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(NEW) U6MEA30 Engineering Metrology & Measurements Question Bank
(NEW) U6MEA30 Engineering Metrology & Measurements Question Bank
SR TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
U6MEA30
1. CONCEPT OF MEASUREMENT
9
General concept Generalised measurement system-Units and standards-measuring instruments:
sensitivity, stability, range, accuracy and precision-static and dynamic response-repeatability-systematic
and random errors-correction, calibration - Introduction to Dimensional and Geometric Toleranceing interchangeability,
2.
UNIT I
PART A
1.
Define Calibration.
Calibration is the process of establishing the relationship between a measuring device and the
units of measure. This is done by comparing a devise or the output of an instrument to a standard
having known measurement characteristics. For example the length of a stick can be calibrated by
comparing it to a standard that has a known length. Once the relationship of the stick to the
standard is known the stick can be used to measure the length of other things.
2.
Instrument
Reading
dy
dx
Measured quantity
3.
Define Readability.
Define Hysterisis.
A system with hysteresis can be summarised as a system that may be in any number of
states, independent of the inputs to the system. To be exact, a system with hysteresis exhibits pathdependence, or "rate-independent memory.
6.
Define Range.
Define Span.
Define resolution.
Define Verification.
Dead zone is the range through which a stimulus can be varied without producing a change in the
response of the measuring instrument.
12.
Define Threshold.
Define Discrimination.
Back lash is the play or loose motion in an instrument due to the clearance existing between
mechanically contacting parts. It is similar to hysterisis but more commonly applied to mechanical
systems. It often occurs between interacting mechanical parts as a result of looseness.
Response time (technology), the time a generic system or functional unit takes to react to a given
input
16.
Define Repeatability.
Define Bias.
Define magnification.
Magnification is the process of enlarging something only in appearance, not in physical size.
Magnification is also a number describing by which factor an object was magnified.
19.
Define Drift.
Define reproducibility.
Reproducibility is one of the main principles of the scientific method, and refers to the ability of a
test or experiment to be accurately reproduced, or replicated, by someone else working
independently.
21.
Define uncertainty.
Uncertainty: The lack of certainty, A state of having limited knowledge where it is impossible to
exactly describe existing state or future outcome, more than one possible outcome. It applies to
predictions of future events, to physical measurements already made, or to the unknown.
22.
Traceability refers to the completeness of the information about every step in a process chain.
23.
24.
Define Parallax.
Parallax, more accurately motion parallax, is the change of angular position of two observations of
a single object relative to each other as seen by an observer, caused by the motion of the observer.
25.
Accuracy The maximum amount by which the result differ from true value.
Precision Degree of repetitiveness. If an instrument is not precise it will give different results for
the same dimension for the repeated readings.
27.
X
X
X
X
XX
X
Average
True
Error : The deviation between the results of measured value to the actual value.
Them metrology in which part measurement is replaced by process measurement. The new
techniques such as 3D error compensation by CNC systems are applied.
32.
Over Damped : The final indication of measurement is approached exponentially from one side.
Under damped : The pointer approach the position corresponding to final reading and makes a
number of oscillations around it.
Under Damped
Indication
Over Damped
33.
35.
Direct Method
Indirect Method
Comparison Method
Coincidence Method.
Temperature difference
Support position
Reading and parallel effects
Accuracy of equipment
Application of force
Sine and Cosine error
Different inspectors
Calibration error
Ambient condition
Stylus pressure
Avoidable error.
10
PART B
1.What are the sources of error and explain in details?
During measurement several types of error may arise as indicated and these error can be broadly
classified into two categories.
a) Controllable Errors:
These are controllable in both their magnitude and sense. These can be determined and
reduced, if attempts are made to analyse them. These are also known as systematic errors. These
can be due to:
1.Calibration Errors :
The actual length of standards such as slip gauges and engraved scales will vary from nominal
value by small amount. Sometimes the instrument inertia and hysteresis effects do not let the
instrument translate with complete fidelity. Often signal transmission errors such as a drop in
voltage along the wires between the transducer and the electric meter occur. For high order
accuracy these variations have positive significance and to minimize such variations calibration
curves much be used.
2. Ambient Conditions :
Variations in the ambient conditions from internationally agreed standard value of 20 oC,
barometric pressure 760mm of mercury and 10mm of mercury vapour pressure, can give rise to
errors in the measured size of the component. Temperature is by far the most significant of these
ambient conditions and due correction is needed to obtain error free results.
1.Stylus Pressure :
Error induced due to stylus pressure are also appreciable. Whenever any component in
measured under a definite stylus pressure both the deformation of the workpiece surface and
11
12
13
The component must be supported so that it does not collapse under the measuring
pressure or under its own weight.
The work piece must be cleaned before being measured, and coated with oil or a corruption
inhibitor after inspection.
Measuring instrument must be handled with care so that they are not damaged or strained.
They must be kept in their cases when not in use and kept clean and lightly oiled on the
bright surfaces. They should be regularly checked to ensure that they have not lost their
mutual accuracy.
It must be emphasized that it is not good practice to rely on the accuracy of the instruments
and on the readings taken readings should be double checked and the instruments should
be periodically checked against the appropriate standards. Measuring instruments are
produced to a high degree of accuracy, form the engineer's common rule to the most
complex optical instrument, and they should be treated accordingly. Instruments are easily
damaged, and very often the damage is not noticeable. Always handle instrument with
great care, and report immediately any accidental damage. Protect highly polished surfaces
from corrosion by handling them as little as possible and by covering them with petroleum
jelly when not in use.
Alignment Principle
Location of the measured part
Temperature
14
Parallax.
15
Location :
when using a sensitive comparator, the measured part in located on a table which forms the
datum for comparison with the standard. The comparator reading in thus an indication of the
displacement of the upper surface of the measured part from the datum. Faults at the location
surface of the part damage, geometrical variations from part to part or the presence of foreign
matter are also transmitted to the indicator. This provides false information regarding the true
length of the part by introducing both sine and cosine error.
Where location conditions may not be ideal, ex:- inter stage measurement during
production, sensors, operating on each side of the component can be used which eliminate the
more serious sine type error. A two probe system measures length rather than surface
displacement and highly sensitive electronic comparators of this type are used for slip gauge
measurement.
Temperature :The standard reference temp. at which line and end standards are said to be at their true
length is 20o and for highest accuracy in measurement this temp. Should be maintained. When
this is not possible and the length at reference temp. must be known, a correction is made to allow
for the difference between ambient and reference temp. The correction value required to
0.001375mm, when steel object exactly 25mm long at 20 oC and Co-efficient of linear expansion
11Mm c/m in measured at 25 oC, Which is rather larger than the increment step the M88/2 stip
gauge set.
However, for less stringent measurement requirements it is not essential that correction to
reference temperature is made provided that the following precautions and conditions are
observed.
a) The temp. at which measurement is made is not changing significantly.
b) The gauge and work being compared are at the same temp and the temp is the same as ambient
temp.
16
Parallax Effect :
On most dials the indicating finger or pointer lies in a plane parallel to the scale but
displaced a small distance away to allow free movement of the pointer. It is then essential to
observe the pointer along a line normal to the scale otherwise a reading error will occur. This
effect is shown in fig. Where a dial is shown observed from three positions where the pointer is
set at zero on the scale, observed from position 1) ie, from the left, the pointer appears to indicate
some value, to the right off zero, and from position 2) Some value slightly to the left of zero, while
only at position. 3) With the pointer Coincide with zero on the scale. Rules and micrometer
thimbles are beveled to reduce this effect and on dials the indicates may be arranged to lie in the
same plane as the scale, thus completely eliminating parallax, or a silvered reflector may be
incorporated on the scale so that the line between the of eye and pointer is normal to the scale only
when the pointer obscures in own image in the reflector.
4. Explain the classification of methods of measurements.
Classifications of Methods of Measurements
In precision measurements various methods of measurement are followed depending upon
the accuracy required and the amount of permissible error.
There are numerous ways in which a quantity can be measured. Any method of
measurements should be defined in such a detail and followed by such a standard practice that
there is little scope for uncertainty. The nature of the procedure in some of the most common
measurements is described below. Actual measurements may employ one or more combinations
of the following.
(i)
17
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)
(x)
(xi)
(xii)
18
(xiv)
(xv)
(xvi)
19
Instrument range: It is the capacity or total range of values which an instrument is capable of
measuring. For example, a micrometer screw gauge with capacity of 25 to 50mm has instrument
range of 25 to 50mm but scale range is 25mm.
Scale Spacing: It is the distance between the axes of two adjacent graduations on the scale.
Most instruments have a constant value of scale spacing throughout the scale. Such scales are said
to be linear.
In case of non linear scales, the scale spacing value is variable within the limits of the
scale.
Scale Division Value: It is the measured value of the measured quantity corresponding to one
division of the instrument, e.g. for ordinary scale, the scale division value is 1mm. As a rule, the
scale division should not be smaller in value than the permissible indication error of an
instrument.
Sensitivity (Amplication or gearing ratio): It is the ratio of the scale spacing to the division
value. It could also be expressed as the ratio of the product of all the larger lever arms and the
product of all the smaller lever arms. It is the property of a measuring instrument to respond to
changes in the measurement quantity.
Sensitivity Threshold: It is defined as the minimum measured value which may cause any
movement whatsoever of the indicating hand. It is also called the discrimination or resolving
power of an instrument and is the minimum change in the quantity being measured which
produces a perceptible movement of the index.
Reading Accuracy: It is the accuracy that may be attained in using a measuring instrument.
Reading Error: It is defined as the difference between the reading of the instrument and the
actual value of the dimension being measured.
Accuracy of observation: It is accuracy attainable in reading the scale of an instrument. It
depends on the quality of the scale marks, the width or the pointer / index, the space between the
pointer and the scale, the illumination of the scale, and the skill of the inspector. The width of
scale mark is usually kept one tenth of the scale spacing for accurate reading of indications.
Parallax: It is apparent change in the position of the index relative to the scale marks, when
the scale is observed in a direction other than perpendicular to its plane.
20
21
These occur randomly and the specific cases of such errors cannot be determined, but likely
sources of this type of errors are small variations in the position of setting standard and
workpiece, slight displacement of lever joints in the measuring joints in measuring instrument,
transient fluctuation in the friction in the measuring instrument, and operator errors in reading
scale and pointer type displays or in reading engraved scale positions.
Characteristics of random errors:
The various characteristics of random errors are:
These are due to large number of unpredictable and fluctuating causes that can not be
controlled by the experimenter. Hence they are sometimes positive and sometimes negative
and of variable magnitude. Accordingly they get revealed by repeated observations.
These are caused by friction and play in the instruments linkages, estimation of reading by
judging fractional part of a scale division, by errors in position the measured object, etc.
These are variable in magnitude and sign and are introduced by the very process of
observation itself.
The frequency of the occurrence of random errors depends on the occurrence probability for
different values of random errors.
Random errors show up as various indication values within the specified limits of error in a
series of measurements of a given dimension.
The probability of occurrence is equal for positive and negative errors of the same absolute
value since random errors follow normal frequency distribution.
Random errors of larger absolute value are rather than those of smaller values.
The arithmetic mean of random errors in a given series of measurements approaches zero as
the number of measurements increases.
For each method of measurement, random errors do not exceed a certain definite value.
Errors exceeding this value are regarded as gross errors (errors which greatly distort the
results and need to be ignored).
The most reliable value of the size being sought in a series of measurements is the arithmetic
mean of the results obtained.
The main characteristic of random errors, which is used to determine the maximum
measuring error, is the standard deviation.
The maximum error for a given method of measurement is determined as three times the
standard deviation.
The maximum error determines the spread of possible random error values
The standard deviation and the maximum error determine the accuracy of a single
measurement in given series.
From the above, it is clear that systematic errors are those which are repeated consistently with
repetition of the experiment, whereas Random Errors are those which are accidental and whose
magnitude and sign cannot be predicted from knowledge of measuring system and conditions of
measurement.
22
7. Define accuracy and precision and state the distinction between precision and accuracy.
The agreement of the measured value with the true value of the measured quantity is called
accuracy. If the measurement of a dimensions of a part approximates very closely to the true value
of that dimension, it is said to be accurate. Thus the term accuracy denotes the closeness of the
measured value with the true value. The difference between the measured value and the true
value is the error of measurement. The lesser the error, more is the accuracy.
Precision and Accuracy
Precision, The terms precision and accuracy are used in connection with the performance of
the instrument. Precision is the repeatability of the measuring process. It refers to the group of
measurements for the same characteristics taken under identical conditions. It indicates to what
extent the identically performed measurements agree with each other. If the instrument is not
precise it will give different (widely varying) results for the same dimension when measured again
and again. The set of observations will scatter about the mean. The scatter of these measurements
is designated as , the standard deviation. It is used as an index of precision. The less the
scattering more precise is the instrument. Thus, lower, the value of , the more precise is the
instrument.
Accuracy: Accuracy is the degree to which the measured value of the quality characteristic
agrees with the true value. The difference between the true value and the measured value is
known as error of measurement.
Distinction between Precision and Accuracy
Accuracy is very often confused with precision though much different. The distinction
between the precision and accuracy will become clear by the following example. Several
measurements are made on a component by different types of instruments (A, B and C
respectively) and the results are plotted.
In any set of measurements, the individual
measurements are scattered about the mean, and the precision signifies how well the various
measurements performed by same instrument on the same quality characteristics agree with each
other.
23
The difference between the mean of set of readings of the same quality characteristic and
the true value is called as error. Less the error more accurate is the instrument.
Figure shows that the instrument A is precise since the results of number of measurements
are close to the average value. However, there is a large difference (error) between the true value
and the average value hence it is not accurate.
The readings taken by the instruments are scattered much from the average value and
hence it is not precise but accurate as there is a small difference between the average value and
true value.
Figure shows that the instrument is accurate as well as precise.
8. State the Factors affecting the accuracy of the measuring system.
The basic components of an accuracy evaluation are the five elements of a measuring
system such as:
1. Factors affecting the calibration standards
2. Factors affecting the workpiece
3. Factors affecting the inherent characteristics of the instrument
4. Factors affecting the person, who carries out the measurements, and
5. Factors affecting the environment.
1. Factors affecting the standard. It may be affected by:
a. Coefficient of thermal expansion,
b. Calibration interval,
c. Stability with time,
d. Elastic properties,
e. Geometric compatibility
24
25
- WORKPIECE
- INSTRUMENT
- PERSON
- ENVIRONMENT
Sensitivity
Readability
Calibration
Repeatability
Sensitivity
Sensitivity may be defined as the rate of displacement of the indicating device of a
instrument, with respect to the measured quantity. In other words, sensitivity of an instrument is
the ratio of the scale spacing to the scale division value. For example, if on a dial indicator, the
scale spacing is 1.0 mm and the scale division value is 0.01 mm, then sensitivity is 100. It is also
called as amplification factor or gearing ratio.
If we now consider sensitivity over the full range o instrument reading with respect to
dy
measured quantities as shown in Fig., the sensitivity at any value of y
where dx and dy are
dx
increments of x and y, taken over the full instrument scale, the sensitivity is the slope of the curve
at any value of y.
The sensitivity may be constant or variable along the scale. In the first case we get linear
transmission and in the second non-linear transmission and in the second non-linear transmission.
Sensitivity refers to the ability of measuring device to detect small difference in a quantity
being measured. High sensitivity instruments may lead to drifts due to thermal or other effects,
and indications of lower sensitivity.
Readability
26
Readability refers to the ease with which the readings of a measuring instrument can be
read. It is the susceptibility of a measuring device to have its indications converted into
meaningful number. Fine and widely spaced graduation lines ordinarily improve the readability.
If the graduation lines are very finely spaced, the scale will be more readable by using the
microscope, however, with the naked eye the readability will be poor.
To make micrometers more readable they are provided with vernier scale. It can also be
improved by using magnifying devices.
Calibration:
The calibration of any measuring instrument is necessary to measure the quantity in terms
of standard unit. It is the process of framing the scale of the instrument by applying some
standardized signals. Calibration is a premeasurement process, generally carried out by
manufactures.
It is carried out by making adjustments such that the read out device produces zero output
for zero measured input. Similarly, it should display an output equivalent to the known measured
input near the full scale input value.
The accuracy of the instrument depends upon the calibration. Constant uses of instruments
affect heir accuracy. If the accuracy is to be maintained, the instruments must be checked and
recalibrated if necessary. The schedule of such calibration depends upon the severity of use,
environmental conditions, accuracy of measurement required etc. as far as possible calibration
should be performed under environmental conditions which are vary close to the conditions
under which actual measurements are carried out. If the output of a measuring system is linear
and repeatable, it can be easily calibrated.
Repeatability,
It is the ability of the measuring instrument to repeat the same results for the measurements
for the same quantity, when the measurement are carried out
-
10. Define line standard and end standard measurements and explain their characteristics.
Line and End Measurements
27
A length may be measured as the distance between two lines or as he distance between two
parallel faces. So, the instruments for direct measurement of linear dimensions fall into two
categories
1. Line standards
2. End standards
Line standards. When the length is measured as the distance between centres of two
engraved lines, it is called line standard. Both material standards yard and metre are line
standards. The most common example of line measurement is the rule with divisions shown as
lines marked on it.
Characteristics of Line Standard
1. Scales can be accurately engraved but the engraved lines them selves possess thickness
and it is not possible to take measurements with high accuracy.
2. A scale is a quick and easy to use over a wide range.
3. The scale markings are not subjected to wear. However, he leading ends are subjected to
wear and this may lead to undersize measurements.
4. A scale does not posses a built in datum. Therefore it is not possible to align the scale
with the axis of measurement.
5. Scales are subjected to parallax error.
6. Also, the assistance of magnifying glass or microscope is required if sufficient accuracy
is to be achieved.
End standards: When length is expressed as the distance between two flat parallel faces, it is
known as ends standard. Examples: Measurement by slip gauges, end bars, ends of micrometer
anvils, vernier calipers etc. the end faces are hardened, lapped flat and parallel to a very high
degree of accuracy.
Characteristics of End Standards:
1. These standards are highly accurate and used for measurement of close tolerance in
precision engineering as well as in standard laboratories, tool rooms, inspection
departments etc.
2. They require more time for measurements and measure only one dimension at a time.
3. They are subjected to wear on their measuring faces.
4. Group of slips can be wrung together to build up a given size; faulty wringing and
careless use may lead to inaccurate results.
28
5. End standards have built in datum since their measuring faces are flat and parallel and
can positively locked on datum surface.
6. They are not subjected to parallax effect as their use depends on feel.
The accuracy of both these standards is affected by temperature change and both are
1
originally calibrated at 20 C. It is also necessary to take utmost case in their manufacture to
2
ensure that the change of shape with time, secular change is reduced to negligible.
