for wireless LAN applications, power consumption is fairly
high compared to some other low-bandwidth standards. Especially Zigbee and Bluetooth
supporting wireless PAN applications refer to much lesser propagation range of <10m
(ref. e.g. IEEE Std. 802.15.4 section 1.2 scope). The high power consumption of Wi-Fi
makes battery life a concern for mobile devices.
[edit] Mobility

Speed vs. Mobility of wireless systems: Wi-Fi, HSPA, UMTS, GSM

Because of the very limited practical range of Wi-Fi, mobile use is essentially confined to
such applications as inventory taking machines in warehouses or retail spaces, barcode
reading devices at check-out stands or receiving / shipping stations. Mobile use of Wi-Fi
over wider ranges is limited to move, use, move, as for instance in an automobile moving
from one hotspot to another (Wardriving). Other wireless technologies are more suitable
as illustrated in the graphic.

[edit] Threats to security

The most common wireless encryption standard, Wired Equivalent Privacy or WEP, has
been shown to be easily breakable even when correctly configured. Wi-Fi Protected
Access (WPA and WPA2), which began shipping in 2003, aims to solve this problem and
is now available on most products. Wi-Fi Access Points typically default to an "open"
(encryption-free) mode. Novice users benefit from a zero-configuration device that works
out of the box, but this default is without any wireless security enabled, providing open
wireless access to their LAN. To turn security on requires the user to configure the
device, usually via a software graphical user interface (GUI). Wi-Fi networks that are
open (unencrypted) can be monitored and used to read and copy data (including personal
information) transmitted over the network, unless another security method is used to
secure the data, such as a VPN or a secure web page. (See HTTPS/Secure Socket Layer.)

[edit] Population

Many 2.4 GHz 802.11b and 802.11g access points default to the same channel on initial
startup, contributing to congestion on certain channels. To change the channel of
operation for an access point requires the user to configure the device.

[edit] Channel pollution

For more details on this topic, see Electromagnetic interference at 2.4 GHz.
Standardization is a process driven by market forces. Interoperability issues between non-
Wi-Fi brands or proprietary deviations from the standard can still disrupt connections or
lower throughput speeds on all user's devices that are within range, to include the non-
Wi-Fi or proprietary product. Moreover, the usage of the ISM band in the 2.45 GHz
range is also common to Bluetooth, WPAN-CSS, ZigBee and any new system will take
its share.

Wi-Fi pollution, or an excessive number of access points in the area, especially on the
same or neighboring channel, can prevent access and interfere with the use of other
access points by others, caused by overlapping channels in the 802.11g/b spectrum, as
well as with decreased signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) between access points. This can be a
problem in high-density areas, such as large apartment complexes or office buildings
with many Wi-Fi access points. Additionally, other devices use the 2.4 GHz band:
microwave ovens, security cameras, Bluetooth devices and (in some countries) Amateur
radio, video senders, cordless phones and baby monitors, all of which can cause
significant additional interference. General guidance to those who suffer these forms of
interference or network crowding is to migrate to a Wi-Fi 5 GHz product, (802.11a, or
the newer 802.11n if it has 5 GHz support) because the 5 GHz band is relatively unused,
and there are many more channels available. This also requires users to set up the 5 GHz
band to be the preferred network in the client and to configure each network band to a
different name (SSID). It is also an issue when municipalities,[6] or other large entities
such as universities, seek to provide large area coverage. This openness is also important
to the success and widespread use of 2.4 GHz Wi-Fi.

[edit] Hardware
[edit] Standard devices

An embedded RouterBoard 112 with U.FL-RSMA pigtail and R52 mini PCI Wi-Fi
card widely used by wireless Internet service providers (WISPs) in the Czech
Republic.
OSBRiDGE 3GN - 802.11n Access Point and UMTS/GSM Gateway in one
device.

USB wireless adapter

A wireless access point (WAP) connects a group of wireless devices to an adjacent wired
LAN. An access point is similar to a network hub, relaying data between connected
wireless devices in addition to a (usually) single connected wired device, most often an
ethernet hub or switch, allowing wireless devices to communicate with other wired
devices.

Wireless adapters allow devices to connect to a wireless network. These adapters connect
to devices using various external or internal interconnects such as PCI, miniPCI, USB,
ExpressCard, Cardbus and PC card. Most newer laptop computers are equipped with
internal adapters. Internal cards are generally more difficult to install.

Wireless routers integrate a Wireless Access Point, ethernet switch, and internal Router
firmware application that provides IP Routing, NAT, and DNS forwarding through an
integrated WAN interface. A wireless router allows wired and wireless ethernet LAN
devices to connect to a (usually) single WAN device such as cable modem or DSL
modem. A wireless router allows all three devices (mainly the access point and router) to
be configured through one central utility. This utility is most usually an integrated web
server which serves web pages to wired and wireless LAN clients and often optionally to
WAN clients. This utility may also be an application that is run on a desktop computer
such as Apple's AirPort.

