MobileAdHocNetworks

TutorialatCIT2000
Bhubaneshwar,Dec2023

SridharIyer
IITBombay
http://www.it.iitb.ernet.in.in/~sri
sri@it.iitb.ernet.in

Acknowledgements

Manyfigures,slidesandreferencecitationsaretakenfrom
NitinVaidyasMobiCom2000tutorial
Nitinstutorialisavailableonlineat
http://www.cs.tamu.edu/~vaidya/seminars

Outline
Introduction
MediumAccessControl
Routing(unicast)
ReactiveProtocols
ProactiveProtocols
HybridProtocols

TransportIssues
SummaryandConclusions

WirelessNetworks
Need:Accesscomputingandcommunicationservices,onthemove
InfrastructurebasedNetworks
traditionalcellularsystems(basestationinfrastructure)

WirelessLANs
Infrared(IrDA)orradiolinks(Wavelan)
veryflexiblewithinthereceptionarea;adhocnetworkspossible
lowbandwidthcomparedtowirednetworks(110Mbit/s)

AdhocNetworks
usefulwheninfrastructurenotavailable,impractical,orexpensive
militaryapplications,rescue,homenetworking

CellularWireless
Singlehopwirelessconnectivitytothewiredworld

Spacedividedintocells
Abasestationisresponsibletocommunicatewithhostsinitscell
Mobilehostscanchangecellswhilecommunicating
Handoffoccurswhenamobilehoststartscommunicatingviaa
newbasestation

MultiHopWireless
Mayneedtotraversemultiplelinkstoreachdestination

Mobilitycausesroutechanges

MobileAdHocNetworks(MANET)
Hostmovementfrequent
Topologychangefrequent
A

Nocellularinfrastructure.Multihopwirelesslinks.
Datamustberoutedviaintermediatenodes.

WhyAdHocNetworks?
Settingupoffixedaccesspointsandbackbone
infrastructureisnotalwaysviable
Infrastructuremaynotbepresentinadisasterareaorwarzone
Infrastructuremaynotbepracticalforshortrangeradios;
Bluetooth(range~10m)

Adhocnetworks:
Donotneedbackboneinfrastructuresupport
Areeasytodeploy
Usefulwheninfrastructureisabsent,destroyedorimpractical

ManyApplications
Personalareanetworking
cellphone,laptop,earphone,wristwatch

Militaryenvironments
soldiers,tanks,planes

Civilianenvironments

taxicabnetwork
meetingrooms
sportsstadiums
boats,smallaircraft

Emergencyoperations
searchandrescue
policingandfirefighting

ChallengesinMobileEnvironments
LimitationsoftheWirelessNetwork

packetlossduetotransmissionerrors
variablecapacitylinks
frequentdisconnections/partitions
limitedcommunicationbandwidth
Broadcastnatureofthecommunications

LimitationsImposedbyMobility

dynamicallychangingtopologies/routes
lackofmobilityawarenessbysystem/applications

LimitationsoftheMobileComputer
shortbatterylifetime
limitedcapacities

Effectofmobilityontheprotocolstack
Application
newapplicationsandadaptations

Transport
congestionandflowcontrol

Network
addressingandrouting

Link
mediaaccessandhandoff

Physical
transmissionerrorsandinterference

MediumAccessControlinMANET

Motivation
Canweapplymediaaccessmethodsfromfixednetworks?
ExampleCSMA/CD
CarrierSenseMultipleAccesswithCollisionDetection
sendassoonasthemediumisfree,listenintothemediumifa
collisionoccurs(originalmethodinIEEE802.3)

Mediumaccessproblemsinwirelessnetworks
signalstrengthdecreasesproportionaltothesquareofthedistance
senderwouldapplyCSandCD,butthecollisionshappenatthe
receiver
sendermaynothearthecollision,i.e.,CDdoesnotwork
CSmightnotwork,e.g.ifaterminalishidden

HiddenandExposedTerminals
Hiddenterminals

AsendstoB,CcannotreceiveA
CwantstosendtoB,Csensesafreemedium(CSfails)
collisionatB,Acannotreceivethecollision(CDfails)
AishiddenforC

Exposedterminals

BsendstoA,Cwantstosendtoanotherterminal(notAorB)
Csensescarrier,findsmediuminuseandhastowait
AisoutsidetheradiorangeofC,thereforewaitingisnotnecessary
CisexposedtoB