Characteristics
1.
Principle
2.
Accuracy
3.
4.
Effect of wear
5.
Alignment
6.
Manufacture and
cost
7.
Parallax effect
8.
Examples
Line standard
End standard
29
There are several standards available worldwide that describe the symbols and define the rules
used in GD&T. One such standard is American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Y14.5M1994. This article is based on that standard, but other standards, such as those from the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO), may vary slightly. The Y14.5M standard has
the advantage of providing a fairly complete set of standards for GD&T in one document. The ISO
standards, in comparison, typically only address a single topic at a time. There are separate
standards that provide the details for each of the major symbols and topics below (e.g. position,
flatness, profile, etc)
Dimensioning and tolerancing philosophy
According to the ASME Y14.5M-1994 standard, the purpose of geometric dimensioning and
tolerancing (GD&T) is to describe the engineering intent of parts and assemblies. This is not a
completely correct explanation of the purpose of GD&T or dimensioning and tolerancing in
general.
The purpose of GD&T is more accurately defined as describing the geometric requirements for
part and assembly geometry. Proper application of GD&T will ensure that the allowable part and
assembly geometry defined on the drawing leads to parts that have the desired form and fit
(within limits) and function as intended.
There are some fundamental rules that need to be applied (these can be found on page 4 of the
1994 edition of the standard):
All dimensions must have a tolerance. Every feature on every manufactured part is subject
to variation, therefore, the limits of allowable variation must be specified. Plus and minus
tolerances may be applied directly to dimensions or applied from a general tolerance block
or general note. For basic dimensions, geometric tolerances are indirectly applied in a
related Feature Control Frame. The only exceptions are for dimensions marked as
minimum, maximum, stock or reference.
Dimensioning and tolerancing shall completely define the nominal geometry and allowable
variation. Measurement and scaling of the drawing is not allowed except in certain cases.
Engineering drawings define the requirements of finished (complete) parts. Every
dimension and tolerance required to define the finished part shall be shown on the
30
drawing. If additional dimensions would be helpful, but are not required, they may be
marked as reference.
Dimensions should be applied to features and arranged in such a way as to represent the
function of the features.
Descriptions of manufacturing methods should be avoided. The geometry should be
described without explicitly defining the method of manufacture.
If certain sizes are required during manufacturing but are not required in the final
geometry (due to shrinkage or other causes) they should be marked as non-mandatory.
All dimensioning and tolerancing should be arranged for maximum readability and should
be applied to visible lines in true profiles.
When geometry is normally controlled by gage sizes or by code (e.g. stock materials), the
dimension(s) shall be included with the gage or code number in parentheses following or
below the dimension.
Angles of 90 are assumed when lines (including center lines) are shown at right angles, but
no angular dimension is explicitly shown. (This also applies to other orthogonal angles of
0, 180, 270, etc.)
Dimensions and tolerances are valid at 20 C unless stated otherwise.
Unless explicitly stated, all dimensions and tolerances are valid when the item is in a free
state.
Dimensions and tolerances apply to the full length, width, and depth of a feature.
Dimensions and tolerances only apply at the level of the drawing where they are specified.
It is not mandatory that they apply at other drawing levels, unless the specifications are
repeated on the higher level drawing(s).
Type of
tolerance
Geometric
characteristics
Form
Straightness
Form
Flatness
Form
Circularity
Form
Cylindricity
Profile
Profile of a line
Can be
Can be
Can be
Can be
applied Can affect Datum Can use Can use affected
applied
affected
Symbol
to a
virtual reference
by a
to a
by a shift
feature condition? used? modifier? modifier? bonus
feature?
tolerance?
of size?
tolerance?
31
Profile of a
surface
Orientation Perpendicularity
Orientation
Angularity
Orientation
Parallelism
Location
Symmetry
Location
Positional
tolerance
Location
Concentricity
Runout
Circular runout
Runout
Total runout
Indication of datum
32
In the early days of CAD exchange only lines, texts and symbols were written into the
exchange file. A receiving system could only display them on the screen or print them out,
but only a human could interpret them.
GD&T presentation: On a next higher level the presentation information is enhanced by
grouping them together into callouts for a particular purpose, e.g. a datum feature callout and
a datum reference frame. And there is also the information which of the curves in the
exchange file are leader, projection or dimension curves and which are used to form the
shape of a product.
GD&T representation: Unlike GD&T presentation, the GD&T representation does not deal
with how the information is presented to the user but only deal with which element of a
shape of a product has which GD&T characteristic. A system supporting GD&T
representation may display the GD&T information in some tree and other dialogs and
allow the user to directly select and highlight the corresponding feature on the shape of the
product, 2D and 3D.
Ideally both GD&T presentation and representation are available in the exchange file and
are associated with each other. Then a receiving system can allow a user to select a GD&T
callout and get the corresponding feature highlighted on the shape of the product.
An enhancement of GD&T representation is defining a formal language for GD&T (similar like a
programming language) which also has build in rules and restrictions for the proper GD&T usage.
This is still a research area.
33
UNIT II
PART A
1. State the purpose of Hook rules.
Hook rules are used to make accurate measurements from a shoulder step, or edge of
workpiece. They may be used to measure franges, circular pieces and for setting inside caliper to a
dimension.
2. State the purpose of short length rule.
Short length rules are useful in measuring small openings and hard to reach locations
where ordinary rules cannot be used.
3. Explain how accurate measurement can be made if the end of the rule in worn.
In case of worn rules, measurement can be made by placing the 1cm graduation in line on
the edge of the work, taking the reading and subtracting them from final reading.
4. How can a rule be used as a straight edge?
34
10. Why Cast Iron in a preferred material for surface plates and tables ?
1.
2.
3.
4.
It is a self-lubricating, and the equipment slides on its working surface with a pleasant feel.
It is easy to provide complex shape of stiffening ribs.
It is stable and rigid metal and relatively in-expensive
It is easily machined and scrapped to an accurate plane surface.
35
V-Blocks are manufactured in pairs so that long components can be supported parallel to
the datum surface and for this reason they must always be bought and kept as a pain.
12. What is normally the accuracy of a Vernier Caliper?
Vernier Caliper are normally available in measuring accuracy of 0.02mm.
13. What is the main advantage of a vernier depth gauge as compared to micrometer depth
gauge ?
The vernier depth gauge has longer scale than a micrometer depth gauge and does scale
than a micrometer depth gauge and does not require the length bars for measuring deep depths.
14. Explain the purpose of the dial test indicator in this application of the varnier height gauge
and need for a datum surface ?
The dial gauge in used to remove errors due to feel and to maintain constant pressure
during measurement the datum is required because the reading of vernier height gauge starts
from the base.
15. State briefly the two usual methods of testing the accuracy of a micrometer.
The first method to check is the zero line on the thimble coin cider with the centre (index)
line on the sleeve. If it does coincide, the micrometer in correct.
In the second method a standard or a gauge blocks is measured with the micrometer. The
reading of the micrometer must be the same the standard or a gauge block.
16. What are the two types of dial indicator ?
1. Those with a linear moving plunger called plunger type.
2. Those with an angular moving stylus called level type.
17. What is meant by the "magnification" of a dial indicator ?
The magnification of a dial indicator in the ratio of the movement of the pointer to the
movement of the dial indicator item.
As an example, suppose the end of the pointer traverses a circle of diameter 21mm and a
full pointer resolution of say 0-100 is in units of 0.01mm
Magnification = 21/100 x 0.01
36
37
2. Mechanical- optical
6. Fluid displacement
38
4. Optical
8. Multi check
39
39. Name the various factors on which the accuracy of a sine bar depends.
The accuracy of a fine bar depends upon the following six factors.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
40
These replace the judgments of the human eye with appropriate photoelectric systems.
Setting accuracy in increased and constant for all operators.
Remote reading (digital or analog) are possible.
43. What are the important rules for putting dimensions on drawings in respect of Tolerance?
1.
2.
3.
2.
"Go" gauges should inspect all the features of a component at a time and should be able to
control the maximum metal limit, or in other words the maximum metal limit of as many
related dimensions as possible should be incorporated in the "Go" gauge.
"Not - Go" gauge should check only one element at a time for the minimum metal limit.
41
47. What is the objective of measurement of thread elements mention some important thread
elements of linear measurement ?
The purpose of thread measurement in to ensure that the thread element are within the
tolerance limits in order to satisfy the conditions of required fit.
The important thread elements which have linear measurement are,
1. Effective diameter
2. Major diameter
3. Miner diameter
4. Pith
48. What is meant by "best wire" size ?
The best wire (diameter of the wire) is one such that its points of contact with the thread are
on the pitch line or effective diameter.
49. What are the desirable qualities of good rule ?
1.
2.
3.
4.
50. Give examples for and measuring and line measuring instruments.
End measuring Instrument - Slip gauge block, length bar
Line measuring Instrument - Engineer's Rule, Vernier Caliper, Micrometer.
51. What is the smallest graduation which can be clearly seen on a metric rule ? on an in circle ?
The smallest graduation on a metric rule : 0.5mm. While on an inch rule it in 1/64 inch.
52. Name from types of steel rules used in machine shop work.
1. Spring - tempered
2. Flexible type
3. Narrow type
42
PART B
43
Direct precise measurement, where the accuracy of the work piece demands it.
For checking accuracy of venire calipers, micro metes, and such other measuring
instruments.
Setting up a comparator to specific dimension.
For measuring angle of work piece and also for angular setting in conjunction with a
sine bar.
The distances of plugs, spigots, etc. on fixture are often best measured with the slip
gauges or end bars for large dimensions.
To check gap between parallel locations such as in gap gauges or between two mating
parts.
There are many measurements which can be made with slip gauges either alone or in
conjunction with other simple apparatus such as straight edges, rollers, balls sine bars etc.
Before using, the slip gauges are cleaned by using a lint free cloth, a chamois leather or a
cleansing tissue.
One slip gauge is then oscillated slightly over the other gauge with a light pressure.
One gauge is then placed at 900 to other by using light pressure and then it is rotated
until the blocks one brought in one line.
In this way is air is expelled out from between the gauge faces causing the gauge blocks to
adhere. The adhesion is caused partly by molecular attraction and partly by atmospheric pressure.
When two gauges are wrung in this manner is exactly the sum of their individual dimensions. The
wrung gauge can be handled as a unit without the need for clamping all the pieces together.
44
Pieces
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
10
45
9
9
9
9
9
Step (mm)
0.001
0.01
0.5
10
-
Pieces
9
49
19
9
1
Total 87 Pieces
The other sets available in metric units are: M112,M105,M50,M33 and M27. The sets M112 and
M33 are as follows.
Set M112
Range (mm)
1.001 to 1.00
1.01 to 1.49
0.5 to 24.50
25 to 100
1.005
Step (mm)
0.001
0.01
0.05
25
-
Pieces
9
49
49
4
1
Total 112 Pieces
Step (mm)
0.01
0.1
1
10
-
Pieces
1
9
9
9
3
1
1
Total 33 Pieces
2. What are limit gauges and explain the different types of limit gauges with neat sketches?
Limit Gauges: Limit gauges are very widely used in industries. As there are two permissible limits
of the dimension of a part, high and low, two gauges are needed to check each dimension of the
part, one corresponding the low limit of size and other to the high limit of size of that dimension.
These are known as GO and NO-GO gauges.
46
2. Renewable type (Taper inserted type). For sizes over 10mm and up to 30mm. (Refer Fig.
9.18)
47
3. Fastened type:
48
Fig. 9.24
5. Progressive type. For relatively short through hole. It has both the ends on one side of the
gauge as shown in Fig. 9.21.
6. Pilot Plug gauge. To avoid jamming of the plug gauge inside of the hole pilot groove type
gauge (Fig. 9.25) may be used. In pilot plug gauge there is first a small chamber, then a
narrow ring or pilot-its diameter being equal to that of the body of the gauge, the pilot is of
the nature of an ellipse in respect to the hole. It touches at two points across the major axis
which is the diameter of the plug on entering the hole. If the pilot enters the hole it is
sufficiently large for the rest of the gauge to enter. The chamber behind the pilot lifts the
gauge into link, making jamming impossible. The advantages of such a gauge are that the
operator can work even with less care and there is saving in time.
49
The plug gauges are marked with the following on their handles for their identification:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
Nominal size,
Class of tolerance
The word Go on the Go side
The words NOGO (or Not- Go) on the Not-Go side
The actual value of the tolerance
Manufacturers trade mark.
A red colour band near the Not-Go end to distinguish in from the Go-end.
50
51
Fig9.29
Fig9.30
Fig.9.31
52
Fig.9.32
3. State and explain Taylors Principle of Gauge Design.
It state that (1) GO gauges should be designed to check the maximum material limit, while the
NO-GO gauges should be designed to check the minimum material limit.
Now, the plug gauges are used to check the hole, therefore the size of the GO plug gauge
should correspond to the low limit of hole, while that of NO-GO plug gauge corresponds to the
high limit of hole.
Similarly, the GO Snap gauge on the other hand corresponds to the high limit of shaft, while
NO-GO Snap gauge corresponds to the low limit of shaft.
The difference in size between the GO and NOGO plug gauges, as well as the difference in size
between GO and NO-GO Snap gauges is approximately equal to the tolerance of the tested hole or
shaft in case of standard gauges.
(2) GO gauges should check all the related dimensions (roundness, size, location etc).
Simultaneously whereas NO-GO gauge should check only one element of the dimension at a
time.
53
Fig. 9.34
Now suppose the hole to be checked has an oval shape While checking it with the cylindrical
NOT GO gauge the hole under inspection will over lap (hatched portion) the plug and thus will
not enter the hole. This will again lead to wrong conclusion that the part is within the prescribed
limits. It will be therefore more appropriate to make the NOT GO gauge in the form of a pin as
shown in Fig. 9.35.
54
55
A wide variety of comparators are commercially available at present. They are classified
according to the method used for amplifying and recording the variations measured into the
following types.
1. Mechanical comparators
2. Optical comparators
3. Mechanical-Optical comparators
4. Electrical and Electronics comparators
5. Pneumatic comparators
6. Fluid displacement comparators
7. Projection comparators.
8. Multi check comparators
9. Automatic Gauging Machines
10. Electro-Mech. Comparators.
In addition to above, comparators of particularly high sensitivity and magnification, used in
standard rooms for calibration of gauge include.
1. The Brookes Level comparator
2. The Eden-Roltmillionth comparator.
5. Describe the work principle of Johansson Mikrokator with a neat sketch.
The Johansson Mikrokator
This instrument was first devised by m/s C.F. Johansson and hence the name. It uses a
twisted strip to convert small linear movement of a plunger into a large circular movement of a
pointer. It is therefore, also called as twisted strip comparator. It uses the simplest method for
obtaining the mechanical magnification designed by H.Abramson which is known as Abramson,
movement.
A twisted thin metal strip carries at the centre of its length a very light pointer made of thin
glass. One end of the strip is fixed to the adjustable cantilever strip and the other end is anchored
to the spring elbow, one arm of which is carried on measuring plunger. The spring elbow acts as a
bell crank lever. The construction of such a comparator is shown in Fig.5.2.
56
Fig.5.2.Johansson Mikrokator
A slight upward movement of plunger will make the bell crank lever to rotate.
Due to this a tension will be applied to the twisted strip in the direction of the arrow. This
causes the strip to untwist resulting in the movement of the point. The spring will ensure that the
plunger returns when the contact pressure between the bottom tip of the plunger and the
workpiece is not there, that is, when the workpiece is removed from underneath the plunger.
The length of the cantilever can be varied to adjust the magnification. In order to prevent
excessive stress on the central portion, the strip is perforated along the centre line by per formation
as shown in Fig.5.3. The magnification of the instrument is approximately equal to the ratio of rate
dQ
of change of pointer movement to rate of change in length of the strip, i.e.,
. It can be shown
dL
dQ
L
2 ,
that the magnification of the instrument
dL n
Where, Q = twist of mid point of strip with respect to
the end
L = length of twisted strip measured along its
neutral axis
= width of twisted strip and,
n = number of turns
It is thus obvious that in order to increase the magnification of the instrument a very thin
rectangular strip must be used.
6. Explain working of a Reed Type mechanical comparator with a neat sketch.
Reed Type Mechanical Comparator
In reed type mechanical comparator, the gauging head is usually a sensitive, high quality,
dial indicator. The dial indicator is mounted on a base supported by a sturdy column. Fig.5.4
shows a read type mechanical comparator.
The read mechanism is frictionless device for magnifying small motions of the spindle. It
consists of a fixed block. A which is rigidly fastened to the gauge head case, and floating block B,
which carries the gauging spindle and is connected horizontally to the fixed block by read C.
57
A
vertical
reeds
are
extends a pointer. A linear motion
block vertically causing the
to slide past the vertical reed on
vertical reeds are joined at the
movement causes both reeds
58
59
1. Cheaper, Mechanical comparators are less costly as compared to other amplifying devices.
2. No need of external agency. These instruments do not require any external agency such as
electricity or air and as such the variations in outside supply do not affect the accuracy.
3. Linear Scale. Usually the mechanical comparators have linear scale.
4. Robust and compact: These instruments are robust and compact in design and easy to
handle.
5. Portable: For ordinary workshop conditions, these instruments are very suitable and being
portable can be issued from the stores.
Disadvantages of Mechanical Comparators
1. Less accuracy (a) Due to more moving parts, the friction is more which reduces the
accuracy.
2. Sensitive to vibrations: The mechanisms in mechanical comparators have more inertia and
this may cause them to be sensitive to vibrations.
3. Faults magnified: Any wear backlash or dimensional faults in the mechanical devices used
will also be magnified.
4. Limited range: The range of the instrument is limited as the pointer moves over a fixed
scale.
5. Parallax error: Error due to Parallax are more likely with these instruments as the pointer
moves over a fixed scale.
9. Explain the working principle of an electrical comparator with a neat sketch.
Electrical Comparators:
Principle: These comparators depend on their operation on an A.C. Whetstone bridge circuit
incorporating a galvanometer. In these comparators, the movement of the measuring contact is
converted into an electrical signal. This electrical signal is recorded by an instrument which can be
calibrated in terms of plunger movement.
60
61
Fluctuation in the voltage or frequency of the electric supply may affect the results.
Heating of coils in the measuring unit may cause zero drift and alter the calibration.
When measuring unit is remote from the indicating unit, reliability is lower.
Cost is generally more than mechanical comparator.
If only a fixed scale is used with a moving pointer than with high magnification a very
small range is obtained.
11. Describe the working of Solex pneumatic gauge with a neat sketch.
Solex pneumatic Gauges
This instrument was commercially introduced by solex Air Gauges Ltd. It is generally
designed for internal measurement, but with suitable measuring head it can be used for external
gauging also.