Wireless network bridges connect a wired network to a wireless network. This is different
from an access point in the sense that an access point connects wireless devices to a wired
network at the data-link layer. Two wireless bridges may be used to connect two wired
networks over a wireless link, useful in situations where a wired connection may be
unavailable, such as between two separate homes.

Wireless range extenders or wireless repeaters can extend the range of an existing
wireless network. Range extenders can be strategically placed to elongate a signal area or
allow for the signal area to reach around barriers such as those created in L-shaped
corridors. Wireless devices connected through repeaters will suffer from an increased
latency for each hop. Additionally, a wireless device connected to any of the repeaters in
the chain will have a throughput that is limited by the weakest link between the two
nodes in the chain from which the connection originates to where the connection ends.

[edit] Distance records

Electronics
portal

Distance records (using non-standard devices) include 382 km (237 mi) in June 2007,
held by Ermanno Pietrosemoli and EsLaRed of Venezuela, transferring about 3 MB of
data between mountain tops of El Aguila and Platillon.[7][8] The Swedish Space Agency
transferred data 310 km (193 mi), using 6 watt amplifiers to reach an overhead
stratospheric balloon.[9]

[edit] Embedded systems

Embedded serial-to-Wi-Fi module

Wi-Fi availability in the home is on the increase.[10] This extension of the Internet into the
home space will increasingly be used for remote monitoring.[citation needed] Examples of
remote monitoring include security systems and tele-medicine. In all these kinds of
implementation, if the Wi-Fi provision is provided using a system running one of
operating systems mentioned above, then it becomes unfeasible due to weight, power
consumption and cost issues.

Increasingly in the last few years (particularly as of early 2007), embedded Wi-Fi
modules have become available which come with a real-time operating system and
provide a simple means of wireless enabling any device which has and communicates via
a serial port.[11] This allows simple monitoring devices – for example, a portable ECG
monitor hooked up to a patient in their home – to be created. This Wi-Fi enabled device
effectively becomes part of the internet cloud and can communicate with any other node
on the internet. The data collected can hop via the home's Wi-Fi access point to anywhere
on the internet. [12]

These Wi-Fi modules are designed so that designers need minimal Wi-Fi knowledge to
wireless-enable their products.

[edit] Network security

Main article: Piggybacking (internet access)

During the early popular adoption of 802.11, providing open access points for anyone
within range to use was encouraged to cultivate wireless community networks;[13]
particularly since people on average use only a fraction of their upstream bandwidth at
any given time. Later, equipment manufacturers and mass-media advocated isolating
users to a predetermined whitelist of authorized users—referred to as "securing" the
access point.[dubious – discuss]

Wikinews has related news: Florida man charged with stealing

WiFi

Measures to deter unauthorized users include suppressing the AP's SSID broadcast,
allowing only computers with known MAC addresses to join the network, and various
encryption standards. Suppressed SSID and MAC filtering are ineffective security
methods as the SSID is broadcast in the open in response to a client SSID query and a
MAC address can easily be spoofed. If the eavesdropper has the ability to change his
MAC address, then he can potentially join the network by spoofing an authorized
address.

WEP encryption can protect against casual snooping, but may also produce a misguided
sense of security since freely available tools such as AirSnort or aircrack can quickly
recover WEP encryption keys. Once it has seen 5-10 million encrypted packets, AirSnort
can determine the encryption password in under a second;[14] newer tools such as
aircrack-ptw can use Klein's attack to crack a WEP key with a 50% success rate using
only 40,000 packets. The newer Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) and IEEE 802.11i
(WPA2) encryption standards resolve most of the serious weaknesses of WEP
encryption.

Attackers who have gained access to a Wi-Fi network can use DNS spoofing attacks very
effectively against any other user of the network, because they can see the DNS requests
made, and often respond with a spoofed answer before the queried DNS server has a
chance to reply.[15]
One serious issue with wireless network security is not just encryption, but access to the
network (signal reception). With wired networking it is necessary to get past either a
firewall or the security guard & locked doors. With wireless it is necessary only to get
reception and spend as long as you want, comfortably out of (easy) reach of the network
owner. Most business networks protect sensitive data and systems by attempting to
disallow external access. Thus being able to get wireless reception (and thus possibly
break the encryption) becomes an attack vector on the network as well.[16]

Recreational logging and mapping of other people's access points has become known as
wardriving. It is also common for people to use open (unencrypted) Wi-Fi networks as a
free service, termed piggybacking. Indeed, many access points are intentionally installed
without security turned on so that they can be used as a free service. These activities do
not result in sanctions in most jurisdictions, however legislation and case law differ
considerably across the world. A proposal to leave graffiti describing available services
was called warchalking. In a Florida court case, owner laziness was determined not to be
a valid excuse. [17]