MultipleAccesswithCollisionAvoidance(MACA)
[Karn90]
MACAusessignalingpacketsforcollisionavoidance
RTS(requesttosend)
senderrequesttherighttosendfromareceiverwithashort
RTSpacketbeforeitsendsadatapacket
CTS(cleartosend)
receivergrantstherighttosendassoonasitisreadytoreceive

Signalingpacketscontain
senderaddress
receiveraddress
packetsize

VariantsofthismethodareusedinIEEE802.11

MACASolutions[Karn90]
MACAavoidstheproblemofhiddenterminals
AandCwantto
sendtoB
AsendsRTSfirst
Cwaitsafterreceiving
CTSfromB

RTS
CTS

CTS

MACAavoidstheproblemofexposedterminals
BwantstosendtoA,C
toanotherterminal
nowCdoesnothave
towait,asitcannot
receiveCTSfromA

RTS
CTS

RTS

MAC:Reliability
Wirelesslinksarepronetoerrors.Highpacketlossrateisdetrimental
totransportlayerperformance.
Solution:Useofacknowledgements
WhennodeBreceivesadatapacketfromnodeA,nodeBsendsan
Acknowledgement(Ack).
IfnodeAfailstoreceiveanAck,itwillretransmitthepacket
Thisapproachadoptedinmanyprotocols[Bharghavan94,IEEE802.11]

IEEE802.11WirelessMAC
DistributedandcentralizedMACcomponents
DistributedCoordinationFunction(DCF)
PointCoordinationFunction(PCF)
DCFsuitableformultihopadhocnetworking

IEEE802.11DCF
UsesRTSCTSexchangetoavoidhiddenterminal
problem
AnynodeoverhearingaCTScannottransmitforthedurationof
thetransfer

UsesACKtoachievereliability
AnynodereceivingtheRTScannottransmitforthe
durationofthetransfer
TopreventcollisionwithACKwhenitarrivesatthesender
WhenBissendingdatatoC,nodeAwillkeepquiet

MAC:CollisionAvoidance
Withhalfduplexradios,collisiondetectionisnotpossible
Collisionavoidance:Oncechannelbecomesidle,thenodewaitsfora
randomlychosendurationbeforeattemptingtotransmit
IEEE802.11DCF
Whentransmittingapacket,chooseabackoffintervalintherange
[0,cw];cwiscontentionwindow
Countdownthebackoffintervalwhenmediumisidle
Countdownissuspendedifmediumbecomesbusy
Whenbackoffintervalreaches0,transmitRTS

TimespentcountingdownbackoffintervalsisapartofMAC
overhead
largecwleadstolargerbackoffintervals
smallcwleadstolargernumberofcollisions

MAC:CongestionControl
IEEE802.11DCF:Congestioncontrolachievedby
dynamicallychoosingthecontentionwindowcw
BinaryExponentialBackoffinDCF:
WhenanodefailstoreceiveCTSinresponsetoitsRTS,it
increasesthecontentionwindow
cwisdoubled(uptoanupperbound)
Whenanodesuccessfullycompletesadatatransfer,itrestorescw
toCWmin

MAC:EnergyConservation
Proposalstypicallysuggestturningtheradiooffwhennot
needed
PowerSavingModeinIEEE802.11(InfrastructureMode)
AnAccessPointperiodicallytransmitsabeaconindicatingwhich
nodeshavepacketswaitingforthem
Eachpowersaving(PS)nodewakesupperiodicallytoreceivethe
beacon
Ifanodehasapacketwaiting,thenitsendsaPSPoll
Afterwaitingforabackoffintervalin[0,CWmin]
AccessPointsendsthedatainresponsetoPSpoll

MACProtocols:Summary
Wirelessmediumispronetohiddenandexposedterminal
problems
ProtocolsaretypicallybasedonCSMA/CA
RTS/CTSbasedsignaling
Acksforreliability
Contentionwindowisusedforcongestioncontrol
IEEE802.11wirelessLANstandard
Fairnessissuesarestillunclear

RoutingProtocols

TraditionalRouting
Aroutingprotocolsetsuparoutingtableinrouters

Anodemakesalocalchoicedependingonglobal
topology

Distancevector&LinkstateRouting
Bothassumerouterknows
addressofeachneighbor
costofreachingeachneighbor

Bothallowaroutertodetermineglobalrouting
informationbytalkingtoitsneighbors
Distancevectorrouterknowscosttoeachdestination
Linkstaterouterknowsentirenetworktopologyand
computesshortestpath