62
63
64
h2 h1
l
Fig.6.9
2. Checking or measuring unknown angle:
(a) When component is of small size. For measuring unknown angle it is necessary to first find the
angle approximately with the help of a bevel protractor. The sine bar is then set up at that nominal
(approximate) angle on a surface plate by suitable combination of slip gauges. The component to
be checked is placed over the surface of the sine bar (if necessary the component may be clamped
with the angle plate). The dial gauge is then set at one end of the work and moved along the upper
surface of the component. If there is a variation in parallelism of the upper surface of the
component and the surface plate, it is indicated by the dial gauge. The combination of the slip
gauges is so adjusted that the upper surface of the component is truly parallel with the surface
plate.
65
Fig.6.10
1 h
The angle of the component is then calculated by the relation sin
L
The perfect adjustment of slip gauge combination requires too much time, so the variation
in the parallelism of the upper surface of the component and the surface plate indicated by the dial
gauge is converted into corresponding angular variation. If dx is the variation in parallelism over
1 h
a distance x the corresponding variation in angle sin
L
b. When the component is of large size/heavy. In such cases, the component is placed over a
surface plate. The sine bar is placed over the component as shown in Fig.6.11. The height over the
rollers can then be measured by a vernier height gauge; using a dial test gauge mounted on the
anvil of height gauge to ensure constant measuring pressure.
The anvil of height gauge is adjusted with probe of dial test gauge showing same reading
for the topmost position of rollers of sine bar. The height gauge is thus used to obtain two readings
for either of the rollers of sine bar. If h is the difference in the heights and T distance between the
1 h
roller centres of the sine bar, then sin .
L
Another method of determining angle of large size part is shown Fig.6.12. The component
is placed over a surface plate and the sine bar is set up at approximate angle on the component so
that its surface is nearly parallel to the surface plate. A dial gauge is moved along the top surface
of the sine bar to note the variation in parallelism. If h is height of the combination of the slip
gauge and dh the variation in parallelism over distance L then,
h
sin 1
L
66
Fig.6.12
13. State the limitations and source of errors in sine bar.
Imitations of Sine Bars
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Sine bar is fairly reliable for angles less than 15 o, and becomes increasingly inaccurate as the
angle increases. It is impractical to use sine bars for angle above 45o.
It is physically clumsy to hold in position.
Slight errors of the sine bar cause larger angular errors.
A difference of deformation occurs at the point of roller contact with the surface plate and to
the gauge blocks.
The size of parts which can be inspected by since bar is limited.
67
Fig.6.13
Sine Table: The sine table is the most convenient and accurate design for heavy work-piece. The
equipment consist of a self-contained sine bar, hinged at one roller and mounted on its datum
surface. The table is quite rigid one and the weight of unit and work-piece is given fuller and safer
support. The table may be safety swing to any angle from 0 to 90 0 by pivoting it about it hinged
end. Due to the work being held axially between centres, the angle of inclination will be half the
included angle of the work. The use of since centres and sine table provides a convenient method
of measuring the angle of a taper plug gauge.
15. Explain the working principle of angle Dekkor with a neat sketch.
Angle Dekkor.
This is a type of auto-collimator. It consists of microscope, objective (collimating) lens and
two scales engraved on a glass screen which is placed in the focal plane of the objective lens. One
of the scales, called datum scale, is horizontal and fixed. It is engraved across the centre of the
screen and is always visible in the microscope eye-piece. Another scale is an illuminated vertical
scale fixed across the centre of the screen and the reflected image of the illuminated scale is
received at right angles to this fixed scale, and the two scales, in the position intersect each other.
Thus the reading on illuminated scale measures angular deviations from one axis at 90 o to the
optical axis, and the reading on the fixed datum scale measures the deviation about an axis
68
69
We
will
consider
an
example
of
milling a slot at a
precise angle to a
previously
machined datum
face. A parallel
bar is used as a
datum face, the
component being
securely clamped
when in close contact with it parallel bar is positioned on the table of milling machine with the aid
of angle dekkor. The setting-up technique is illustrated in Figure. Wit the aid of this surface as
reference, the angle dekkor is set up such that zero reading is obtained; in other words, the axis of
the optical beam is truly at 90 o to the table feed. Then build up the combination of angle gauges to
the exact value , i.e. the inclination of the slot to the milled on the component. The angle gauges
along with the parallel bar are placed on the table and adjusted in position such that the angle
dekkor shows zero reading when viewing the flat surface of the angle gauge combination. It
means that the angular inclination between the datum face of the parallel bar and the feed
70
Figure
(iv) To measure the angle of cone or taper gauge:A simple set-up for this purpose is shown in Figure. The instrument is first set for the
nominal angle of cone on a combination of angle gauges or on a sine bar set to the nominal angle.
The cone is then placed in position with its base resting on the surface plate. A slip gauge or other
parallel reflector is held against the conical surface as no reflection can be obtained fro ma curved
surface. Any deviation from the set angle will be noted by the angle dekkor in its eye-piece and
indicated by the shifting of image of illuminated scale, whose reading while setting with angle
gauge is noted down before hand.
17. Explain the working principle and uses of vernier bevel protractor.
Vernier Bevel Protractor:Vernier bevel protractor is the simplest angle measuring instrument. It consists of
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Main body
Base plate stock
Adjustable blade
Circular plate containing Vernier scale
Acute angle attachment
Figure shows a Vernier bevel protractor with acute angle attachment. The body of the
Vernier Bevel protractor is designed in such a way that its back is flat and there are no projections
beyond its back. The flatness of the body is tested by checking the squareness of blade with respect
71
The base plate is attached to the main body, and an adjustable blade is attached to a circular
plate containing Vernier scale. The main scale graduated in degrees is provided on the main body.
The adjustable blade is capable of rotating freely about the centre of the main scale engraved on
the body of the instrument can be locked in any position. An acute angle attachment is provided at
the top as shown in the figure for measuring acute angles. The base of the base of the base plate is
made flat so that it could be laid flat upon the work and any type of angle measured.
The blade can be moved along throughout its length and can also be reversed. It is about
150 or 300 m long, 13 mm wide and 2 mm thick. Its ends are beveled at angles of 45 o and 60o. The
acute angle attachment can be readily fitted into the body and clamped in any position.
The bevel protractors are tested for flatness, squareness, parallelism, straightness, etc.
72
Figure (a) Use of bevel protractor for checking inside beveled face of a ground surface.
73
Figure
With reference to Figure from triangle O1 A O2
d 2 d1
O1 A
2 2
tan /2 =
AO2 1 d1 d 2
2 2
i.e.,
tan /2 =
d 2 d1
2l d1 d 2
(i)
Where l = length of slip gauge pile and d1 and d2 are diameters of rollers.
From equation (i) the slip gauge length
d 2 d1
d d 2
L=
2
1
tan / 2
2
(ii)
Thus, initially the length of the slip gauges is calculated by the above equation and the
rollers are placed just in contact with the slip gauges.
74
Figure
Figure
shows the method of
checking the angle of a taper plug gauge using rollers, micrometer and slip gauges. Taper plug is
placed on a surface plate. First two rollers of equal diameters are placed toughing on the opposite
sides of the lower surface of the plug on the slip gauge combinations of equal heights (H 1). The
distance (M1) between the ends of the roller is measured with a micrometer. Then the rollers are
placed on slip gauge combinations of height (H 2) touching on the opposite sides of the top portion
of the plug. The distance (M 2) between the ends of the roller in this new position is again
measured by means of micrometer. The half the taper angle of the plug is then calculated as
follows:
If d = diameter of roller, then
M 2 d M 1 d
2
2
tan
2
d
H 2 d / 2 H1 2
thus,
M2 M1
tan /2=
2 H 2 H1
To check the angle of a taper hole.
Figure shows the arrangement for checking the internal taper of a taper ring gauge using
two precision balls of different sizes. The taper ring gauge is placed on a surface plate and a small
ball of radius r1 is inserted in the ole close to the small end of the taper.
Two piles of slip gauges of equal heights are then placed on the surface plate on either sides
of tapered ring gauge. A depth micrometer is then used to determine the distance from the top
face of the gauge blocks to the surface of the precision ball. Then, a bigger ball of radius r 2 is
placed in the hole near the big end of taper, and the distance from the top face of the gauge blocks
to the surface of the bigger precision ball is determined with the depth micrometer. From Figure.
75
Figure
O2O1S = /2
Where
= angle of tapered hole
sin / 2
02 S
0102
r2 r2
centre distance of balls (01 02 )
r2 r1
r2 r1
h2 r2 h1 r1 h2 h1 r2 r1
76
= l + d + d cot /2
Figure
19. Explain why it is not
measuring angles more than 45o.
The accuracy of the angle set by a sine bar depends upon the errors in its important
dimensions such as error in distance between roller centres, errors in combination of slip gauges
used for setting, error in parallelism between the gauging surface and plane of roller axes, etc.
The slip gauge combination (h) required to set an angle () is given by,
h = L sin
The effect of error in spacing of roller centres (dL) or error in combination of slip gauges
(dh), on angular setting accuracy can be obtained by partial differentiation of the above equation.
Now,
Therefore,
i.e.,
i.e.,
i.e.,
i.e.,
i.e.,
But
h = L sin
dh
dL
sin .
L cos
d
d
dh = sin . dL + L cos . d
dh sin dL = L cos . d
dh
sin dL
d
L cos L cos
dh
dL
d
.tan
L cos L
dL
dh
tan
L cos L
L sin = h
dh dL
L
h
d tan
Therefore,
77
Figure
Figure illustrates the use of sine bar for measurement of angle of a taper plug gauge.
The sine bar is set up on a surface plate to the nominal angle of the taper plug gauge and
clamped to an angle plate. Taper plug gauge is placed on the sine bar and prevented from slogging
down by a stop plate. The axis of the taper plug gauge is aligned with the bar axis. A dial gauge,
supported in a stand is set at one end of the plug gauge and moved to the other end, and the
difference in the readings is noted.
Let dx be the difference in the readings of the dial gauge over a distance x. Let h be the
height of the combination of the slip gauges used and L, distance between the roller centres.
h
Then, nominal angle = sin-1 and variation in the angle,
L
dx
d sin 1
78
Figure
Now, d1 = 10.25 mm, d2 = 6.07 mm, h1 = 30.13 mm and h2 = 10.08 mm
sin / 2
O1 A
O1 A
O1O2 BD O1 B O2 D
d1 d 2
d1 d 2
2
2
d
d
2h1 d1 2h2 d 2
h1 1 h2 2
2
2
d1 d 2
Therefore sin /2 =
2 h1 h2 d1 d 2
Sin /2 =
4.18
35.92
79
d
O2 D
h2 2
2
d2 d
2h2 d 2
Now,
12 = 6.6826
6.07 d
2 10.08 6.07
d = 4.43 mm
80
UNIT III
PART A
1. What are the elements to be taken into account while measuring the Screw threads to
determine the accuracy?
Major diameter, Minor diameter, Effective diameter, pitch, thread form
2. Make brief statement about the following in relation to screw threads.
1. Periodic Errors :
Periodic errors are those which vary at regular intervals.
2. Druken thread :
If the periodic error occur every revolution, then the thread is known as Drunkeh Thread.
3. Why some standards do not specify tolerance on pitch?
The error in pitch have the effective of virtually increasing the effective diameter of an
external thread and decreasing that of an internal thread, and the simplest way of controlling
them in to fix a limit for main equivalent in terms of the effective diameter.
4. Indicate briefly the effect of the lead angle on a three wire measurement for an effective
diameter of a screw thread.
If the lead angle in lack as in case of worms, quick transversing lead screw etc. the ordinary
rule or formula for checking the effective diameter by the three wire method is inaccurate and the
effect of the lead angle on the position of the wires should e taken into account. This effect
depends not only upon the size of the lead angle, but to some extent upon the size of the lead
angle, but to some extent upon the degree of accuracy required In checking the effective diameter.
The error in measurement in about 0.0125mm when the lead angle is 41/2" for 60 single thread.
For lead angle, above 41/2 degree the compensation for rake and compression must be
taken in to account.
5. Explain the reason for using three wire.
a) Generally three wires are used to measure a screw thread with a hand micrometer and
only two wires when using a floating carriage machine for same purpose.
The use of three wires for measurement, when using a hand micrometers in essential,
because two wires on one side help in aligning the micrometer square to the thread and the third
placed on the other side is essential for taking the readings
81
In a floating carriage machine the alignment is inherent and thus the purpose in served with two
wires only.
b) A screw is never placed on centers to measure its major diameter whereas for measuring
the effective or minor diameters it in placed on the centers ?
While measuring the major diameter, the micrometer "Sine error" which are likely to be
introduced if the thread on the centers and the micrometer are misaligned. Therefore for
measuring major diameter, the screw thread should not be placed on the centers. In the
measurement of effective diameter and minor diameter, VECS are used and with the help of wires
or three only a negligible error can be introduced by such misalignment.
6. Define the pitch of a screw thread.
The pitch of a thread is defined as the distance between corresponding points on the
adjacent thread forms, measured parallel to the thread axis. In the same plane and on the same
side of the axis.
7. What is a course thread .
When the lead relative to the diameter is large, the thread is known as course thread.
8. What are the two corrections applied in the measurement of effective diameter by the
method of wires ?
1. Rake correction
2. Compression correction
9. Explain rake Correction.
The rake correction becomes necessary because in the determination of the formula for
effective diameter by three wire method, a plane axial section of the thread had been considered
and it in assured that the wire touches each flank of the thread in this plane. This occupation in
true for angular grooves with zero helical angle, but not for screw thread which have a helix; and
it the later case wire lies parallel to the helix at the radius of the point of contact. The points of
contact on opposite flanks will lies on opposite gides of the mean axial plane. As a result of this,
the wire lies slightly farther from the thread axis than what has been assured and a correction has
to be applied to the effective diameter as measured and calculate. This correction is different for
difference effective diameter being measured.
A general formula for calculating rake correction is,
82
Cos x / 2
2 2
C=
X/2 =
d=
A=
Cot x/2 =
Rake Correction
Half the included angle the thread
Diameter of wire
Constant = d/T+d
T = Diameter under the wire.
This correction is always subtracted from the measured diameter.
83
T
Merits and Demerits :
The chordal thickness element is simple to understand, easy to measure and is correct for
tooth forms other than involutes. For these reason it is not delay used, but as can be seen from the
mathematical formula it depend upon the number of teeth in the gear.
15. In the case of involutes gears define the base pitch, its merit and demerits ?
The base pitch "Pn" a gear in the circular pitch of the teeth measured on the base circle.
-----------------The base pitch is an important gear tooth parameter, but can not easily be gauged as can the
chordal thickness or the constant Chord elements. However, it can be measured.
16. Define the tooth thickness in the case of a simple spur gear.
The tooth thickness is defined as the length of the are of the pitch circle between opposite
facts of the same tooth.
84
85
=180 sin(2)
M=6.28 mm
22. What is the expected order of accuracy in a gear tooth Vernier ?
The expected order of accuracy in a gear tooth vernier is in the vicinity of 0.05mm.
23. Name the various methods for determining the gear tooth thickness and which of them
utilize a gear tooth vernier .
Various methods available for a gear tooth thickness measurement are the following.
1. The Chordal thickness
2. The constant Chord
3. The base tangent
4. Measurement over rollers.
Out of these, the first three utilize the vernier gear tooth.
24. For a 20 degree pressure angle, gear having 36 teeth and 4mm module, calculate. Plug size.
Plug diameter =
.m
.cos
2
(4)
.cos(20)
2
5.904 mm
86
87
88
89
PART B
1.
Errors in threads : In the case of plain shafts and holes, there is only one dimension which has to
be considered (i.e diameter) and errors on this dimension if exceed the permissible tolerance, will
justify the rejection of part. While in the case of screw threads there are at least five important
elements which require consideration and error in any one of these can cause rejection of the
thread. In routine production all of these five elements (major diameter, minor diameter, effective
diameter, pitch and angle of the thread form) must be checked and methods of gauging must be
able to cover all these elements.
Errors on the major and minor diameters will cause interference with the mating thread. Due to
errors in these elements, the root section and wall thickness will be less, also the flank contact will
be reduced and ultimately the component will be weak in strength. Errors on the effective
diameter will also result in weakening of the assembly due to interference between the blanks.
Similarly pitch and angle errors are also not desirable as they cause a progressive lightening
and interference or assembly. These two errors have a special significance as they can be precisely
related to the effective diameter.
Now will consider come errors in detail and define some terms.
Drunken Thread : This is the one having erratic pitch, in which the advance of the helix is
irregular in one complete revolution of the thread.
Thread drunkenness is a particular case of a periodic pitch error recurring at intervals of one
pitch. In such a thread, the pitch measured parallel to the thread is not but to a true helix. If the
screw thread be regarded as an inclined plane wound around a cylinder and if the thread be on
wound from the cylinder. (i.e development of the thread are taken) then the drunkness can be
visualized. The helix will be a curve in the case of drunken thread and not a bright line as shown
in fig.
True Thread
90
91
3.
Irregular Errors : These arise from distributes in the machining setup variations in the
cutting properties of material etc. thus they have no specifics causes and correspondingly no
specific characteristics also.. these errors could be summarized as follows.
Erratic Pitch : This is the irregular error in pitch and varies irregularly in magnitude over different
lengths of thread.
Progressive Error : When the pitch of a screw is uniform, but is shorter or longer than its nominal
value, it is said to have progressive errors.
Periodic Error : If the errors vary in magnitude and recur at regular intervals, when measured
from thread to thread along the screw are referred to as periodic errors.
Effect of pitch errors :
An error in pitch virtually increases the effective diameter of a bolt or screw and decreases the
effective diameter of a nut. The meaning of the virtual change in effective diameter is that if any
screw is perfect except for pitch error. It will not screw easily into a perfect ring gauge of same
nominal size until its effective diameter is reduced.
For White worth thread, if sp is the error in pitch then the virtual increase (decrease) in the
effective diameter of the thread in case of bolt (nut) is given by the relation.
Virtual change in effective diameter = 1.921 X p. Similarly errors in flank angles also require a
corresponding reduction in the effective diameter if the screw is to fit a perfect ring gauge of the
same nominal size.
It 1 and 2 are the errors flank angles in degrees (regardless of sign), the corresponding
virtual change (increase or decrease) in effective diameter of the thread in case of a bolt or nut is
given by (for Withworth thread) E=0.0105 X p (1+ 2), where p is the normal pitch.
It is assumed that the maximum pitch error over the length of engagement is equally disturbed at
each end of engagement. Increase in effective diameter will obviously be the vertical movement of
flanks necessary to produce coincidence.
It may be mentioned here that effect, of long or short pitch will be same, i.e increase of the
interference between the mating threads, so each will lead to increase in effective diameter nut.