Piggybacking is often unintentional. Most access points are configured without

encryption by default, and operating systems such as Windows XP SP2 and Mac OS X
may be configured to automatically connect to any available wireless network. A user
who happens to start up a laptop in the vicinity of an access point may find the computer
has joined the network without any visible indication. Moreover, a user intending to join
one network may instead end up on another one if the latter's signal is stronger. In
combination with automatic discovery of other network resources (see DHCP and
Zeroconf) this could possibly lead wireless users to send sensitive data to the wrong
middle man when seeking a destination (see Man-in-the-middle attack). For example, a
user could inadvertently use an insecure network to login to a website, thereby making
the login credentials available to anyone listening, if the website is using an insecure
protocol like HTTP, rather than a secure protocol like HTTPS.

[edit] History
Wi-Fi uses both single carrier direct-sequence spread spectrum radio technology (part of
the larger family of spread spectrum systems) and multi-carrier OFDM (Orthogonal
Frequency Division Multiplexing) radio technology. The regulations for unlicensed
spread spectrum enabled the development of Wi-Fi, its onetime competitor HomeRF,
Bluetooth, and many other products such as some types of cordless telephones.

Unlicensed spread spectrum was first made available in the US by the Federal
Communications Commission in 1985 and these FCC regulations were later copied with
some changes in many other countries enabling use of this technology in all major
countries.[18] The FCC action was proposed by Michael Marcus of the FCC staff in 1980
and the subsequent regulatory action took 5 more years. It was part of a broader proposal
to allow civil use of spread spectrum technology and was opposed at the time by main
stream equipment manufacturers and many radio system operators.[19]
The precursor to Wi-Fi was invented in 1991 by NCR Corporation/AT&T (later Lucent
& Agere Systems) in Nieuwegein, the Netherlands. It was initially intended for cashier
systems; the first wireless products were brought on the market under the name
WaveLAN with speeds of 1 Mbit/s to 2 Mbit/s. Vic Hayes, who held the chair of IEEE
802.11 for 10 years and has been named the 'father of Wi-Fi,' was involved in designing
standards such as IEEE 802.11b, and 802.11a.

[edit] City wide Wi-Fi

Further information: Municipal wireless network

Wikibooks has a book on the topic of

Nets, Webs and the Information Infrastructure

A municipal wireless antenna in Minneapolis

In the early 2000s, many cities around the world announced plans for a city wide Wi-Fi
network. This proved to be much more difficult than their promoters initially envisioned
with the result that most of these projects were either canceled and placed on indefinite
hold. A few were successful, for example in 2005, Sunnyvale, California became the first
city in the United States to offer city wide free Wi-Fi, [20].

[edit] Origin and meaning of the term "Wi-Fi"

The term "Wi-Fi" suggests "Wireless Fidelity", comparing with the long-established
audio recording term "High Fidelity" or "Hi-Fi", and "Wireless Fidelity" has often been
used in an informal way, even by the Wi-Fi Alliance itself, but officially the term does
not mean anything.

The term "Wi-Fi", first used commercially in August 1999,[21] was coined by a brand
consulting firm called Interbrand Corporation that had been hired by the Alliance to
determine a name that was "a little catchier than 'IEEE 802.11b Direct Sequence'."[22][23][24]
Interbrand invented "Wi-Fi" as simply a play-on-words with "Hi-Fi", as well as creating
the yin yang style Wi-Fi logo.
The Wi-Fi Alliance initially complicated matters by stating that it actually stood for
"Wireless Fidelity", as with the advertising slogan "The Standard for Wireless Fidelity",
[23]
but later removed the phrase from their marketing. The Wi-Fi Alliance's early White
Papers still held in their knowledge base: "… a promising market for wireless fidelity
(Wi-Fi) network equipment."[25] and "A Short History of WLANs." The yin yang logo
indicates that a product had been certified for interoperability.[26]

The Alliance has since downplayed the connection to "Hi-Fi". Their official position is
that it is merely a brand name that stands for nothing in particular, and they now
discourage the use of the term "Wireless Fidelity".

[edit] Wi-Fi Alliance

Main article: Wi-Fi Alliance

The Alliance promotes standards with the aim of improving the interoperability of
wireless local area network products based on the IEEE 802.11 standards. The Wi-Fi
Alliance, a consortium of separate and independent companies, agrees on a set of
common interoperable products based on the family of IEEE 802.11 standards.[27] The
Wi-Fi Alliance certifies products via a set of defined test-procedures to establish
interoperability. Those manufacturers