DistanceVectorRouting:Example

LinkStateRouting:Example

RoutingandMobility
Findingapathfromasourcetoadestination
Issues
Frequentroutechanges
amountofdatatransferredbetweenroutechangesmaybe
muchsmallerthantraditionalnetworks
Routechangesmayberelatedtohostmovement
Lowbandwidthlinks
Goalofroutingprotocols
decreaseroutingrelatedoverhead
findshortroutes
findstableroutes(despitemobility)

MobileIP

MH

Home
agent
Router
1

Router
2

Router
3

MobileIP
move
Router
3

MH

Foreignagent
Homeagent
Router
1

Router
2

Packetsaretunneled
usingIPinIP

RoutinginMANET

UnicastRoutingProtocols
Manyprotocolshavebeenproposed
SomespecificallyinventedforMANET
Othersadaptedfromprotocolsforwirednetworks
Nosingleprotocolworkswellinallenvironments
someattemptsmadetodevelopadaptive/hybridprotocols

StandardizationeffortsinIETF
MANET,MobileIPworkinggroups
http://www.ietf.org

RoutingProtocols
Proactiveprotocols

Traditionaldistributedshortestpathprotocols
Maintainroutesbetweeneveryhostpairatalltimes
Basedonperiodicupdates;Highroutingoverhead
Example:DSDV(destinationsequenceddistancevector)

Reactiveprotocols
Determinerouteifandwhenneeded
Sourceinitiatesroutediscovery
Example:DSR(dynamicsourcerouting)

Hybridprotocols
Adaptive;Combinationofproactiveandreactive
Example:ZRP(zoneroutingprotocol)

ProtocolTradeoffs
Proactiveprotocols

Alwaysmaintainroutes
Littleornodelayforroutedetermination
Consumebandwidthtokeeproutesuptodate
Maintainrouteswhichmayneverbeused

Reactiveprotocols

Loweroverheadsinceroutesaredeterminedondemand
Significantdelayinroutedetermination
Employflooding(globalsearch)
Controltrafficmaybebursty

Whichapproachachievesabettertradeoffdependsonthetrafficand
mobilitypatterns

ReactiveRoutingProtocols

DynamicSourceRouting(DSR)[Johnson96]

WhennodeSwantstosendapackettonodeD,butdoes
notknowaroutetoD,nodeSinitiatesaroutediscovery
SourcenodeSfloodsRouteRequest(RREQ)
EachnodeappendsownidentifierwhenforwardingRREQ

RouteDiscoveryinDSR
Y
Z
S
B
A

E
F

D
N

RepresentsanodethathasreceivedRREQforDfromS

RouteDiscoveryinDSR
Y

Broadcasttransmission
[S]
S
B
A

Z
E
F

H
I

D
N

RepresentstransmissionofRREQ

[X,Y]RepresentslistofidentifiersappendedtoRREQ

RouteDiscoveryinDSR
Y

S
B
A

[S,E]

C
H

[S,C]

G
K

D
N

NodeHreceivespacketRREQfromtwoneighbors:
potentialforcollision

RouteDiscoveryinDSR
Y
Z
S
B
A

E
F

[S,E,F]

H
I

[S,C,G] K

D
N

NodeCreceivesRREQfromGandH,butdoesnotforward
itagain,becausenodeChasalreadyforwardedRREQonce

RouteDiscoveryinDSR
Y
Z
S
B
A

E
[S,E,F,J]

H
I

D
[S,C,G,K]

NodesJandKbothbroadcastRREQtonodeD
SincenodesJandKarehiddenfromeachother,their
transmissionsmaycollide

RouteDiscoveryinDSR
Y
Z
S
B
A

E
F

C
H

G
K

[S,E,F,J,M]

NodeDdoesnotforwardRREQ,becausenodeD
istheintendedtargetoftheroutediscovery

RouteDiscoveryinDSR

DestinationDonreceivingthefirstRREQ,sendsaRoute
Reply(RREP)
RREPissentonarouteobtainedbyreversingtheroute
appendedtoreceivedRREQ
RREPincludestheroutefromStoDonwhichRREQwas
receivedbynodeD

RouteReplyinDSR
Y

S
B
A

RREP[S,E,F,J,D]

C
H

RepresentsRREPcontrolmessage

G
I

D
N

DynamicSourceRouting(DSR)
NodeSonreceivingRREP,cachestherouteincludedin
theRREP
WhennodeSsendsadatapackettoD,theentirerouteis
includedinthepacketheader
hencethenamesourcerouting