In ABC
92
93
In order to determine the amount of taper, the readings should be taken at various positions
along the thread and to detect the ovality, two or three readings must be taken at one plane in
angular positions.
Major diameter of internal threads: The measurement of the elements of an internal threads is
more cumbersome. Since it is difficult to approach the elements of internal thread, an indirect
approach is followed by making a cast of the thread. The main art thus lies in obtaining a perfect
cast, because once good cast is available the various elements can be measured as for external
threads.
Cast may be made by plaster of paris, dental wax, or sulphur. The part whose internal thread is
to be measured is first cleaned and brushed with a fine oil. The part is then mounted between two
wooden blocks whose upper surface lie about half way up the ring. Cast materials is then poured
to depth less than the radius of part to permit easy removal of cast without screwing it out. After
the plaster is set, it should be taken out without rotating, but by pulling up the middle portion of
94
Measurement of Minor diameter : This is also measured by a comparative process using small
Vee-pieces which make contact with root of the thread. The Vee pieces are available in several sizes
having suitable radii at the edges. The included angle of the root of the thread. To measure the
minor diameter by Vee pieces is suitable for only Whitworth and B.A threads which have a
definite radius at the root of the thread. For other threads, the minor diameter is measured by the
projector or microscope.
The measurement is carried out on a floating carriage diameter measuring machine in which
the threaded work piece is mounted between centers and a bench micrometer is constrained to
move at right angles to the axis of the center by a Vee ball side. The method of the application of
vee pieces in the machine is shown diagrammatically in fig. the dimension of vee piece play no
important function as they are interposed between the micrometer faces and the cylindrical
standard reading is taken.
It is important while taking readings, to ensure that the micrometer be located at right angles to
the axis of the screw being measured. The selected vee are placed head is then advanced until the
pointer of the indicator is opposite the zero marl, and note being made of the reading of the
micrometer is taken.
If reading on setting cylinder with Vee pieces in position = R1 and reading on thread = R2 and
diameter of setting cylinder = D1 then minor diameter = D1 +(R2 R1).
Readings may be taken at various positions in order to determine the taper ovality.
Before proceedings to
the measurement of
effective diameter, the screw diameter measuring machine is first described in brief here. The
machine is shown. Also refer this figure. For schematic sketch. If consists of three main units. A
base casting carries a pair of centers, on which the threaded work piece is mounted. Another
carriage is mounted on it and is exactly at 90 to it.. On this is provided another carriage capable of
moving towards the centers. On this carriage one head having a large thimble enabling reading
upto 0.002mm is provided. Just opposite to it is affixed anvil which is spring loaded and its zero
position is indicated by a fiducial indicator. Thus the micrometer elements are exactly
95
The effective diameter or the pitch diameter can be measured by any of the following methods.
i) Micrometer method
96
For correct results it is necessary to use a separate thread micrometer for every size of screw
thread to be gauged, otherwise there will be a small amount of error inherent in thread
micrometer.
97
A big advantage of thread micrometer is that is the only method which shows the variation for
the drunken thread.
5. Explain one-wire method of measuring effective diameter of screw threads.
One wire method : In this method, one wire is placed between two threads at one side and on the
other side anvil of the measuring micrometer contacts the crests as shown in fig. First the
micrometer reading is noted on a standard gauge whose dimension is nearly same as to be
obtained by this method. Actual measurement over wire on one side and threads on other side =
size of gauge difference in two micrometer readings.
This method is used for measuring effective diameter of counter pitch threads, and during
manufacture of threads.
The difficulty with his method is that the micrometer axis may not remain exactly at right angles
to the thread axis.
Two wire method : The effective diameter of a screw thread may be ascertained by placing two
wires or rods of identical diameter between the flanks of the thread, as shown in fig. and
measuring the distance over the outside of these wires. The effective diameter E is then calculated
as
E = T + P, where
T
M
The wires used are made of hardened steel to sustain the wear and tear in use. These are given a
high degree of accuracy and finish by lapping to suit different pitches.
Dimension T can also we determined by placing wires over a standard cylinder of diameter
greater that the diameter under the wires and noting the reading R1 and then taking reading with
wires over the gauge, say R2 then = S-(R1-R2)
P = It is a value which depends upon the dia of wire and pitch of the thread.
If P = pitch of the thread, then
P = 0.9605p 1.1657d (for whitworth thread) P = 0.866p-d (for metric thread)
Actually p is a constant value which has to be added to the diameter under the wires to give the
effective diameter. The expression for the value P in terms of P (pitch), d (diameter of wire) and x
(thread angle) can be derived as follows.
98
4
2
AQ is half the value of P
BC
p
x
x
Two wire method can be carried out only on the diameter measuring machine described for
measuring the minor diameter, because alignment is not possible by 2 wires and can be provided
only by the floating carriage machine. In the case of three wore method, 2 wires on one side help
in aligning the micrometer square to the thread while the third placed on the readings.
A simplified diagram of this measuring machine is shown in fig. as already pointed out the
machine ensures that the axis of the micrometer is maintained at 90 to the axis of the screw under
test. The lower slide (wrongly indicated as lower side ) is capable of movement parallel with the
axis of thread while the top slide moves at 90 to thread axis.
6.Explain the three wire method of measuring effective diameter.
Three wire method : This method of measuring the effective diameter is an accurate method, in
this three wires or rods of known diameter are used one on one side and two on the other side.
This method ensures the alignment of micrometer anvil faced parallel to the thread axis. This
99
M = distance over wires, E=effective diameter, r=radius of the wires, d=diameter of wires,
h=height of the center of the wire rod from the effective diameter, x=angle of thread.
From fig. AD = AB cosec x/2 = r cosec x/2
CD = H/2 cotx/2 = cotx/2
h=AD-CD
r=cosecx/2 p/4 cotx/2
distance over wires = M=E+2h+2r
=E+2(r cosec x/2 p/4 cot x/2) + 2r
=E+2(1+ cosec x/2 p/2 cot x/2)
M=E+d(r cosec x/2 p/ cot x/2
i) In case of Whitworth thread :
x=55, depth of thread =0.64p, so that, E=D-0.64p and cosecx/2=2.1657, cotx/2=1.921
M=E+d(1+cosecx/2)-p/2cotx/2=D-0.64p+d(1+2.1657)-p/2(1.921) = D+3.1657d 1.605p
M=D+3.1657d-1.6p, where D=outside dia
ii) In case of metric thread:
depth of thread = 0.6495p
so, E=D-0.6495p, x=60, cosec x/2=2; cotx/2 = 1.732
M=D-0.6495p+d(1+2)-p/2(1.732)=D+3d-(0.6495+0.866)p=D+3d-1.5155p
We can measure the value of M practically and then compare with the theoretical values with
help of formula derived above. After finding correct value of M and knowing d, E can be found
100
E m
cot x / 2
x S2
x
x
x 1 cos ec cos cot
2n
2 2
2
2
Where x/2 = half the included angle of threads, E = effective diameter, M=actually measured
diameter over wires, n=number of threads/inch, d=diameter of wire, s=tangent of the helix angle
in thread.
Best size wire: The wire is of such diameter that it makes contact with the flanks of the thread on
the effective diameter or pitch line. Actually effective diameter can be measured with any diameter
wire which makes contact on the true flank of the thread. Bu the values so obtains will differ from
those obtained with best size wires if there is any error in angle or form of thread. It is
recommended that for this condition the wire touches the flank at mean diameter line within
1/5 of flank length (refer solved problem) with best size wire, any error on the measured value of
simple effective diameter due to error in thread form or angle is minimized.
It can be shown that size of best wire diameter
p
2 cos x / 2
1 sin x / 2 cos 2 x / 2
p 1 sin x / 2
d (1 sin x / 2) .
sin x / 2
2 cos x / 2
101
The ball tip on the right is fixed at the end of a measuring jaw attached to a floating head in the
sliding brackets (B). the floating head has extension in contact with the spindle of the dial
indicator and the movement of floating head towards the indicator is constrained by a spring. (The
set up in fig does not show the ball tips)
The instrument is set to a reference standard, with the dial pointer a zero. To use the gauge, the
floating head is retracted to insert the ball tips in the internal threads of the work, and released to
allow the tips to engage the flanks of the thread under the pressure of the spring. The dial
indicator then shows the deviation from the nominal size to which the gauge is set. The
instrument may be used on work in the machine, or on the working bench. The fixed head (A)
carrying the left hand ball tip is adjusted by a fine screw to set gauge to the reference standard.
The reference standard is built up from slip gauges as shown in fig. the two end pieces have V-jaws
of an angle of vee corresponding to the thread i.e 60 degree or 55 degree.
The dimension J1 are marked on the pieces, and are the depths from the face to the apex points of
the vees. Assuming the effective diameter and pitch of the thread to be known, the distance S is
found from the formula.
S=X+y-Z
Where, X = mean effective diameter
102
r
For metric threads, S=D+0.2165p-Z; for whitworth threads, S=D+0.3202p-Z.
Laymans method of finding the effective diameter (internal thread) is by taking the impression
of threads with the help of wax or any other material, say sulphur. Sulphur is mostly used because
it can be used many times.
103
The screw thread to be examined is placed in the parallel beam of light between the condenser
lens and the projector lens.
The modern projectors are quipped with work holding pictures, the projection lamp and the
lenses situated on top of the cabinet, and the screen at the front. The light rays from the lens are
directed downwards into the cabinet, and hence to the screen by a system of prisms and mirrors,
bringing every thing within the reach of the operator.
The enlarged image of the thread form appears on the ground glass screen on which is
mounted the template or drawing of the form made to scale equal to the magnification of the lens.
This way the two forms (i.e ideal and projected) are compared.
One of the difficult I projecting screw thread is the fact that form is specified on an axial plane. So
we must consider the correction for it.
Referring to fig. the normal pitch p is less than the axial pitch P and is given by the relation; p = P
cos; where is the helix angle.
Referring to fig.
IfA =
0.5 P
0.5 P cos
0.5 p
; tan X
or tan X
B
B
B
104
105
For still more accurate purpose it is necessary to employ a special screw pitch measuring
machine by which the actual pitch error of individual threads can be measured. The Pitter and
Matrix are typical examples of pitch measuring machines.
The Pitter screw measuring machine employs various stylus points to suit screw threads that
are to be checked. The screw under measurement is held stationary between centers on the
machine. The indicator unit, carrying the stylus which bears on the flanks of each thread
successively, is carried on a slide which is mounted on balls. The slide is actuated by means of a
micrometer. The act of rotating the micrometer spindle causes the slide to move in relation to the
fixed centers. i.e causes the indicator to move in relation to the work being measured. The stylus
which is mounted on a leaf spring, falls in and out of each thread; the pointer of the indicator
reads zero (it is adjusted to read zero in the first groove) when this stylus is in a central position in
each successive thread. The micrometer reading is taken each time the indicator reads zero; these
readings then shown the pitch error of each thread of the screw ordinary pitches whilst special can
106
It may be mentioned that is small hand wheel below the micrometer actuates screw for the
purpose of moving the indicator in relation to the slide so as to bring the stylus opposite to the
screw to be tested in any position between the centers. The total travel of the micrometer is 25mm.
As the pitch of the micrometer screw is checked accurately when the machine is inspected and a
curve of errors is provided, it is possible to attain a high standard of precision in measuring
screws. The pitch errors are extremely small, being of the order of 0.002mm for a thread. A test
screw is also supplied with the machine and a chart of itch error for this screw.
The metric pitch measuring machine operates on a similar principle to the pitter machine. It is
robust in construction and sensitive in measurement, revealing pitch accuracies of 0.0025mm for
all thread forms. In this machine refer fig. a micrometer head is provided on the headstock which
is fixed on the base. The rotation of micrometer head produces movement of the longitudinal
carriage along the bed of the base.
Another carriage carrying the indicating and amplifying units comprising a radiuses stylus and
visual scale allowing a zero reading to be taken, and also capable of moving at 90 longitudinally
and locked in any position. A weight ensures a unidirectional thrust at all times. The micrometer
screw of 40 t.p.i has a 50 mm traverse and also has a compensator for any small residual pitch
errors. In operation, the screw thread to be checked is placed between centers and the correct
stylus mounted in the indicating head.
107
When the test screw is in position between the centers, and the correct stylus chosen i.e the one
which makes contact at or near the diameter, the carriage carrying the indicating unit is traversed
until the stylus is located in the first thread of the test screw and the indicator of coincident with
the fiducial line; the second carriage is then locked. The stylus, by virtue of an ingenious mounting
device, is capable of free movement riding up and down the thread flanks on linear movement of
the screw thread by rotation of micrometer head. The stylus is now traversed along the thread,
pitch by pitch, reading being taken each time the indicator is set to zero. The micrometer can be
fitted with a series of graduated dials that can be changes quickly. With the proper dial for the
pitch that is to be measure the readings of the error obtained from the displacement of the lines on
the disc which is graduated in (0.002 mm) divisions. It is after making this test, to the turn to first
thread and repeat the readings, and the micrometer should read zero again.
Additional description of pitch measuring machines: To correct any error pitch of the
micrometer screw a compensator bar is provided.
The instrument is checked periodically with a master reference screw which is placed between
centers and measured for the pitch over full range of micrometer. In this case variation in the
reading is taken to indicate errors in the micrometer screw, and the compensator bar modified
accordingly.
The micrometer screw has 40 t.p.i and with a graduated dial of 250 divisions numbered every
10 divisions, the instrument is read as on ordinary micrometer calibrated to 0.0001inch. the
micrometer dial may be replaced by any one of the five alternative dials to simplify the
measurement of the threads of certain pitches. Each of the dials is marked with a number of
divisions to suit a range of pitches as follows.
Dial No.of div
6
A
9
B
7
For measurement
6,12,24,48,15,30,60 t.p.i
4,5,9,18,36 t.p.i
7,14,28,56,5,10,20,40, t.p.i
108
C
D
E
11
8
13
19
25
20
11,2 t.p.i
4,8,16,32t.p.i
13,26 t.p.i
19 t.p.i
(Each 0.002mm numbered every fifth division pitch multiples of
0.025mm)
Dial C is for British association, metric or non-standard pitches. Dial E is for metric machines
only. The provision of a dial marked to suit a particular pitch simplifies pitch measuring, a
division on the dial is opposite the zero mark for nominal pitch each thread. Any variation of the
division from the zero may then be read directly to 0.0001 on either side of the zero line.
Stylus points are available to suit any particular thread. Care should be taken to make the stylus
point touch the thread at or near the pitch line. The stylus holder is pivoted to allow the stylus
point to follow in and out of the threads, as the carriage is moved along, and is adjustable for
pressure.
10. Derive an expression for the best size wire.
The best size wire is one, in which case the wire makes contact with the thread flank. i.e the
contact points of the wires should be, on the pitch line or effective diameter. In other words, OP is
perpendicular to the flank position of the thread. Let half the included angle of thread be x.
AP sec x
sin(90 o x) cos x
Since AP = r, and wire diameter = 2r=2AP sec x
As AP lies on the pitch line, AP=p/4 (where p = pitch of the thread)
2p
p
dp
sec x sec x
4
2
Problem 1: Derive an expression from first principles for the limits of diameter for best size wires
for measuring threads of BA form in terms of pitch
109
p
x
sec
2
2
here x=included angle of the thread
d
p
p
1
47 30
= sec
0.5465 p
2
2 0.9150
2
1
(a ) upper limit/lower limit:
5
1
flank length BF
5
Refer fig please note that point B could not be shown in fig. Actually B lies on line OF such that AB
OF. Point C lies on inter section of line AD and OF).
BF = CE + BC + EF = CE + 2BC
BC = (OA sin x/2) tan x/2
= [(0.1808p + 0.2682p). sin 23 45] X tan 23 45 = 0.0378p
Hence upper limit for best wire size = 0.5465p + 0.0378p = 0.5843p and lower limit for best wire
size = 0.5465p 0.0378p = 0.5087p.
11.a) Generally three wires are used to measure a screw thread with a hand micrometer and two
wires to measure with a floating carriage measuring machine. Why> also a screw thread is
never placed on centers to measure its major diameter whereas for measuring effective or minor
diameters, I t is placed on the centers. Why?
b) A screw thread of size 10mm X 10 threads per centimeter is measured for major and effective
diameter is a screw measuring machine. The micrometer is standardized on a slip gauge and, due
to mal alignment in its plastic handle, the plug gauge can lie at an angle of 5 minutes to the line
jointing centers of the machine, which is itself satisfactorily parallel to the micrometer faces. What
errors are likely to be introduced into both major and effective diameter measurement due to his
110
5
5
5 pitches
No.of threads /mm 1
Since, it will not possible and practicable for all the 5 pitches to be accommodated this being
theoretical l can be taken as 4.5 pitches = 9/2 X 1 = 4.5mm.
Now one thread crest contacts at T and crest at D
The true diameter TR or HD d sec - 4.5 X 0.00145 = d-0.006525
For effective diameter : l = pitch = 0.5mm
0.5 X tan 5 = 0.5 X 0.000145 = 0.000145=0.00725mm
when opposing wires at T and D true diameter is larger than measured and when opposing wires
are at H and R true diameter is larger than measured.
Hence gauge ends should be removed from handles for measurement.
12.
a) A special form of butters thread has a sharp crest and root, and an included angle
of 50. the leading flank is inclined at 5 and the trailing flank at 45 to a line perpendicular to the
thread axis. If this is measured by the NPL method, show that the P value is given by
P = 0.9105 X pitch 1.1233 X Cylinder diameter.
b) Two thread measuring needles having diameter of 0.03448 inch and 0.03449 inch respectively
are used to check ma screw of 16 t.p.i BS. Whitworth threads having included angle of 60.
determine whether these needles are smaller or bigger compared to the best size wires. Also find
111
OA ' OA.sin 70
.sin 70 1.112d
2sin 25
EA
DE
in DEA,
; EA DE
1
sin 45 sin 45
EF
EA
sin 85
in EFA,
; EA EF
2
sin 5 sin 85
sin 5
comparing 1, and 2 we get
Pitch p
DE=11.43; GF; also DF=
DE EF
2
2
p
DE
E lim inating EF, we get DE
; or 0.4597 p
2
11.43
now,
DE=EA+BA';OB=1.112d-0.4597p
p d
(1.112d 0.4597 p)
2 2
Rearranging, we get p=0.919p 1.22d.
b) Pitch of the screw = 1/15 inch; p=0.0625 inch
Best wire size diameter =
p
; x 60; or 30
x
2.cos
2
0.0625
diameter =
0.02609inch
2 cos30
Hence, the given needles are small.
We shall calculate P/2 for the given needles, and their sum is the required value.
For wire size 0.03448 inch; OA = OC = d/2 = 0.01724
OB = OA . sin30 = 0.01724 X sin 30 = 0.008620
BC = OC OB = 0.0724 X sin 30 = 0.00862
EF
ED AB
0.001204
tan 30
tan 30
p
DB BC 0.001204 0.00862 0.009824
2
DB AF
112
0.015625-0.014931 0.000694
0.001202
tan 30
tan 30
p
0.008622 0.001202 0.009824;
2
P value = 0.009824 + 0.009824 = 0.019648 inch.
13.What are the two corrections applied in the measurement of effective diameter by the
method of wires?
The two corrections applied are : i) Rake correction, and ii) Compression correction.
i) Rake Correction : The rake correction becomes necessary because in the determination of
formula for effective diameter by three wires method, a plane axial section of the thread had been
considered and it is assumed that the wore touches each flank of the thread in this plane. This
assumption is true for angular grooves with zero helix angle, but not for screw threads which have
a helix; and in the later case wire lies on parallel to the helix at the radius of the point of contact.
The points of contact on opposite flanks will lie on opposite sides of the mean axial plane. As a
result of this, the wire lies slightly father from the thread axis than what has been assumed and a
correction has to be applied to the effective diameter as measured and calculate. This correction is
different effective diameters being measured.
A general formula for calculating rake correction is
C=
cosx/2cotx/2 l 2 2
A (1 A sin x / 2 A2 sin 2 X / 2)
2 2
d
Where C = Rake correction, X/2 = Half the included angle of thread, l=Lead of thread,
D = diameter of wire A= Constant
d
Constant
T+d
Where T = Diameter under the wires.
This correction is always subtracted from the measured diameter.
ii) Compression Correction: As the micrometer exerts some force on the wires while measuring
the effective diameter of threads, some degree of comparison takes place and as a result the
diameter observed is less. This correction, is therefore added to the value of diameter obtained.
This correction is more pronounced on fine threads and those whose included angle is small e.g
B,A threads, for measuring forces upto about 350gm. The correction is within 0.0025mm for thread
diameter down to about 3.5mm and only 0.005mm at 1 mm diameter for larger threads, for the
113
114
115
116
Rolling Tests
This is the most commonly used test under production conditions. This consumes much
less time and gives quite accurate results. In rolling test, the gear to be tested is actually compared
with a hardened and ground master gear. This test is generally performed on a most commonly
used machine Parson Gear Tester. This test reveals any errors in tooth form, pitch and
concentricity if pitch line, When two gears are in mesh with each other, then any of the above
errors will cause the variation of centre distance. This fact is utilized for testing the errors in gear
by this machine.
It essentially consists of a base. Two carriages, one fixed and the other movable are
mounted on the base. The position of the fixed carriage can be adjusted in order to accommodate
a wide range of diameters. While in use, this fixed carriage is locked in one position. The movable
carriage is spring loaded towards the fixed carriage. Two spindles are mounted in a parallel plane
on each carriage and these are made to suit the bore of the gears.
The distance between the centre of two spindles is adjusted to be equal to the centre
distance by slip gauges. A dial gauge is made to rest against the movable carriage and its reading
is adjusted at zero at this time. The master gear is mounted on the spindle on fixed carriage and
gear to be tested on the movable carriage. The gears when in mesh are then rotated by hand and
the variations in the dial gauge readings are observed. If it falls outside the set limits, then gear is
rejected. The variations might also be recorded by some electrical pick up in which the movement
of carriage is first converted into electrical impulse which is magnified further and trace of
variation obtained on a graph paper. The trace obtained will be depicting the compound errors
i.e., all errors like eccentricity and tooth form errors etc., which occur together and the trace will be
as shown in Fig.15.8.
The machine could also be used to carried out more complex tests by suitable modification in its
operation, e.g., by locking the movable carriage at the running centre distance of the gears, and by
fixing the master gear, the black flash can be determined by setting a dial gauge at the pitch line of
the production gear. It is also possible to check the gears for smooth running at this setting and
this is very essential for gears. This is judged by the noise produced.
For these tests, if master gear is not available, then any two mating gears are mounted on
the spindle and they are tested twice at relative angular positions of 180 0 to each other so that any
compensating errors in one angular position in gears are also revealed.
117
16. Explain the measurement of tooth thickness by gear tooth Vernier method.
Measurement of tooth thickness. The permissible error or the tolerance on thickness of
tooth is the variation of actual thickness of tooth from its theoretical value. The tooth thickness is
generally measured at pitch circle and is therefore, the pitch line thickness o tooth. It may be
mentioned that the tooth thickness is defined as the length of an arc, which is difficult to measure
directly. In most of the cases, it is sufficient to measure the chordal thickness i.e., the chord joining
the intersection of the tooth profile with the pitch circle,. Also the difference between chordal
tooth thickness and circular tooth thickness is very small for gear of small pitch. The thickness
measurement is the most important measurement because most of the gears manufactured may
not undergo checking of all other parameters, but thickness measurement is a must for all gears.
There are various methods of measuring the gear tooth thickness.
(i) Measurement of tooth thickness by gear tooth venire caliper. (ii) Constant chord
method. (iii) Base tangent method. (iv) Measurement by dimension over pins.
The tooth thickness can be very conveniently measured by a gear tooth venire. Since the
gear tooth thickness varies from the tip of the base circle of the tooth, the instrument must be
capable of measuring the tooth thickness at a specified position on the tooth. Further this is
possible only when there is some arrangement to fix that position where the measurement is to be
taken. The tooth thickness is generally measured at pitch circle and is, therefore, referred to as
pitch-line thickness of tooth. The gear tooth vernier has two vernier scales and they are set for the
width (w) of the tooth and the depth (d) from the top, at which w occurs.
Considering one gear tooth, the theoretical of values of w and d can be found out which
may be verified by the instrument. In Fig. 15.14, it may be noted that w is a chord ADB, but tooth
thickness is specified as an arc distance AEB. Also the distance d adjusted on instrument is
slightly greater than the addendum CE, w is therefore called chordal thickness and d is called the
chordal addendum.
In Fig.15.14, w = AB = 2AD
Now, AOD = = 3600/4N, where N is the number of teeth,
W = 2AD = 2xAO Sin = 2R Sin 360/4N (N = pitch circle radius)
118
w2
and
P.C.D
2R
N .m.
, R
No. of teeth N
2
Nm
360
90
Sin
N .m.Sin
2
4 N
N
---- (1)
2
2
2
N
N
N
Any error in the outside diameter of the gear must be allowed for when measuring tooth
thickness.
In the case of helical gears, the above expressions have to be modified to take into account
the change in curvature along the pitch line. The virtual number of teeth Nv for helical gear =
N/cos3
Hence in Eqs. (1) and (2), N can be replaced by N/cos3 and m by mn (normal module).
Nmn
90
Sin
Cos 3 , and
3
Cos
N
Nmn
Cos 3
2Cos 3
90
Cos
Cos 3
N
N
these formulae apply when backlash is ignores. On mating gears having equal tooth thickness
and without addendum modifications, the circular tooth thickness equals half the circular pitch
minus half the backlash.
Gear Tooth Caliper.
It is used to measure the thickness of gear teeth at the pitch line or chordal thickness of
teeth and the distance from the top of a tooth to the chord. The thickness of a tooth at pitch line
and the distance from the top of a tooth to the chord. The thickness of a tooth at pitch line and the
addendum is measured by an adjustable tongue, each of which is adjusted independently by
adjusting screw on graduated
bars. The effect of zero errors
should
be
taken
into
consideration.
119
This method is simple and inexpensive. However it needs different setting for a variation in
number of teeth for a given pitch and accuracy is limited by the least count of instrument. Since
the wear during use is jaws, the caliper has to be calibrated at regular intervals to maintain the
accuracy of measurement.
17. Explain the constant chord method and Base pitch method of measuring gear tooth
thickness.
Constant Chord Method. In the above method, it is seen that both the chordal thickness and
chodral addendum are dependent upon the number of teeth. Hence for measuring a large
number of gears for se, each having different number of teeth would involve separate calculations.
Thus the procedure becomes laborious and time consuming one.
The constant chord method does away with these difficulties. Constant chord of a gear is
measured where the tooth flanks touch the flanks of the basic rack. Are straight and inclined to
their centre line at the pressure angle as shown in Fig. 15.16.
Also to pitch line of the rack is tangential to the pitch circle of the gear and, by definition,
the tooth thickness of the rack along this line is equal to the are tooth thickness of the gear round
its pitch circle. Now, since the gear tooth and rack space are in contact in the symmetrical position
at the points of contact of the flanks, the chord is constant at this position irrespective of the gear
of the system in mesh with rack. This is the property utilized in the constant chord method of the
gear measurement.
The measurement of tooth thickness at constant chord simplified the problem for all
number of teeth. If an involutes tooth is considered symmetrically in close mesh with a basic rack
form, then it will be observed that regardless of the number of teeth for a given size of tooth (same
module), the contact always occurs at two fixed point A and B. AB is known as constant chord.
The constant chord is defined as the chord joining those points, on opposite faces of the tooth,
which make contact with the mating teeth when the centre line of the tooth lie on the line of the
120
AP
is
the
line
of
action,
1 P C D
1/ 4 m
4
N
i.e.it
is
tangential
to
the
base
circle,
mcossin=m 1- cossin 4
4
4
.......
Now PC = m
For helical gear,d=m n 1- 4 cos n sin n
m
m
sin cos
sin 2......... 5
Also height of AB above pitch line = PC=
4
8
Base pitch. This is defined as the circular pitch of the teeth measured on the base circle. In
Fig.15.17,AB represents the portion of a gear base circle, CD and EF the sides of two teeth, FD
being the base pitch. From the property of involutes if any line as GH is drawn to cut the involutes
and tangential to the base circle, the GH=FD.
Thus base pitch could also be defined as equal to the linear distance between a pair of
involutes measured along a common generator.
2 RB
Base circumference =
Basepitch 2 RB / N
If is the pressure angle, then
cos P.C.D./ 2 cos
RB = P.C.R.
Basepitch (2 N ) P C D / 2 cos
m cos
121
Base pitch measuring instrument. This instrument has three tips. One is the fixed measuring tip,
other one is the sensitive tip whose position can be adjusted by a screw and the further movement
of it is transmitted through a leverage system to the dial indicator.; and the third tip is the
supplementary adjustable stop which is meant for the stability of the instrument and its position
can also be adjusted by a screw. The distance between the fixed and sensitive tip is set to the
equivalent to the base pitch of the gear with the help of slip gauges. The properly set-up
instrument is applied to the gear so that all the three tips contact the tooth profile. The reading on
dial indicator is the error in the base pitch.
base
122
tangent
The measurements do not depend on two venires readings, each being function of
The measurement is not made with an edge of the measuring jaw with the face.
Consider a straight generator (edge) ABC being rolled back and forth along a base circle
(Fig.15.19). Its ends thus sweep out opposed involutes A 2 AA1 and C2 CC1 respectively. Thus the
measurements made across these opposed involutes by span gauging will be constant (i.e. AC =
A1C1=A2 C2 = A0 C0) and equal to the are length of the base circle between the origins of involutes.
Further the position of the measuring faces is unimportant as long as they are parallel and on an
opposed pair of the true involutes. As the tooth from is most likely to conform to a true involutes
at the pitch point of the gear, it is always preferable to choose a number of teeth such that the
measurements is made approximately at the pitch circle of the gear.
The value of the distance between two opposed involutes, or the dimension over parallel faces is
equal to the distance round the base circle between the points where the corresponding tooth
flanks cut i.e. ABC in fig.15.19. It can be derived mathematically as follows:
The angle between the points A and C on the pitch circle where the flanks of the opposed
involutes teeth of the gear cut this circle can be easily calculated.
Let us say that the gear has got N Number of teeth and AC on pitch circle corresponds to
S number of teeth. (Fig.15.20); Distance AC = (S )pitches
Angle subtended by AC S 1/ 2 2 / N radians.
Angles of arcs BE and B D.
In volute function of pressure angle tan
2
1
AngleofarcBD S
2 tan
N
2
BD = Angle of arc BD Rb
1
2
mN
1 2
mN
cos S
tan becauseRP
2
2 N
2
Nm cos
tan
N 2N
As already defined, length of arc BD = distance between two opposed involutes and thus it is.
123
Nm cos tan
2 N N
It may be noted that when backlash allowance is specified normal to the tooth flanks this
must be simply subtracted from this derived value.
Tables are also available which directly give this value for the given values of S,N and m.
This distance is first calculated and then set in the David Brown tangent comparator
(Fig.1521) with the help of slip gauges. The instrument essentially consists of a fixed anvil and a
movable anvil. There is a micrometer on the moving anvil side and this has a very limited
movement on either side of the setting. The distance is adjusted by setting the fixed anvil at
desired place with the help of looking ring and setting tubes.
19. Explain the composite method of gear checking.
Composite Method of Gear Checking.
Composite testing of gears consists in measuring the variation in centre distance when a
gear is rolled in tight mesh (double flank contact) with a specified or mast gear. In composite gear
checking two types of checkings are made :
(a)
Total composite variation is the centre distance variation in one complete revolution of the gear
being inspected; whereas tooth to tooth composite variation is the centre distance variation as the
gear is rotated through any increment of 360/N.A uniform tooth to tooth variation shows profile
variation whereas a sudden jump indicates the pitch variations.
Composite type of checking takes care of all the errors in the gears. It is specially very much
suited for large gears as it also ensures control over the tooth spacing. The composite method of
checking is very much suitable for checking worn gears.
Tolerance for Composite Errors. The following table gives the tolerance on total composite
errors and tooth to tooth composite error.
Here factor F M 0.25 D
Master Gears. Master gears are made with sufficient accuracy capable of being used as the
basis for comparing the accuracy of other gears. These are mostly used in composite errors
determination in which the master gears are rotated in close mesh (double flank) or in single
contact with the gears under test. These can also be used for calibration of gear checking
instruments used in shop-floor Master gears are generally of two types; i.e. Master gears type A
used for checking precision gears of accuracy class up to 7and type B master gears used for
checking gears from 8 to 12. Master gears are made from chromium manganese tool steel or good
124
Class or Grade of
Gear
Total Composite
Error in Microns
Tooth or Tooth
Composite Errors in
Microns
Parkinson
Gear
Tester.
The principle
of this device is
1
4+0.32F
2+0.16F
to mount a
standard gear
2
6+0.30F
3+0.224F
on
a
fixed
vertical spindle
3
10+0.08F
4+0.32 F
and the gear to
be tested on
4
16+1.25F
6+0.45 F
another similar
spindle
5
25+2.0 F
9+0.56 F
mounted on a
sliding
6
40+3.2 F
12+0.90F
7
56+4.5
F
16+1.25F
carriage,
maintaining
8
71+5.6 F
22+1.8F
the gears in
mesh by spring
9
90+7.1 F
28+2.24F
pressure.
Movement of
10
112+9.0F
36+2.8F
the
sliding
carriage as the
11
140+11.2F
45+3.55F
gears
are
12
rotated
are
180+14.0F
56+4.50F
indicated by a
dial indicator,
and these variations are a measure of any irregularities in the form of a waxed circular chart and
records made of the gear variation in accuracy of mech.
125
Fig. shows a gear tester for testing spur gears. (Testers are available for bevel, helical and worm
gears also)The gears are mounted on the two mandrels, so that they are free to rotate without
measurable clearance. The left spindle can be moved along the table and clamped in any desired
position. The right mandrel slide is free to move, running on steel balls, against sprint pressure
and it has a limited movement. The two mandrels can be adjusted so that their axial distance is
equal to the designed gear. Centre distance. The spring pressure can be regulated. There are also
screws for limiting the movement of the sliding carriage. A scale is attached to one carriage and a
vernier to the other; this enables centre distances to be measured to within 0.025mm. The dial
indicator on the right contacts the right end of the sliding carriage and therefore indicates any
radial variations of the gear under test as the gears are rotated.
When the waxed paper recorder is fitted, the chart makes a revolution for each one of the
gears mounted on the sliding carriage. As the char moves or rotates, the line traced records the
movements of the floating carriage, a circle is drawn at the same time as the record. The figures
shown in Fig. 15.28 are reproduction of a few typical charts with a reduced scale and the radial
errors magnified about 50 times. The gear shown by No.1 record is a fully satisfactory one, that at
No.2 is a moderate gear at No.3 is an unsatisfactory one.
It may be noted that the method described above is dual flank method, i.e., both tooth
flanks come in contact which is seldom the case in actual practice. The chart records obtained by
this test do not give a clear indication of true cumulative pitch error. This test is an expedient test
for accepting or rejecting a gear but not for finding out detailed causes for rejection. It is used
mainly to detect poor tooth form caused by worn or inaccurate cutting tool, and pitch circle
eccentricity arising from inaccurate centering of the gear blank prior to tooth cutting, etc.
Technically more correct method of mesh testing is single flank method in which, instead
of measuring centre distance variation the angular variation is measured. The mesh tester is a
complex system and more costly. The simplest machine of this type consist of two shafts each
carrying a gear and a plain disc having diameter equal to the nominal pitch diameter of the gear.
One shaft has a rotary joint between the gear and its associated pitch disc. An indicator is used to
measure angular variation between the gear and disc on this shaft. In use, the two discs are
brought into frictional contact so that one can drive the other without slip. This method is not
popular because it requires these manufacture of two very accurate pitch discs for every gear pair
of different size. Present days single flank mesh testers do not require different pitch discs. The
two shafts carrying the gears are fitted with radial gratings having angular band of accurately
spaced clear radial lines (one line for one minute of arc). When two such gratings (inclined at very
small angle ) rotate in close proximity, interference bands known as Moire fringes are formed
126
127
20-570mm
300mm
20. Calculate the dimension of the maximum chord over four teeth when the gear under
inspection has the following specifications:
No. of teeth = 32; module =4, Pressure angle = 20
Shift of the tool into the gear to provide back flash = 0.25mm.
Solution. In this case the cutting tool is moving into the blank by o.25mm more, so the tooth
thickness will get reduced. Hence, the correction needed on one side of tooth is
0.25 tan 0.25 tan 200 0.6010mm
and distance over 4 teeth for theoretical gear is
S
cos tan
2 N N
N.m.
20
32 4 cos 20 tan 20
180
2 32 32
42.42
And distance for the actual gear
=42.42-2 0.0190=42.382mm.
21. Calculate the dimension over pins in the following case. Also indicate the diameter of the
pins to be used. N=31,m=3, =20.