Intermediatenodesusethesourcerouteincludedina
packettodeterminetowhomapacketshouldbeforwarded

DataDeliveryinDSR
Y
DATA[S,E,F,J,D]
S
B
A

E
F

C
H

Packetheadersizegrowswithroutelength

G
I

D
N

DSROptimization:RouteCaching
Eachnodecachesanewrouteitlearnsbyanymeans
WhennodeSfindsroute[S,E,F,J,D]tonodeD,nodeS
alsolearnsroute[S,E,F]tonodeF
WhennodeKreceivesRouteRequest[S,C,G]destinedfor
node,nodeKlearnsroute[K,G,C,S]tonodeS
WhennodeFforwardsRouteReplyRREP[S,E,F,J,D],
nodeFlearnsroute[F,J,D]tonodeD
WhennodeEforwardsData[S,E,F,J,D]itlearnsroute
[E,F,J,D]tonodeD
AnodemayalsolearnaroutewhenitoverhearsData
Problem:Stalecachesmayincreaseoverheads

DynamicSourceRouting:Advantages

Routesmaintainedonlybetweennodeswhoneedto
communicate
reducesoverheadofroutemaintenance

Routecachingcanfurtherreduceroutediscoveryoverhead
Asingleroutediscoverymayyieldmanyroutestothe
destination,duetointermediatenodesreplyingfromlocal
caches

DynamicSourceRouting:Disadvantages
Packetheadersizegrowswithroutelengthduetosource
routing
Floodofrouterequestsmaypotentiallyreachallnodesin
thenetwork
Potentialcollisionsbetweenrouterequestspropagatedby
neighboringnodes
insertionofrandomdelaysbeforeforwardingRREQ

Increasedcontentioniftoomanyrouterepliescomeback
duetonodesreplyingusingtheirlocalcache
RouteReplyStormproblem

Stalecacheswillleadtoincreasedoverhead

LocationAidedRouting(LAR)[Ko98Mobicom]
Exploitslocationinformationtolimitscopeofroute
requestflood
LocationinformationmaybeobtainedusingGPS

ExpectedZoneisdeterminedasaregionthatisexpectedto
holdthecurrentlocationofthedestination
Expectedregiondeterminedbasedonpotentiallyoldlocation
information,andknowledgeofthedestinationsspeed

RouterequestslimitedtoaRequestZonethatcontainsthe
ExpectedZoneandlocationofthesendernode

RequestZone
DefineaRequestZone
LARissameasflooding,exceptthatonlynodesinrequest
zoneforwardrouterequest
SmallestrectangleincludingSandexpectedzoneforD
RequestZone

D
ExpectedZone

x
S

LocationAidedRouting(LAR)

Advantages
reducesthescopeofrouterequestflood
reducesoverheadofroutediscovery

Disadvantages
Nodesneedtoknowtheirphysicallocations
Doesnottakeintoaccountpossibleexistenceofobstructionsfor
radiotransmissions

AdHocOnDemandDistanceVectorRouting
(AODV)[Perkins99Wmcsa]
DSRincludessourceroutesinpacketheaders
Resultinglargeheaderscansometimesdegrade
performance
particularlywhendatacontentsofapacketaresmall

AODVattemptstoimproveonDSRbymaintaining
routingtablesatthenodes,sothatdatapacketsdonothave
tocontainroutes
AODVretainsthedesirablefeatureofDSRthatroutesare
maintainedonlybetweennodeswhichneedto
communicate

AODV
RouteRequests(RREQ)areforwardedinamannersimilar
toDSR
WhenanoderebroadcastsaRouteRequest,itsetsupa
reversepathpointingtowardsthesource
AODVassumessymmetric(bidirectional)links

WhentheintendeddestinationreceivesaRouteRequest,it
repliesbysendingaRouteReply(RREP)
RouteReplytravelsalongthereversepathsetupwhen
RouteRequestisforwarded

RouteRequestsinAODV
Y
Z
S
B
A

E
F

D
N

RepresentsanodethathasreceivedRREQforDfromS

RouteRequestsinAODV
Y

Broadcasttransmission
Z
S
B
A

E
F

RepresentstransmissionofRREQ

D
N

RouteRequestsinAODV
Y
Z
S
B
A

E
F

M
D

RepresentslinksonReversePath

ReversePathSetupinAODV
Y
Z
S
B
A

E
F

D
N

NodeCreceivesRREQfromGandH,butdoesnotforward
itagain,becausenodeChasalreadyforwardedRREQonce