Solution. Best in diameter
/ 2.m cos / 2 3 cos 200 4.426mm
From Fig.15.34,P>C>D.=mN=AC=3 31=93mm
360
5.80 , 5.8 / 2 2.90 , andangleCBA 900
And
2 31
CB AC cos 93 cos 2.9 92.87
128
22. For a 20 pressure angle gear having 36teeth and 4mm module, calculate:
(a) Plug size (Plug diameter)
(b) Distance over the plugs in opposite spaces
(c) Distance over the plugs spaced 12 teeth apart.
Solution. (a) Plug size
/ 2 m cos / 2 4 cos 200 / 2 4 0.9397 5.905mm. (b) Distance over the
plugs in opposite spaces
m N cos
2
4 36 0.9397 155.815mm.
2
N .m.cos tan
2 N N
129
gear
2
tan17.5 0.3052 2 10 10 15.554mm.
24. Explain the construction and working principle of Tomlinson Surface meter.
The Tomlinson Surface Meter. This instrument was designed by Dr. Tomlinson. This instrument
uses mechanical cum-optical means for magnification (Fig.11.8).
The diamond stylus on the surface finish recorder is held by spring pressure against the
surface of a lapped steel cylinder. The stylus is also attached to the body of the instrument by a
lead spring and its height is adjustable to enable the diamond to be positioned conveniently. The
lapped cylinder is supported on one side by the stylus and on the other side by two fixed rollers as
shown in Fig. 11.
The stylus is restrained from all motions except the vertical one by the tensions in coil and
leaf spring. The tensile forces in these two springs also keep the lapped steel cylinder in position
between the stylus and a pair of fixed rollers. A light spring steel arm is attached to the horizontal
lapped steel cylinder and it carries at its tip a diamond scriber which bears against a smoked glass.
When measuring surface finish, body is traversed across the surface by a screw rotated by a
synchronous motor. Any vertical movement of the stylus caused by the surface irregularities,
causes the horizontal lapped steel cylinder to
130
roll. By its rolling, the light arm attached to its end provides a magnified movement on a smoked
glass plate. This vertical movement coupled with the horizontal movement produces a trace on the
glass magnified in vertical direction and there being no magnification in horizontal direction. The
smoke glass trace is the, further projected at 50or 100 magnification for examination. This
instrument is comparatively cheap one and gives reliable results.
25. Explain about The Taylor-Hobson Talysurf.
The talysurf is an electronic instrument working on carrier modulating principle. This
instrument also gives the same information as the previous one records the static displacement of
the stylus and is dynamic instrument like profilometer.
The measuring head of this instrument consists of a diamond stylus of about 0.002mm tip
radius and skid or shoe which is drawn across the surface by means of a motorized driving unit
(gearbox), which provides three motorized speeds giving respectively 20and 100 horizontal
magnification and a speed suitable for average reading. A natural position in which the pick-up
can be traversed manually is also provided. In this case the arm carrying the stylus forms an
armature which pivots about the centre piece of E- shaped stamping as shown in Fig. 11.9 On two
legs of (outer pole pieces ) the E-shaped stamping there are coils carrying an a.c. current. These
two coils with other two resistances form an oscillator.; As the armature. Is pivoted about the
central leg any movement of the stylus causes the air gap to vary and thus the amplitude of the
original a. c. current flowing in the coils is modulated. The output, of the bridge thus consists of
modulation only as shown in Fig. 11.9 This is further demodulated so that the current now is
directly proportional to the vertical displacement of the stylus only.
131
132
2. Root Mean Square Value (R.M.S. Value). This measure was in use previously and now adays superseded by Centre Line Average measure, as latter has the properties of bring easily
measured. R.M. S. blue is defined as the square lot of the mean of the squares the ordinates of the
surface measured from a mean line.
Referring to Fig. 11.14, be selected length L is divided to n equal parts. Ordinates corrected
at the points 1,2, 3,4,,n, whose heights are (by)
h1 , h2 , h3 , h4 ,......., hn
thenhr , m, s .
3. Centre Line Average Method (C.L.A. Value). This is defined as the average height from a mean
line of all ordinates of the surface regardless of the sign.
Thus referring to Fig.11.14, C.L.A. =
h1 h2 h3 h4 .......hn
n
But of find C.L.A. value like this will be laborious job. Also by this method, spacing chosen
133
L
L
One has to take care of units carefully to find the C.L.A. value in micron.
=
How to determine Mean Line. For it first the mean line is estimated by eye-judgement. Then total
area above and below the assumed mean line are measured and a correction is applied to the
assumed mean line to get the correct mean line. Error [( A (above) - A (below)]/L is applied to
the assumed mean line to get the correct, mean line. Thus in Fig.11.16,xy is assumed mean line.
( A1 A3 A5 A7 ) ( A2 A4 A6 A8 )
C.L.A. value does not give any idea regarding the greatest extent and the nature of the
surface irregularities It is likely to give identical values for surface of vastly different
characteristics. So this is the main disadvantage of C.L.A value, but when the characteristics of a
surface have been found out to be satisfactory and such conditions are produced which do not
allow the surface to change radically in manufacturing, then C.L.A. value provides a workable
control.
27. Explain the procedure for determing flatness.
Procedure for determining flatness (Fig.7.5). The procedure for determining flatness is as follows:
(1)
Carry out the straightness test already described on all the lines AB,BC,AC etc., and
tabulate the readings up to the cumulative error column.
134
In this way, the height of all the points on the surface relative to the arbitrary plane ABD are
known.
135
One thing to be noted here is that according to definition of flatness error, departure from
flatness is determined by the minimum separation of a pair of parallel planes which will just
contain all the points on the surface. Here it is possible to determine two points at either extreme
of the reference plane to define the separation but the reference plane chosen may not be the best
plane. Therefore, in order to determine the minimum separation some correction has to be made.
The calculation for a final correction to determine for a final correction to determine the minimum
separation of a pair of parallel planes which just contain all the points on the surface is made by
graphical method as given below.
The various points on the surface have been determined with reference to ABD as reference
plane as described previously. Two points on opposite sides having maximum positive and
maximum negative values are selected and jointed together by a line xx. Let these points in Fig.7.6
be R and. Draw a line yy parallel to xx to represent the plane ABD as shown in fig 7.6 set of to
scale the height of all points relative to YY by taking projections from all the points on the surface.
In fig 7.6, Projections from all points have not been shown for the sake of clarity. Next by
inspection, draw a closest pair of parallel lines zz, which will contain all of the points. It may be
noted that one line will have two points on it, and the other line, one point only. The distance
between these two lines is a measure of the error in flatness. Although it is not exact value but for
practical purpose it gives sufficiently accurate results.
The optical flatness testing method for very flat and polished surface has already been
discussed in the chapter of interferometry.
28. Explain the devices used for measurement of roundness.
Devices for measurement of roundness. The most commonly used devices for measurement of
roundness are:
(1) Diametral. (2) Circumferential confining gauge shaft is confined in a ring gauge and rotated
against a set indicator probe. (3) Rotating on centres. (4) V-Block.(5) Three-point probe (120
spacing )Accurate spindle.
(a) Part fixed, exterior spindle with probe rotates, (b) probe fixed, Part rotates with spindle.
1. Diametral Method. In this method, the measuring plungers are located 180 apart and the
diameter is measured at several places. This method is suitable only when the specimen is
elliptical or has an even number of lobes. Diametral check does not necessarily disclose effective
size or roundness. This method is unreliable in determining roundness.
2. Circumferential confining Gauge. Fig. 7.35 shows the principle of this method. It is useful for
inspection of roundness in production. How ever, this method requires a separate highly
accurate master for each size part to be measured. The clearance between part and gauge is
136
3. Rotating on centres. (Refer Fig.7.36). Some parts, (such as shafts ) may be inspected for
roundness while mounted on centres. In this case, reliability is dependent on many factors like
angles of centres, alignment of centres, roundness and surface condition of the centres and centre
holes, and run out of piece. Out-of-straightness of the part will cause a doubling run out effect and
appear to be roundness error.
Any or all of these factors may combine, creating a high degree of uncertainty as to exact nature of
the error.
For workshop purpose, the V-block method is quite accurate as it is capable of indicating
normal requirements of accuracy. However for very precise job where more reliable and more
accurate results are desired, the second method is recommended which is quicker and also
eliminates the effects of angle of the block and the number of lobes on part, but of course, is a very
costly one.
4. Assessment using a V-block. The set up employed for assessing the circularity error (lobing) by
using a V-block is shown in Fig.7.37, i.e., the vee-block is placed on a surface plate and the work to
be checked is placed upon it. A sensitive dial indicator is firmly fixed in a stand and its feeler made
to rest against the surface of the work. The work is rotated to measure the rise and fall of the workpiece. For determining the number of lobes on the work piece is first tested in a 60V-block and
then in a 90 V-block. The number of lobes is then equal to the number of times the indicator
137
It is obvious that with different angle of V-blocks, dial indicator shows different readings
for the same work-piece placed in the same position. If this problem is studied further by
138
We will place this work piece on different angle V-blocks first with major axis placed along
the direction of dial movement and then with minor axis along the direction of dial movement.
This is so because the work-piece has two number of lobes.
It may be noted that it is possible to take dial readings both from top as well as bottom.
139
can be determined for different shapes of work pieces, i.e. having different number of lobes.
V-Block. (a) Fixed angle. Depending on the number of lobes on a part, the following angles of Vblocks are recommended for measurement of correct roundness by V-block method.
Lobes
Three-point out of roundness
Five lobed part
Seven lobed part
Angle of V-block
60
180
128
34
(c)
Adjustable V-Block. It is usually difficult to ascertain the number of lobes of a part and
have large number of fixed angle V-Blocks. V-block which can be adjusted to correct angle to show
out-of roundness is better choice.
V-Block method is limited in the determination of roundness of part because it is suitable only
when the number of lobes is known and is uniformly arranged, which is never the case.
29. Explain the various terms used in screw threads.
Screw thread terminology.
1. Screw Thread. A screw thread is a continuous helical groove of specified cross-section
produced on the external or internal surface of a cylinder or a cone.
140
141
Let O be the assumed centre of the circle. Then in rt. d OAB. In figure
OB2 = OA2 + AB2
2
d
1 d
d
or R+ R
2
2
d
d2
(1 d)2
or R 2
Rd R 2 Rd
4
2
4
1
or 2Rd= (1 d)2
4
(1-d)2 (1 d)2
and R =
4 2d
8d
The part to be tested is kept one surface plate and with the help of a depth micrometer the
maximum depth of the cavity is determined. Let is be h. Next the part is kept in such a way that
cavity is resting against an angle plate and the part is then clamped in this position. The hole is
then measured from edge to edge with a height gauge having a sharp scribing arm. Let the
maximum dreading, i.e. diameter of
the hold be d (fig).
142
Let O be the assumed centre of the cavity and R the radius of curvature.
Then in rt. d OAB,
OA2 = AB + BO2
2
or
d
R (R h)2
2
d2
=
R 2 h2 2Rh
4
2
or
d
2Rh = h2
2
2
d
2
2 h
d2 h
R=
.
2h
8h 2
ii) When he edges are rounded up. When the edges of the cavity are rounded up, then the radius
of curvature can be measured by a depth micrometer and slip gages. The width of the depth
micrometer base is measured with the help of slip gauges. Let is be d, then it is placed in the cavity
ill it fully rests in the cavity, its frame touching all the sides of cavity (fig). The measuring tip is
then lowered down till it touches the base. The reading is then noted on the thimble and let it be h.
now the case is similar to previous one and the radius of curvature R can be found out be the same
formula.
Other method to note down d and h is by using a heavy steel block, a steel ball and slip
gauges as shown in figure in this method, the steel ball is placed in the cavity and the heavy steel
block also put into the cavity. The space between the block and ball is filled up by a suitable length
of slip gauges so that L lock is just touching the sides of cavity.
Here length of block is d and length of slip gauges and diameter of ball constitute h. The
143
RMS value =
y12 y 22 y 32 ......yn2
n
33. Define straightness and explain the various methods of measurement of straightness.
The tolerance on the straightness of a line is defined as the maximum deviation in relation
to the reference straight line going the two extremities of the line under examination.
144
The mean true line should be chosen such that it passes through the maximum number of
points measured and the sum of the areas above it must be equal to the sum of areas below it.
The maximum straightness error can then the graphically determined by measuring the
normal distance (e) between the two straight lines drawn parallel to the mean true line, enveloping
all measured points.
For measuring the straightness of a line and its error, the following instruments are used.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Straight edge
Spirit level
Auto-collimator
Measurement of straightness
(i)
By using a spirit level. The most convenient method of testing straightness of a surface
of any length to a high degree of accuracy is by using spirit level or auto-collimator.
145
A straight edge is supported at the points for minimum deflection on two unequal piles of
slip gauges so that it is at a slight inclination to the surface to be tested. The distance between the
supports is divided into number of equal parts and marked on the straight edge. If both straight
edge and surface are perfectly straight, the gap at each point will very uniformly.
Assume that the slip gauges used have values 10mm and 10.1 mm as shown in the figure.
Let the distance between the slip values be divided into 5 numbers of equal parts. The gap at each
0.1
point will, therefore, vary by 0.02mm
now we can determine the value of pile of slip
5
required for exact contact at each position. Eg. At the first position it is 10 mm; at the second
position it will be 10.02 mm; at the third it will be 10.04 mm and so on. Insert the lip gauges of
appropriate value at each marked position. If there is no error, the slip will make contact with both
the surfaces exactly at the marked positions. If however, there are errors in straightness, the slips
will not fit exactly at their marked positions, but will be displaced one way or other along the
straight edge by amounts proportional to the errors.
146
This is very sensitive method of measurement and can be made as sensitive as desired by
choosing a small wedge angle and large number of measuring positions. Care must be taken to see
that the slips do not wring to the surface otherwise the whole sensitivity will be lost.
34. Explain the various methods of measurement of roundness.
The most commonly used methods of measurement of roundness are :
1.Using V block and Dial indicator
2.Roundness measuring machine
3.Bench center method
1. V-block and dial indicator method. A very simple and most commonly used method of
measuring out of roundness is by using a V block and dial indicator. The set up employed for this
purpose
is
as
shown in figure.
The V-block is placed on the surface plate and the work to be checked is placed upon it.
A sensitive dial indicator is firmly fixed in a stand and its feeler made to rest against the
surface of the work. The work is rotated about the diameter to be checked the dial indicator
records any variation in dimensions due to out-of-roundness.
This method converts the diameter measurement to a chordal-height variation, and
presents a new set of measurement peculiarities which are dependent upon the included angle of
the V-block and the number of lobes present on the circumstance of the work piece to be
measured.
Plotting Polar Graph
The ideal about the actual shape of the work piece can be obtained by actually plotting the
polar graph. Equally spaced 12 markings (at angles of 30) are made on the face of the work piece
to be measured. The work piece is properly cleaned and then placed on the V-block against a rigid
147
For obtaining the actual profile of the work piece in individual points are then joined by
straight lines. The error is measured as the radial distance between the minimum inscribing circle
for the profile obtained. This is done by hit and trial method such that this distance is minimum.
The actual value of the error of roundness is given by,
Error =
where, k is a constant, value of which depends upon the shape of the workpiece and angle
of V-block (as indicated in table).
For determining the number of lobes (for selecting the constant value k from the table, the
work piece is first tested in a 60 V-block and then in a 90 V-block). The number of lobes is then
equal to the number of times the indicator pointer deflects during rotation of the work piece
through 360 the reason for testing the work piece part is rotated on a V-block of angle 60 , no
change in reading is indicated, whereas if the same part is rotated on a 90 V-block, two maximum
and two minimum readings are indicated on the indicator.
148
Work on an axis against a fixed indicator can be use to obtain results of less precision. In
this type the work is placed on a circular table with its centre set, as from a fixed base, is placed
with its plunger in contact with the edge of the disc.
This method is more accurate a record of the exact profile of the job is made automatically
and thus the waviness is also superimposed upon the profile of the job. A permanent polar chart
record is usually provided and the method leads itself to standardization. The sophisticated
machines have the provision to check concentricity roundness, alignment, squareness, parallelism
and flatness.
2. Bench centre method. In this method bench centres and a precision mechanical (dial gauge), air
or electronic indicator may be used to measure out of roundness of a work piece on a radial basis.
The accuracy of the result is, however,
effected by shape and angle of
centres and the centre holes,
lubrication of centre etc. in the
part under test.
149
The error in level may be corrected by setting wedges at suitable points under the support feel or
pads of the machine.
3. Straightness of saddle in horizontal plane.
Measuring instruments. Cylindrical test mandrill (600 mm
long), dial indicator.
Procedure. The mandrel is held between centres. The dial indicator is mounted on the
saddle. The spindle of the dial indicator is allowed to touch the mandrel. The saddle is then moved
longitudinally along the length of the mandrel. Readings are taken at different places Permissible
error. 0.02 mm over length of mandrel.
150
151
10. Parallelism of tail stock sleeve taper socket to saddle movement (a) in V.P (b) in H.P.
Measuring instruments. The mandrel with taper shank and a cylindrical measuring part of 300mm
length, dial gauge.
Procedure. Test mandrel is held with its taper shank in a tail stock sleeve taper socket. The dial
gauge is mounted on spindle. The dial gauge spindle is made touch with the mandrel. The saddle
is the traversed longitudinally along the bed way and readings are taken.
Permissible error.
(a) 0.03/300 mm (mandrel rising towards free and only)
152
(3) Parallelism of the clamping surface of the work table in its longitudinal motion.
Instruments. Dial gauge, straight edge.
Procedure. A dial gauge is fixed to the spindle. The gauge spindle is adjusted to touch the table
surface. The table is then moved in longitudinal direction and readings are noted. If the table
153
(4) Parallelism of the cross (transverse) movement of the worktable to the main spindle.
(a) in a vertical plane
(b) in horizontal plane
instruments. Dial gauge, test mandrel with taper shank.
Procedure. The table is set in its mean position. The mandrel is held in the spindle. A dial gauge
field to the table is adjusted so that its spindle touches the surface of the mandrel. The table is
moved cross-wise and the error is measured in the vertical plane and also in the horizontal plane.
Permissible error. 0.02 for the overall traverse movement of the work table.
154
A dial gauge should be fixed in the spindle taper, the feeler being adjusted to touch the
vertical face of the bracket. Observe the reading on the dial gauge when the bracket is near one
end of the table, the swing over the dial gauge and move the bracket so that the corresponding
readings can be taken near the other end of the table.
(7) Parallelism of the T-slot with the longitudinal movement of the table.
Instrument. Dial gauge special bracket.
Procedure. The general parallelism of the T-slot with the longitudinal movement of the table is
155
156
157
158
The test is performed by placing the frame level (with graduations from 0.03 to 0.05 mm) on
guide column and table and the error is noted by noting the difference between the readings of the
two levels.
Permissible error. The error should not exceed 0.25/1000mm guide column for (a) and the guide
column should be inclined at the upper end towards the front, and 0.15/1000mm for (b).
For testing the perpendicularity of drill guide to the base plate the test is similar as above, the only
difference being that the frame level is to be placed on the base instead of a table.
4. Perpendicularity of spindle sleeve with base plate.
This test is performed in both the place as specified in test (3) and in the similar manner. The
only difference is that the frame levels are to be placed on spindle sleeve and base plate.
Permissible error. The error (i.e. the difference between the readings of the two levels) should not
exceed 0.25/1000mm for plane (a) and the sleeve should be inclined towards column only, and
0.15/100mm for plane (b).
5. True running of spindle taper
159
Permissible error. The error should not exceed 0.03/100mm for machines with taper up to Morse
No.2 and 0.04/300mm for machines with taper larger than Morse No.2.
6. Parallelism of the spindle axis with its vertical movements.
Instruments. Test mandrel, dial gauge.
Procedure. This test is performed into two planes (A) and (B) at right angles to each other. The test
mandrel is fitted into the taper hole of the spindle and the dial gauge is fixed on the table with its
feeler touching the mandrel. The spindle is adjusted in the middle position of its travel. The
spindle is moved in upper and lower directions of the middle position of its travel. The spindle is
moved in upper and lower directions of the middle position with slow vertical feed mechanism
and the readings of the dial gauge are noted down.
Possible error. For plane (A) and (B) both 0.03/100 mm, 0.05/300mm.
7. Squareness of clamping surface of table to its axis.
160
Permissible error. The permissible error should not exceed 0.05/300am diameter.
8. Squareness of the spindle axis with table.
Instruments. Straight edge, dial gauge.
Procedure. This test is performed by placed the straight edge in position AA and BB. The work
table is arranged in the middle of its vertical travel. The dial gauge is mounted in the tapered hole
of the spindle and its feeler is made to touch the straight edge first at A and readings are taken.
Then the spindle is rotated by 180 so that the feeler touches at point A and again the reading is
taken. The difference of these two reading is the error in squareness of spindle axis with table.
Similar readings are taken by placing the straight edge is position BB.
Permissible error: The permissible errors are 0.08/300mm with lower end of spindle inclined
towards column only for set up AA and 0.05/300mm for set up BB.
161
UNIT IV
PART A
1.What is interferometer? Name the different types of interferometer.
Interferometer is optical instruments used for measuring flatness and determining the lengths of
slip gauges by direct reference to the wavelength of light.
Types :
1.
2.
3.
4.
162
b) Practical
163
12. What are the necessary conditions for interference of light waves ?
The following conditions should be satisfied. To observe the phenomenon of sustained or
continuous interference of light waves,
1. Two sources of light should be coherent, ie.
a) The two sources of light should continuously emit waves of same wave length or frequency.
b) For obtaining interference fringes, the amplitude, of the two interfering wave trains should be
equal or very nearly equal.
c) The two sets of wave trains from the two sources should either have the same phase or a
constant different phase.
2. Two sources should be very narrow.
3. Emitting a set of interfering beans should be very close to each other.
13 At what angle the band should be viewed in interferometer measurement and what is the
effect if it is too large ?
The line of single for viewing the bands should be nearly perpendicular to the reference
surface of the optical flat. It viewing angle varies by 5 degree, then no error in product. However,
when the viewing angle in bigger, then the actual fringes will be read less and errors of around
15%, 40% and 100% may occur with viewing angles eg 30 degree, 45 degree and 60 degree
respectively.
14. Explain why monochromatic light in used for interferometer work and not the white light.
As the white light contains a whole spectrum of wavelengths and since the pitch of the
164
15. What are advantages of light std. of wavelength ? How it became possible ?
Light standard defines the length in terms of a std. which is not only constant, but also,
reproducible anywhere in the world. This is the major criterion for any standard. It does not
depend on reference to some particular and possibly whether able piece of metal. It become
possible because at constant pressure and temperature, each pure color of light from a vaporizing
element has a particular and constant wavelength, and with the adventure nuclear physics, it was
possible to obtain pure isotopes of various elements, serving as very pure mono chromatic light
source.
16. What is the advantages of using laser beam in interferometer ?
The laser provides a source of wherence and truly mono chromatic light. Non-laser light is
in coherent and does not exactly follow the sinusoidal wave, but is subject to small random
variations. The property of wherence in laser beam enables it to be projected in a narrow pencil of
beam (with out any scatter).
17. List out the various factor responsible for "Renaissance" of optics.
1. An enormoces increase in imaging performance due to computer - assisted optics design
correction and assembly.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
165
19.
State the characteristic of the surface that is responsible for its interferometer
measurement.
The surface must be reflective in order to respond to interferometer measurement.
20. What are the advantages of laser as a light source in interfermetric measurement ?
The light emitted in coherent and highly monochromatic enabling interference fringes to be
produced over long distances as opposed to short distances with a conventional discharge lamp.
The light is of an intensity which enables the fringes produced to be readily detected by suitable
photo-cells, and the signal - to - noise ratio in such that counting speeds up to a million cycles per
second are possible. Further, the light in produced as a narrow parallel beam which eases the
problem of producing the optical components in an interferometer system.
21. What is the fundamental difference between a flatness interferometer and light
interferometer?
The fundamental difference between a flatness interferometer and light interferometer is
that the later incorporates a constant deviation prism which splits the light into number of parallel
beams each hawing a difference and closely defined wavelength of known value.
22. What are the light sources are used in interferometer?
Mercury, mercury 198, cadmium, krypton, krypton86, thallium, sodium, Helicem, neon, Gas laser.
23. What is interferometer?
It is an optical instrument used for measuring flatness and determining the length of slip
gauges by direct reference to the wavelength of light.
24. What are the types of interferometer ?
Michelson interferometer, twyman - green interferometer, NPL flatness interferometer.
25. What is CMM?
It is a three dimensional measurements for various components. These machines have precise
movement is x-y-z co-ordinates which can be easily controlled and measured. Each slide in three
directions is equipped with a precision linear measurement transducer which gives digital display
and sense positive and negative direction.
166
A numerical control system can be used with CMM to do calculations while measuring
complex parts. Error can be stored in memory while doing calculations. For automatic calibration
of probe, determination of co-ordinate system, calculation, evaluation and recording etc. special
software are incorporated.
30.
167
168
169
IV.
V.
This can be used to replace, machine for applications like welding, machining to maintain
relationship between tool and work.
Machine vision systems are used for printed circuit board
These are used for weld seam tracking, robot guidance and control, inspection of
microelectronic devices and tooling, on line inspection in machining operation, online
inspection of a assembling maintaining high speed packaging.
This is for the recognition of object from its image
Achieve 100% accuracy.
43. What are the steps involved in producing software for engineering metrology?
i)Precise and detailed definition of geometrical form
ii) Specification of the measurement procedure
iii) Mathematical modeling of the measurement
44. Define measuring machine.
It is a machine which is used for measurement of length over the other faces of length bar
or any other long member with end, that may be rounded, or flat and parallel.
45. Examples for measuring machine?
170
Length bar measuring machine, new all measuring machine, universal measuring machine,
optical projection comparator, microscopes, optimeter, co-ordinate measuring machine, optical
probe, and etc.
46. What is co-ordinate measuring machine (CMM)?
Computerization in manufacturing has become so common that the introduction of
computerized co-ordinate machiners has revolutionized quality control in metal working.
A Co-ordinate measuring machine consists, in essence of a mean of moving a probe within
a 3-D rectangular Co-ordinate systems. This probe provides on electrical signal when contact with
the manufactured component in established, enabling the special Co-ordinates of selected contact
points to be accurately recorded.
47. Mention some advantages of Co-ordinate measuring machines.
Flexibility :
CMM are flexible in that use, in the sense that they are not designed for any single or
particular task. Speed of measurement.
Component alignment and the establishment of appropriate reference points are very time
consuming with conventional inspection techniques, these procedures are greatly simplified with
computer assisted / controlled CMM's.
Improved accuracy:
All measurements on a CMM are taken from a common geometrically fixed measuring
system, eliminating the introduction of errors that can result from set up changes.
Reduced operator influence:
The use of digital readouts eliminates the subjective interpretation of reading common with
dial or vernier type measuring devices. Further more, operator "feel" ins avoided with toughtrigger prober.
In this manner, computer assisted / controlled CMMS have effectively deskilled the
measurement aspect of quality assurance.
48. Indicate a method by which the plate can be produced if the dimensions are produced
using polar co-ordinates.
The operation is that of boring the six holes.
Using the Co-ordinate method, it would be necessary for calculate of dimensions, A, B, C,
D, E, F, and G in Fig.
171
If the machine is filled with a circular table, the note may be bored from the centre of the
circle, and the only dimension required will be the diameter of the pitch circle H of the holes and
the angular spacing between them is 60 degree. It is recommended that the central note J in
provided for setting purpose, which in known as a reference note and simplifies checking of the jig
after manufacture. For checking the chord K should be given as this proves useful whatever
method of boring in employed.
49. Write Notes on Electronic gauging.
It is a transducer equipment using non-contracting sensors or probes to cover many
engineering problems of precision measurement. The operation relies on the electrical
capacitance, between the sensor and test surface, and one, two or six channels can be provided.
50. What is use of Electronic gauging?
To check the roundness, clearance, strip ness, inspection and monitoring and etc.
51. How the eccentricity of a component checked by Electronic gauging system.
This is essentially a differential measurement one sensor monitoring a shaft position which
will provide a changing datum should the shaft be warped. The second sensor responds to the
combined eccentricities due to the shaft and the disc. The measuring instrument, can be arranged
to read the differences between these two quantities.
52. Use of CMM ?
CMM- Co-ordinate measuring machine It can be utilised to measure length and diameters
of both plain and the readed work tapers and the pitch of the screw the reads to a high degree of
accuracy.
53. What is optical projection comparator (or) machine?
It is a measuring instrument, which projects an enlarged image or shadow of the
components being measured on the screen, where it is compared to a master drawing. By this
device, complicated shaped parts can be easily checked.
54. What are essential elements of an optical projection comparator?
1) Source of light, 2) Collimating or Condensing lens, 3) Projection lens 4) Screen
55. What are the type of optical projection comparator?
172
173
II.
III.
IV.
V.
174
PART B
1. Explain the working principle and the steps involved.
The machine vision system involves following four basic steps.
Image formation
Processing of image in a form suitable for analysis by computer
Defining and analysing the characteristics of image
Interpretation of image and decision making.
We will now discuss these four steps in more details.
Image formation. For formation of image suitable light source is required. It may consist of
incandescent light, fluorescent tube, fiber-optic bundle, arc lamp, or strobe light. Laser beam is
used for triangulation system for measuring distance. Polarised or ultraviolet light is used to
reduce glare or increase contrast. It is important that light source is placed correctly since it
influences the contrast of the image. Selection of proper illumination technique, (viz, back
lighting, front lighting-diffused or directed bright field, or directed dark field, or polarised,
structured light) is important. Back lighting is suited when a simple silhouette image is required
to obtain maximum image contrast.
175
176
177
178
Computer adheres to a given criteria rigorously and thus all the qualifying requirements and
ability of operator in accepting / rejecting a reading need to be told to computer clearly
without any ambiguity.
Sometimes a number may be entered incorrectly due to transposing error or key-bounce.
Strict control is needed over the use, amendment and copying of programme tapes to ensure
that unauthorised modifications are not made.
Checking procedure to ensure correct loading of program from tape needs to be followed.
Measurement process gets remote from the operator.
It is difficult to locate the source of problem by normal operator.
While the effects of drifts, environment influences are hidden or not noticed; but operator
may not get that confidence.
While human eye and memory are extremely good at detecting drifts and averaging high
frequency noise on signals, careful programming has to be undertaken to give a computer a
similar facility.
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
It may be noted that when monochromatic light source is used then fringes can be seen over a
range of path difference that may vary from a few to a million wavelengths, depending on the
source. However, when white light is used, then fringes can be seen only if both ray paths are
exactly equal to a freq. wavelengths in total length in glass and air. The lengths themselves are not
important, but only their differences affect fringe formation. So when white light source is used
then a compensator plate is introduced in the path of mirror M1 so that exactly the same amount of
glass is introduced in each of the paths. (In the path of mirror M 2, the glass was coming due to rays
passing through beam splitter back surface). The various sophistications which have undergone to
improve the Michelsons basic apparatus are:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Use of laser as the light source, which means that the measurements can be made over
longer distances; and also the beam laser compared to other monochromatic sources has
exact and pure wavelength thus enabling highly accurate measurements.
Mirrors are replaced by cube-corner reflectors (ratio-reflectors) which reflect light
parallel to its angle of incidence regardless of retro reflector alignment accuracy.
Instead of observing the interference phenomenon by eye, photocells are employed
186
The
recombined
beam at
beam splitter
consists of two superimposed beams of different polarization; one component vertically polarized
having traveled around reference arm and other component horizontally polarized having traveled
around the measurement arm. These two beams being differently polarized do not interface. The
recombined beam then passes through a quarter wave plate which causes the two beams to
interfere with one another to produce a beam of plane polarized light. The angular orientation of
the plane of this polarized light depends on the phase difference between the light in the two
returned beams.
The direction of plane of polarization spin is dependent on the direction of movement of the
moving retro reflector. The beam after quarter wave plate is split into three polarization sensitive
detectors. As the plane of polarized light spins, each detector produces a sinusoidal output wave
form. The polarization sensitivity of the detectors can be set so that their outputs have relative
phases of 0, 90, and 180. The outputs of there detectors can be used to distinguish the direction
of movement and also the distance moved by the moving retro reflector attached to the surface
whose displacement is to be measured.
For linear measurements (positional accuracy of velocity), the retro reflector is attached to the
body moving along the linear axis. For angular measurement. For pitch and yaw), the angular
187
188
(i) It has been indicated that mirror should travel exactly parallel to itself and no machines have
ways sufficiently straight to maintain uniform fringe fields. The recent trend is to use corner-cube
reflectors which are not all sensitive to their own orientation and return the reflected ray exactly
189
190
It
uses
two
frequency
laser
system, thus overcoming the shortcoming of d.c. laser interferometer. Whereas the d.c. system
mixes out of phase light beams of the same frequency, the a.c. system mixes beams of two different
frequencies thus permitting the distance information to be carried on a.c. waveform. Use is made
of the fact that the AC amplifiers are insensitive to d.c. variation of a.c. inputs.
Two frequency Zee man laser generates light of two slightly different frequencies with opposite
circular polarizations. These beams get split up by beam splitter B 1; one part travels towards B2 and
from there to external cube corner where the displacement is to be measured. It may be noted that
mirror is not employed here like Michelson Interferometer, because mirror alignment is a critical
procedures. Thus interferometer, instead, uses cube-corner reflectors (retro reflectors) which reflect
light parallel to its angle of incidence regardless of retro reflector alignment accuracy. Beam splitter
B2 optically separates the frequency f 1 which alone is sent to the movable cube-corner reflector. The
second frequency f2 (optically separated) from B2 is sent to a fixed reflector which then rejoins f 1 at
the beam splitter B2 to produce alternate light and dark interference flicker at about 2 Mega cycles
per second. Now if the movable reflector (external cube corner) moves, then the returning beam
frequency will be Doppler-shifted slightly up or down by f 1. Thus the light beams moving
towards photo-detector P2 have frequencies f2 and (f1 f1) and P2 changes these frequencies into
electrical signal. (Photocells convert light-intensity variations into voltage pulses which can be
processed by electronic instruments to give the amount and direction of position change).
Photo detector P1 receives signal from beam splitter B1 and changes the reference beam
frequencies f1 and f2, into electrical signal. An A..C. amplifier A 1 separates frequency difference
signal [(f2- (f1 f1). The pulse converter extracts f1, one cycle per half wavelength of motion. The
up-down pulses from the pulse converter are counted electronically and displayed in analog or
digital form on the indicator. It may be noted that output in case of ACLI is in the form of pulses,
whereas in d.c. systems, the output is in the form of a sinusoidal wave, the amplitude (intensity) of
which depends upon laser aging, air turbulence or air pollutant and thus the change of amplitude
leads to improper triggering and counting errors (Refer Fig. 6.32).
191
from both polarizations which are mixed on detector D 1 to provide a reference beat f1-f2. The
transmitted component travels up to polarizing beam splitter where it is splitter. Part of it travels to
reference fixed arm and other to measurement arm connected with target movement. The two
signals are recombined at the polarizing beam splitter and detected by detector D 2. If target is
stationary, the detected beam is f1-f2. When it moves, then detected beat is f 1-f2 f. The reference
and Doppler-shifted beats are counted by two independent counters and subtracted to give f.
Integration of the count over time t measures 2d/.
192
193
194
iii)
iv)
v)
The orange-red line of krypton 86 isotope, produced under specified conditions, and at a
temperature of 63.3 K temperature of nitrogen triple point, is the new basic international standard
of length-meter being defined as exactly 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of this source, measured in
vacuum.
vi)
vii)
viii)
ix)
x)
Thallium. As 95% of its light is emitted at one green wavelength, it can be used over a
reasonable path difference without the use of my filter.
Sodium. It is used only in applications where interference path difference does not exceed a
few hundred wavelengths. Usually yellow sodium light is used which contains two
separate but closely spaced lines of equal intensity; and because of this the interference
fringes wash out fad because of this the interference fringes wash out for higher path
difference.
Helium. Orange line of helium is used where path difference is not great.
Neon. As conventional neon lamp has too many closely spaced lines (in red part of the
spectrum) and not sharply defined, it does not find many applications. Neon in gas laser,
however, has assumed a uniquely important role.
Gas lasers. In metrology work gas lasers which produce highly monochromatic and intense
light (1000 times more intense than others) are used to great advantage, enabling
interference fringes to be observed with enormous path differences, up to 100 million
wavelengths. (It may be noted that high-power, intermittently operating ruby laser is not of
interest in metrology). Gas lasers are produced by exciting (by an electric discharge or a
high-frequency field) a mixture of neon and helium
195
UNIT V
PART A
1. Define force.
The mechanical quantity which changes or tends to change the motion or shape of a body
to which it is applied is called force.
2. What are load cells?
Load cells are devices used for force measurement through indirect methods.
2. Mention the principle of working of load cells.
Force applied to the elastic member of the cell results in a proportional displacement or strain is
sensed by calibrated mechanical or electromechanical means.
3. Mention the principle of working of load cells.
Force applied to the elastic member of the cell results in a proportional displacement or strain is
sensed by calibrated mechanical or electromechanical means.
4. List the devices used to measure force.
1. Scale and balance
a. Equal arm balance
b. Unequal arm balance
c. Pendulum scale
2. Elastic force meter Proving ring
3. Load cell
a. Strain gauge load cell
b. Hydraulic load cell
c. Pneumatic load cell
5. Give the basic principle of elastic force meter.
When a steel ring is subjected to a force across its diameter, it deflects. This deflection is
proportional to applied force when calibrated.