ReversePathSetupinAODV
Y
Z
S
B
A

E
F

D
N

ReversePathSetupinAODV
Y
Z
S
B
A

E
F

M
D

NodeDdoesnotforwardRREQ,becausenodeD
istheintendedtargetoftheRREQ

ForwardPathSetupinAODV
Y
Z
S
B
A

E
F

H
I

D
N

ForwardlinksaresetupwhenRREPtravelsalong
thereversepath

Representsalinkontheforwardpath

RouteRequestandRouteReply
RouteRequest(RREQ)includesthelastknownsequencenumberfor
thedestination
AnintermediatenodemayalsosendaRouteReply(RREP)provided
thatitknowsamorerecentpaththantheonepreviouslyknownto
sender
IntermediatenodesthatforwardtheRREP,alsorecordthenexthopto
destination
Aroutingtableentrymaintainingareversepathispurgedaftera
timeoutinterval
Aroutingtableentrymaintainingaforwardpathispurgedifnotused
foraactive_route_timeoutinterval

LinkFailure
AneighborofnodeXisconsideredactiveforaroutingtableentryif
theneighborsentapacketwithinactive_route_timeoutintervalwhich
wasforwardedusingthatentry
Neighboringnodesperiodicallyexchangehellomessage
Whenthenexthoplinkinaroutingtableentrybreaks,allactive
neighborsareinformed
LinkfailuresarepropagatedbymeansofRouteError(RERR)
messages,whichalsoupdatedestinationsequencenumbers

RouteError
WhennodeXisunabletoforwardpacketP(fromnodeStonodeD)
onlink(X,Y),itgeneratesaRERRmessage
NodeXincrementsthedestinationsequencenumberforDcachedat
nodeX
TheincrementedsequencenumberNisincludedintheRERR
WhennodeSreceivestheRERR,itinitiatesanewroutediscoveryfor
DusingdestinationsequencenumberatleastaslargeasN
WhennodeDreceivestherouterequestwithdestinationsequence
numberN,nodeDwillsetitssequencenumbertoN,unlessitis
alreadylargerthanN

AODV:Summary
Routesneednotbeincludedinpacketheaders
Nodesmaintainroutingtablescontainingentriesonlyfor
routesthatareinactiveuse
Atmostonenexthopperdestinationmaintainedateach
node
DSRmaymaintainseveralroutesforasingledestination

Sequencenumbersareusedtoavoidold/brokenroutes
Sequencenumberspreventformationofroutingloops
Unusedroutesexpireeveniftopologydoesnotchange

OtherProtocols
Manyvariationsofusingcontrolpacketfloodingforroutediscovery
PowerAwareRouting[Singh98Mobicom]
Assignaweighttoeachlink:functionofenergyconsumedwhen
transmittingapacketonthatlink,aswellastheresidualenergylevel
ModifyDSRtoincorporateweightsandpreferaroutewiththesmallest
aggregateweight

AssociativityBasedRouting(ABR)[Toh97]
Onlylinksthathavebeenstableforsomeminimumdurationareutilized
Nodesincrementtheassociativityticksofneighborsbyusingperiodic
beacons

SignalStabilityBasedAdaptiveRouting(SSA)[Dube97]

AnodeXrebroadcastsaRouteRequestreceivedfromYonlyifthe
(X,Y)linkhasastrongsignalstability
Signalstabilityisevaluatedasamovingaverageofthesignalstrengthof
packetsreceivedonthelinkinrecentpast

SignalStabilityRouting(SSA)

SignalStabilityRouting(SSA)

LinkReversalAlgorithm[Gafni81]

LinkReversalAlgorithm

Linksarebidirectional
Butalgorithmimposes
logicaldirectionsonthem

Maintainadirectedacyclic
graph(DAG)foreach
destination,withthedestination
beingtheonlysink
ThisDAGisfordestination
nodeD

LinkReversalAlgorithm

G
Link(G,D)broke

D
Anynode,otherthanthedestination,thathasnooutgoinglinks
reversesallitsincominglinks.
NodeGhasnooutgoinglinks