6. Give the basic principle of equal arm balance.
196
197
1.Ceramic cement
2.Epoxy resin
3.Nitrocellulose.
15. Mention the need for using strain gauge in wheatstone network circuits.
The need for the strain gauge in wheatstone network circuit is that the change in resistance
due to strain in the gauges can neither be measured or made to give an output which can easily
displayed or recorded.
16. What are strain gauge rosettes?
The arrangement of strain gauges in the shape of rose is referred to as a strain gauge rosette.
17. What is the purpose of temperature measurement?
1.
2.
3.
Bimettalic thermometers
Resistance thermometers
Thermistors
Thermocouples
Pyrometer
198
stresses.
199
200
33.
Although pressure is an absolute quantity, everyday pressure measurements, such as for tire
pressure, are usually made relative to ambient air pressure. In other cases measurements are made
relative to a vacuum or to some other ad hoc reference. When distinguishing between these zero
references, the following terms are used:
Gauge pressure is zero referenced against ambient air pressure, so it is equal to absolute
pressure minus atmospheric pressure. Negative signs are usually omitted.
pascal
(Pa)
bar
(bar)
technical
atmosphere
(at)
1 Pa
1 N/m2
105
1.0197105
9.8692106
7.5006103
145.04106
1 bar
100,000
106 dyn/cm2
1.0197
0.98692
750.06
14.5037744
1 at
98,066.5
0.980665
1 kgf/cm2
0.96784
735.56
14.223
1 atm
101,325
1.01325
1.0332
1 atm
760
14.696
1 torr
133.322
1.3332103
1.3595103
1.3158103
1 Torr;
1 mmHg
19.337103
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atmosphere
(atm)
torr
(Torr)
6.894103
68.948103
70.307103
68.046103
51.715
1 lbf/in2
PART B
1. Explain the various direct methods of measurement of force.
Force is very basic engineering parameter the measurement of which can be done in many
ways as follows:
(i)
(ii)
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Let W1 be the know force and W 2 be the unknown. Let G be the gravity center of the arm
and WG be its weight. When W1 = W2, the arm is unbalanced. This unbalance is indicated by angle
the pointer making with the vertical.
For equilibrium, the requirement is
WG.XG = W1 W1 W2 W2
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2. Explain the following indirect methods of measurement of force (i) Acceleration method (ii)
Using elastic loaded members (iii) Using cantilever elastic member.
(a) Use of Acceleration
A force will make a body accelerate. By measuring the acceleration, the force may be
determined, from the equation F=ma, when m mass of the body used. To measure acceleration,
accelerometers are used.
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Fl
AE
Where
l Length of the specimen
A Cross-sectional area
E Youngs modulus
F
AE
F
2, 4
AE
And strain 1, 2
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It is established that due to force, F, deflection of a cantilever at a length l from the point of
application of force, is given as
W I3
3 EI
where E Youngs modulus of beam material,
bd3
I Moment of inertia of beam section =
12
From bending equation,
Moment at section x Mx x x z (z-section modulus)
bd2
Mx x x
6
Strain x is given by x x
E
6.Fl1
i.e.,
x
E.bd2
Gauges R1, R3 measure tensile strain and
R2, R4 measure compressive strain.
3. Explain the following indirect methods of measurement of force (i) Using proving Rings (ii)
Using load cells.
(i) Use of proving Rings
Proving rings are steel rings used for calibration of material testing machines in situations
where, due to their bulkness, dead weight standards cannot be used.
P ring is a circular ring of rectangular section and may support tensile or comprehensive force
across its diameter.
the change in radius in the direction of force, is given by
206
16
4
2
F.d3
EI
Maximum deflection is typically of the order of 1% of the outside diameter of the ring. Proving
rings are normally used for force measurement within the range of 2 kN to 2 mN.
(ii) Use of Load Cell
Force transducers intended for weighing purposes are called load cells. Instead of using total
deflection as a measure of load, strain gauge load cells measure load in terms of unit strains. A
load cell utilizes an elastic member as the primary transducer and strain gauges as secondary
transducer. Figure shows one such load cell arrangement.
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2NT 2NFr
60
60
208
The torque is measured by measuring a balancing force (by means of a load cell, for
example) at a fixed known torque arm. When used as a transmission dynamometer it performs as
a d.c. motor. It then measures the torque and power input to the machine, for example, a pump
that absorbs power.
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Its good performance at low speeds and ease of control makes it an efficient means of torque
measurement.
5. Explain the working of a eddy current or inductor dynamometer for the measurement of
torque.
Eddy Current or Inductor Dynamometers:
This is an example for absorption type dynamometers.
Principle: When a conducting material moves through a magnetic flux field, voltage is generated,
which causes current to flow. If the conductor is a wire forming a part of a complete circuit will be
caused to flow through that circuit, and with some form of commutating device a form of a.c. or
d.c. generator may result.
An eddy current dynamometer is shown in figure. It consists of a metal disc or wheel which
is rotated in the flux of a magnetic field. The field if produced by field elements or coils excited by
an external source and attached to the dynamometer housing which is mounted in trunnion
bearings. As the disc turns, eddy currents are generated. Its reaction with the magnetic field tends
to rotate the complete housing in the trunnion bearings. Water cooling is employed.
6. Classify the measuring instruments used for temperature measurement and explain the
working of bimetallic thermometers with neat sketches.
Temperature measuring instruments may be classified on the basis of:
1.
2.
3.
210
211
Limitations
1. Not usable above 400C because of possibility of warping
Application Areas of Bimetal Thermometers
1. Refineries
2. Vulcanizers
3. Oil burners, etc.
7. Explain the working of thermocouples and thermistors with neat sketches.
i) Thermocouples
Principles Involved : When heat is applied to the junction of two dissimilar metals, an e.m.f. is
generated. (Figure)
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This means that the e.m.f. produced is directly proportional to the temperature difference.
So, if the conjunction is maintained at constant temperature the thermocouple reading will be a
direct measure of temperature. (figure)
ii) Thermistors:
Thermistor is a temperature sensitive variable resistor made of a ceramic like
semiconducting material. They are made of metal oxides and their mixtures like oxides of cobalt,
copper, nickel, etc. Unlike metals, thermistors respond negatively to temperature. They behave as
resistors with a high negative temperature coefficient of resistance. Typically, for each 1 C rise in
temperature, the resistance of a thermistor decreases by about 5%. This high sensitivity to
temperature changes makes the thermistor useful in precision temperature measurements. The
resistance of thermistors vary from 0.5 to 0.75M . Variation of resistivity with temperature is
shown in figure.
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R Resistance at temperature TK
R0
- resistance at temperature T0K
B Constant (3400 K to 4600 K)
Thermistors come in different configurations some of which are shown in figure.
Application Area of Thermistor
1. Measurement of thermal conductivity
2. Measurement of gas composition
3. Measurement of flow and pressure of liquids.
8. Explain how flow is measured using Orifice meter and Venturi meter with neat sketches.
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Cd a1 a0
A 21 a 2o
ii) Venturimeter:
This is just like an orifice meter. It has three distinct parts, namely convergent cone, throat
and divergent cone. A manometer measures the pressure difference between two sections as
shown in figure.
Let
Then, Q =
a1
A2
x
Cd
Cd a1 a2 2 g x
a21 a 22
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9. Explain how flow is measured using Rotameter and Pitot tube with neat sketches.
i) Rotameter:
A rotameter is a variable area type flow meter. It consists of a vertical tapered tube with a
float which is free to move within the tube. The fluid goes from the bottom to the top. When no
fluid flows, the float rests at the bottom of the tube. The float is made of such a diameter that it
completely blocks the inlet. When flow starts in the pipeline and fluid reaches the float, the
buoyant effect of fluid makes the float lighter. The float passage remains closed until the pressure
of the flowing material plus the buoyance effect exceeds the downward pressure due to the float
weight. Thus, depending on flow, the float assumes a position. Thus the float gives the reading of
flow rate.
pitot
tube
pipeline where it
The tube consists
tubes, the inner
open ends faces
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The outer tube has a closed end and has four to eight holes in its wall. The pressure in the
outer tube is the static pressure in the line. Total pressure is sum of static pressure and the
pressure due to the impact of fluid.
If
P
Ps
Velocity v =
10. Explain the use of Hydraulic and Pneumatic systems for the measurement of force.
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems:
If a force is applied to one side of a piston or diaphragm, and a pressure, either hydraulic or
pneumatic, is applied to the other side, some particular value of pressure will be necessary to
exactly balance the force. Hydraulic and pneumatic load cells are based on this principle.
For hydraulic systems, conventional piston and cylinder arrangements may be used.
However, the friction between piston and cylinder wall and required pickings and seals is
unpredictable, and thus good accuracy is difficult to stain. Use of the floating piston with a
diaphragm-type seal practically dominates this variable.
217
Figure shows a hydraulic cell in section. This cell is similar to the type used in some
materials-testing machines. The piston does not actually contact a cylinder wall in the normal
sense, but a thin elastic diaphragm, or bride ring, of steel is used as the positive seal, which allows
small piston movement. Mechanical stops prevent the seal from being overstrained.
When force acts on the piston, the resulting oil pressure is transmitted to some form of
pressure sensing system such as the simple Bourdon gage. If the system is completely filled with
fluid, very small transfer or flow will be required. Piston movement may be less than 0.002 in at
full capacity. In this respect, at least, the system will have good dynamic response; however, overall
response will be determined very largely by the response of the pressure sensing element.
Very high capacities and accuracies are possible with cells of the type. Capacities to
5,000,000 Ibf (22.2MN) and accuracies of the order of % of reading or 1/10% of capacity.
Whichever is greater, have been attained. Since hydraulic cells are somewhat sensitive to
temperature change, provision should be made for adjusting the zero setting. Temperature
changes during the measuring process cause errors of about % per 10F change.
Pneumatic load cells
Pneumatic load cells are quite similar to hydraulic cells in that the applied load is balanced
by a pressure acting over a resisting area, with the pressure becoming a measure of the applied
load. However, in addition to using air rather than liquid as the pressurized medium, these cells
differ from the hydraulic ones in several other important respects.
Pneumatic load cells commonly use diaphragms of a flexible maternal rather than pistons
and they are designed to regulate the balancing pressure automatically. A typical arrangement is
shown in figure.
Air pressure is supplied to one side of the diaphragm and allowed to escape through a
position controlling bleed valve. The pressure under the diaphragm, therefore, is controlled both
by source pressure and bleed valve position. The diaphragm seeks the position that will result in
just the proper air pressure to support the load, assuming that the supply pressure is great enough
so that its value multiplied by the effective area will at least support the load.
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As the diaphragm moves, the portion between the load plate and the fixed housing will
alter position as shown. If it is assumed that the diaphragm is of a perfectly flexible material,
incapable of transmitting any but tensile forces, then the division of vertical load components
transferred to housing and load plate will occur at points A or A, depending on diaphragm
position. We see then tat the effective area will change, depending on the geometry of this portion
of the diaphragm. If a complete semicircular roll is provided, as shown in figure (b) this effect will
be minimized.
Since simple pneumatic cells may tend to be dynamically unstable, most commercial types
provide some form of viscous damper to minimize this tendency. Also additional chambers and
diaphragms may be added to provide for tare adjustment. Single-unit capacities to 80,000 Ibf (356
kN) may be obtained, and by use of paralleled units practically any total load or force may be
measured. Errors as small as 0.1% of full scale may be expected.
11. Explain the working of pressure thermometers with a neat sketch.
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Pressure Thermometers:
Figure shows the essentials of the practical pressure thermometer. The necessary parts are
bulb A, tube B, pressure sensing gage C, and some sort of filling medium. Pressure
thermometers are called liquid-filled, gas filled, or vapor filled, depending on whether the filling
medium is completely liquid, completely gaseous, or a combination of a liquid and its vapour. A
primary advantage of these thermometers is that they can provide sufficient force output to permit
the direct of recording and controlling devices. The pressure-type temperature sensing system is
usually less costly than other systems. Tubes as log as 200ft may be used successfully.
Expansion (or contraction) of bulb A and the contained fluid or gas, caused by temperature
change, alters the volume and pressure in the system. In the case of the liquid-filled system, the
sensing device C acts primarily as a differential volume indicatory, with the volume increment
serving as an analog of temperature. For the gas-or vapour-filled systems, the sensing device
serves primarily as a pressure indicator, with the pressure providing the measure of temperature.
In both cases, of course, both pressure and volume change.
220
Ideally the tube or capillary should serve simply as a connecting link between the bulb and
the indicator. When liquid or gas-filled systems are used, the tube and its filling are also
temperature sensitive, and any difference from calibration conditions along the tube introduces
output error. This error is reduced by increasing the ratio of bulb volume to tube volume.
Unfortunately, increasing bulb size reduces the time response of a system, which may introduce
problems of another nature. On the other hand, reducing tube size, within reason, does not
degrade response particularly because, in any case, flow rate is negligible. Another source of error
tht should not be overlooked is any pressure gradient resulting from difference in elevation of bulb
and indicator not accounted for by calibration.
Temperature along the tube is not a factor for vapour-pressure systems, however, so long as
a free liquid surface exists in the bulb. In this case, Daltons law for vapours applies, which states
that if both phases (liquid and vapour) are present, only one pressure is possible for a given
temperature. This is an important advantage of the vapour-pressure system. In many cases,
though, the tube in this type of system will be filled with liquid, and hence the system is
susceptible to error caused by elevation difference.
12. Explain the principle and working of thermistors.
Resistance elements sensitive to temperature are made of metals generally considered to be
good conductors of electricity. Examples are nickel, copper, platinum and silver. A temperature
measuring device using an element of this type is commonly referred to as a resistance
thermometer, or a resistance temperature detector, abbreviated RTD. Of more recent origin are
elements made from semiconducting materials having large and usually negative resistance
coefficients. Such materials are usually some combination of metallic oxides of cobalt, manganese,
and nickel. These devices are called thermistors.
One important difference between these two kinds of material is that, whereas the
resistance change in the RTD is small and positive (increasing temperature causes increased
resistance), that of the thermistor is relatively large and usually negative. In addition, the RTD type
provides nearly a linear temperature resistance relation, whereas that of the thermistor is
nonlinear. Still another important difference lies in the temperature ranges over which each may be
used. The practical operating range for the thermistor lies between approximately - 100 C to
275C (-150F to 500F). The range for the resistance thermometer is much greater, being from
about - 260C to 1000C (-435 F to 1800F). Finally, the metal resistance elements are more time
stable than the semiconductor oxides; hence they provide better reproducibility with lower
hysteresis.
221
R(T) R 0 1 A T T o B T T 0 2
where
R(T) = the resistance at temperature T,
R0
= the resistance at a reference temperature T0
A and B = temperature coefficients of resistance depending on material.
Over a limited temperature interval (perhaps 50C for platinum) a linear approximation to
the resistance variation may be quite acceptable.
R(T) = R0 (1+ A(T T0))
But for the highest accuracy, a high order polynomial fit is required.
The resistance element is most often a metal wire wrapped around an electrically insulating
support of glass, ceramic or mica. The latter may have a variety of configurations, ranging from a
simple flat strip, as shown in figure to intricate bird-cage arrangement (3). The mounted element
is then provided with a protective enclosure. When permanent installations are made and when
222
More recently, thin films of metal-glass slurry have been used as resistance elements. These
films are deposited onto a ceramic substrate and laser trimmed. Film RTDs are less expensive than
the wire RTDs and have a larger resistance for a given size; however, they are also somewhat less
stable (4). Resistance elements similar in construction to foil strain gages are available as well. The
resistance grid is deposited onto a supporting film, such as Kapton, which may then be cemented
to a surface. These sensors are generally designed to have low strain sensitivity and high
temperature sensitivity. Table describes characteristic of several typical commercially available
resistance thermometers.
13. Explain the use of a pyrometer, its working principle and Applications
A pyrometer is a non-contacting device that intercepts and measures thermal radiation, a process
known as pyrometry. This device can be used to determine the temperature of an object's surface.
The word pyrometer comes from the Greek word for fire, "" (pyro), and meter, meaning to
measure. Pyrometer was originally coined to denote a device capable of measuring temperatures
of objects above incandescence (i.e. objects bright to the human eye).
Principle of operation
A pyrometer has an optical system and detector. The optical system focuses the thermal radiation
onto the detector. The output signal of the detector (Temperature T) is related to the thermal
radiation or irradiance j* of the target object through the StefanBoltzmann law, the constant of
proportionality , called the Stefan-Boltzmann constant and the emissivity of the object.
This output is used to infer the object's temperature. Thus, there is no need for direct contact
between the pyrometer and the object, as there is with thermocouple and Resistance temperature
detector (RTDs).
Applications
223
224
225
the left side of the face, used for measuring manifold vacuum, is calibrated in centimetres of
mercury on its inner scale and inches of mercury on its outer scale.
the right portion of the face is used to measure fuel pump pressure and is calibrated in
fractions of 1 kgf/cm on its inner scale and pounds per square inch on its outer scale.
Diaphragm Gauges
A pile of pressure capsules with corrugated diaphragms in an aneroid barograph.
A second type of aneroid gauge uses the deflection of a flexible membrane that separates regions
of different pressure. The amount of deflection is repeatable for known pressures so the pressure
can be determined by using calibration. The deformation of a thin diaphragm is dependent on the
difference in pressure between its two faces. The reference face can be open to atmosphere to
measure gauge pressure, open to a second port to measure differential pressure, or can be sealed
against a vacuum or other fixed reference pressure to measure absolute pressure. The deformation
can be measured using mechanical, optical or capacitive techniques. Ceramic and metallic
diaphragms are used.
Useful range: above 10-2 Torr (roughly 1 Pa)
For absolute measurements, welded pressure capsules with diaphragms on either side are often
used.
226
Flat
corrugated
flattened tube
capsule
Bellows Gauges
In gauges intended to sense small pressures or pressure differences, or require that an absolute
pressure be measured, the gear train and needle may be driven by an enclosed and sealed bellows
chamber, called an aneroid, which means "without liquid". (Early barometers used a column of
liquid such as water or the liquid metal mercury suspended by a vacuum.) This bellows
configuration is used in aneroid barometers (barometers with an indicating needle and dial card),
altimeters, altitude recording barographs, and the altitude telemetry instruments used in weather
balloon radiosondes. These devices use the sealed chamber as a reference pressure and are driven
by the external pressure. Other sensitive aircraft instruments such as air speed indicators and rate
of climb indicators (variometers) have connections both to the internal part of the aneroid chamber
and to an external enclosing chamber.
**************
227