LinkReversalAlgorithm

D
NownodesEandFhavenooutgoinglinks

Representsa
linkthatwas
reversedrecently

LinkReversalAlgorithm

D
NownodesBandGhavenooutgoinglinks

Representsa
linkthatwas
reversedrecently

LinkReversalAlgorithm

D
NownodesAandFhavenooutgoinglinks

Representsa
linkthatwas
reversedrecently

LinkReversalAlgorithm

Representsa
linkthatwas
reversedrecently

D
Nowallnodes(otherthandestinationD)haveanoutgoinglink

LinkReversalAlgorithm

D
DAGhasbeenrestoredwithonlythedestinationasasink

LinkReversalAlgorithm

Attemptstokeeplinkreversalslocaltowherethefailure
occurred
Butthisisnotguaranteed

Whenthefirstpacketissenttoadestination,the
destinationorientedDAGisconstructed
Theinitialconstructiondoesresultinfloodingofcontrol
packets

LinkReversalAlgorithm
Thepreviousalgorithmiscalledafullreversalmethod
sincewhenanodereverseslinks,itreversesallits
incominglinks
Partialreversalmethod[Gafni81]:Anodereverses
incominglinksfromonlythoseneighborswhohavenot
themselvesreversedlinkspreviously
Ifallneighborshavereversedlinks,thenthenodereversesallits
incominglinks
PreviouslyatnodeXmeanssincethelastlinkreversaldoneby
nodeX

LinkReversalMethods
Advantages
Linkreversalmethodsattempttolimitupdatestoroutingtablesat
nodesinthevicinityofabrokenlink
Partialreversalmethodtendstobebetterthanfullreversal
method
Eachnodemaypotentiallyhavemultipleroutestoadestination

Disadvantages
Needamechanismtodetectlinkfailure
hellomessagesmaybeused
Ifnetworkispartitioned,linkreversalscontinueindefinitely

TemporallyOrderedRoutingAlgorithm
(TORA)[Park97Infocom]
Routeoptimalityisconsideredofsecondaryimportance;longerroutes
maybeused
Ateachnode,alogicallyseparatecopyofTORAisrunforeach
destination,thatcomputestheheightofthenodewithrespecttothe
destination
Heightcapturesnumberofhopsandnexthop
Routediscoveryisbyusingqueryandupdatepackets
TORAmodifiesthepartiallinkreversalmethodtobeabletodetect
partitions
Whenapartitionisdetected,allnodesinthepartitionareinformed,
andlinkreversalsinthatpartitioncease

AsymmetricAlgorithms
ClusterheadGatewaySwitchRouting(CGSR)
Allnodeswithinaclustercommunicatewithaclusterhead
Routingusesahierarchicalclusterheadtogatewayapproach

CoreExtractionDistributedAdHocRouting(CEDAR)
[Sivakumar99]
Asubsetofnodesinthenetworkisidentifiedasthecore
Eachnodeinthenetworkmustbeadjacenttoatleastonenodein
thecore
Eachcorenodedeterminespathstonearbycorenodesbymeans
ofalocalizedbroadcast

CGSR

CEDAR
A
G
H

D
F

NodeEisthedominator
fornodesD,FandK

Acorenode

ProactiveRoutingProtocols

DestinationSequencedDistanceVector(DSDV)
[Perkins94Sigcomm]
Eachnodemaintainsaroutingtablewhichstores
nexthop,costmetrictowardseachdestination
asequencenumberthatiscreatedbythedestinationitself

Eachnodeperiodicallyforwardsroutingtabletoneighbors
Eachnodeincrementsandappendsitssequencenumberwhensendingits
localroutingtable

Eachrouteistaggedwithasequencenumber;routeswithgreater
sequencenumbersarepreferred
Eachnodeadvertisesamonotonicallyincreasingevensequence
numberforitself
Whenanodedecidesthatarouteisbroken,itincrementsthesequence
numberoftherouteandadvertisesitwithinfinitemetric
Destinationadvertisesnewsequencenumber

DestinationSequencedDistanceVector(DSDV)
WhenXreceivesinformationfromYaboutaroutetoZ
LetdestinationsequencenumberforZatXbeS(X),S(Y)issent
fromY
Z
X
Y

IfS(X)>S(Y),thenXignorestheroutinginformationreceived
fromY
IfS(X)=S(Y),andcostofgoingthroughYissmallerthanthe
routeknowntoX,thenXsetsYasthenexthoptoZ
IfS(X)<S(Y),thenXsetsYasthenexthoptoZ,andS(X)is
updatedtoequalS(Y)

OptimizedLinkStateRouting(OLSR)
[Jacquet00ietf]
NodesCandEaremultipointrelaysofnodeA
MultipointrelaysofAareitsneighborssuchthateachtwohop
neighborofAisaonehopneighborofonemultipointrelayofA
Nodesexchangeneighborliststoknowtheir2hopneighborsand
choosethemultipointrelays
F

J
E

NodethathasbroadcaststateinformationfromA

OptimizedLinkStateRouting(OLSR)
NodesCandEforwardinformationreceivedfromA
NodesEandKaremultipointrelaysfornodeH
NodeKforwardsinformationreceivedfromH
F

J
E

NodethathasbroadcaststateinformationfromA

HybridRoutingProtocols

ZoneRoutingProtocol(ZRP)[Haas98]
ZRPcombinesproactiveandreactiveapproaches
AllnodeswithinhopdistanceatmostdfromanodeXare
saidtobeintheroutingzoneofnodeX
Allnodesathopdistanceexactlydaresaidtobe
peripheralnodesofnodeXsroutingzone
Intrazonerouting:Proactivelymaintainroutestoallnodes
withinthesourcenodesownzone.
Interzonerouting:Useanondemandprotocol(similarto
DSRorAODV)todetermineroutestooutsidezone.

ZoneRoutingProtocol(ZRP)

Radiusofroutingzone=2

RoutingSummary
Protocols
Typicallydividedintoproactive,reactiveandhybrid
Plentyofroutingprotocols.Discussionhereisfarfromexhaustive

PerformanceStudies
Typicallystudiedbysimulationsusingns,discreteeventsimulator
Nodes(1030)remainsstationaryforpausetimeseconds(0900s)and
thenmovetoarandomdestination(1500mX300mspace)atauniform
speed(020m/s).CBRtrafficsources(430packets/sec,641024
bytes/packet)
Attempttoestimatelatencyofroutediscovery,routingoverhead

Actualtradeoffdependsalotontrafficandmobilitypatterns
Highertrafficdiversity(moresourcedestinationpairs)increasesoverhead
inondemandprotocols
Highermobilitywillalwaysincreaseoverheadinallprotocols

TransportinMANET

UserDatagramProtocol(UDP)
StudiescomparingdifferentroutingprotocolsforMANETtypically
measureUDPperformance
Severalperformancemetricsareused
routingoverheadperdatapacket
packetdeliverydelay
throughput/loss

Manyvariablesaffectperformance
Trafficcharacteristics
Mobilitycharacteristics
Nodecapabilities

Difficulttoidentifyasingleschemethatwillperformwellinall
environments
Severalrelevantstudies[Broch98Mobicom,Das9ic3n,
Johansson99Mobicom,Das00Infocom,Jacquet00Inria]

TransmissionControlProtocol(TCP)
Reliableordereddelivery
Reliabilityachievedbymeansofretransmissionsifnecessary

Endtoendsemantics
Receiversendscumulativeacknowledgementsforinsequencepackets
Receiversendsduplicateacknowledgementsforoutofsequencepackets

Implementscongestionavoidanceandcontrolusingslidingwindow
Windowsizeisminimumof
receiversadvertisedwindowdeterminedbyavailablebufferspaceat
thereceiver
congestionwindowdeterminedbythesender,basedonfeedbackfrom
thenetwork
Congestionwindowsizeboundstheamountofdatathatcanbesentper
roundtriptime

DetectionofpacketlossinTCP
Retransmissiontimeout(RTO)
sendersetsretransmissiontimerforonlyonepacket
ifAcknotreceivedbeforetimerexpiry,thepacketisassumedlost
RTOdynamicallycalculated,doublesoneachtimeout

Duplicateacks
senderassumespacketlossifitreceivesthreeconsecutive
duplicateacknowledgements(dupacks)

Ondetectingapacketloss,TCPsenderassumesthat
networkcongestionhasoccurredanddrasticallyreduces
thecongestionwindow

TCPinMANET
SeveralfactorsaffectTCPperformanceinMANET:
Wirelesstransmissionerrors
maycausefastretransmit,whichresultsin
retransmissionoflostpacket
reductionincongestionwindow
reducingcongestionwindowinresponsetoerrorsisunnecessary

Multihoproutesonsharedwirelessmedium
Longerconnectionsareatadisadvantagecomparedtoshorter
connections,becausetheyhavetocontendforwirelessaccessat
eachhop

Routefailuresduetomobility

ImpactofMultihopWirelessPaths
TCPthroughputdegradeswithincreaseinnumberofhops

Packettransmissioncanoccuronatmostonehopamong
threeconsecutivehops
Increasingthenumberofhopsfrom1to2,3resultsinincreased
delay,anddecreasedthroughput

Increasingnumberofhopsbeyond3allowssimultaneous
transmissionsonmorethanonelink,however,degradation
continuesduetocontentionbetweenTCPDataandAcks
travelinginoppositedirections
Whennumberofhopsislargeenough(>6),throughput
stabilizes[Holland99]

ImpactofNodeMobility
TCPthroughputdegradeswithincreaseinmobilitybutnotalways
mobilitycauses
linkbreakage,
resultinginroute
failure

Routeis
repaired

TCPsendertimesout.
Startssendingpacketsagain

No
throughput
Nothroughput
despiterouterepair

TCPdataandacks
enroutediscarded

Largerrouterepair
delaysareespecially
harmful

ImprovedThroughputwithIncreasedMobility
C
B

B
A

C
B

D
A

Lowspeed:(RoutefromAtoDisbrokenfor~1.5seconds)
WhenTCPsendertimesafter1second,routestillbroken.
TCPtimesoutafteranother2seconds,andonlythenresumes
Highspeed:(RoutefromAtoDisbrokenfor~0.75seconds)
WhenTCPsendertimesoutafter1second,routeisrepaired
TCPtimeoutintervalsomewhat(notentirely)independentofspeed
Networkstateathigherspeedmaysometimesbemorefavorablethanlower

speed

ImpactofRouteCaching
TCPperformancetypicallydegradeswhencachesareusedforroute
repair
Whenarouteisbroken,routediscoveryreturnsacachedroutefrom
localcacheorfromanearbynode
Afteratimeout,TCPsendertransmitsapacketonthenewroute.
However,typicallythecachedroutehasalsobrokenafteritwas
cached
timeoutdue
toroutefailure

timeout,cached timeout,secondcached
routeisbroken
routealsobroken

Anotherroutediscovery,andTCPtimeoutinterval
Processrepeatsuntilagoodrouteisfound

CachingandTCPperformance
Cachingcanresultinfasterrouterepair
Fasterdoesnotnecessarilymeancorrect
Ifincorrectrepairsoccuroftenenough,cachingperformspoorly

Ifcacheaccuracyisnothighenough,gainsinrouting
overheadmaybeoffsetbylossofTCPperformancedueto
multipletimeouts
Needmechanismsfordeterminingwhencachedroutesare
stale

ImpactofAcknowledgements
TCPAcks(andlinklayeracks)sharethewirelessbandwidthwith
TCPdatapackets
DataandAckstravelinoppositedirections
Inadditiontobandwidthusage,acksrequireadditionalreceivesend
turnarounds,whichalsoincurtimepenalty

Reductionofcontentionbetweendataandacks,andfrequencyof
sendreceiveturnaround
Mitigation[Balakrishnan97]
Piggybackinglinklayerackswithdata
SendingfewerTCPacksackeverydthpacket(dmaybechosen
dynamically)
AckfilteringGatewaymaydropanolderackinthequeue,ifanewack
arrives

TCPParametersafterRouteRepair
WindowSizeafterrouterepair

Sameasbeforeroutebreak:maybetoooptimistic
Sameasstartup:maybetooconservative
Betterbeconservativethanoverlyoptimistic
Resetwindowtosmallvalue;letTCPlearnthewindowsize

RetransmissionTimeout(RTO)afterrouterepair
Sameasbeforeroutebreak:maybetoosmallforlongroutes
SameasTCPstartup:maybetoolargeandrespondslowlyto
packetloss
newRTOcouldbemadeafunctionofoldRTOandroutelengths

ImprovingTCPThroughput
Networkfeedback
Networkknowsbest(whypacketsarelost)
Needtomodifytransport&networklayertoreceive/sendfeedback
Needmechanismsforinformationexchangebetweenlayers

InformTCPofroutefailurebyexplicitmessage
LetTCPknowwhenrouteisrepaired
Probing
Explicitnotification
Betterroutecachingmechanisms

ReducesrepeatedTCPtimeoutsandbackoff

InConclusion
Issuesotherthanroutinghavereceivedmuchlessattention
Otherinterestingproblems:

ApplicationsforMANET
Addressassignment
QoSissues
Improvinginteractionbetweenprotocollayers