SOLAR ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES

TYPES OF SOLAR RADIATION

Direct / Beam radiation

Diffuse radiation
Global / Total solar radiation = Direct + Diffuse
Ground Reflected radiation

Solar Constant
Extraterrestrial radiation (G )
0n

Solar Constant (G )
sc

The amount of energy received from the sun per unit time, over
one unit area perpendicular to the direction of propagation, at
earths mean distance from sun, outside the atmosphere
2

1367 W/m
G = G (1 + 0.033 cos (360 * n / 365))
0n

sc

n is the day number

 Tilt of the earth causes the movement of sun of 23.45 degree

above and below Equator
Seasons are caused by the tilt of the Earth's axis of rotation

Northern hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun and

experiences summer

Six months later, when the Earth is on the opposite side of the
Sun, the northern hemisphere is tilted away from the Sun and
experiences winter

Tilt, orbital rotation, daily revolution accounts for the

distribution of solar radiation on earths surface and its
change in day length
SOLSTICE
Dates on which Earth's axis is most directly tilted either toward or
away from the Sun (21 June, 21 December)

EQUINOX
Days on which day and night are of equal duration (20 March, 22
September)

LONGITUDE/ MERIDIAN: The longitude angle can be defined as the

angle between the prime meridian and the meridian passing through
the location.
LATITUDE () defined as the angular distance of a point (on the
surface of the earth) from the equator

SOLAR TIME is based on the apparent angular motion of the sun across
the sky. Solar noon is the time the sun crosses the local meridian of the
observer. At solar noon, the sun will be at zenith of the observer. This
is used in all solar energy calculations. This does not coincide with the
local clock time.

WATCH TIME is based on the longitude and depends on standard

meridian of that country. The earth makes a complete rotation on its
axis once in 24 hours, thereby moving across 360 longitude
Equation of Time (EoT):
As the earth moves around the sun, solar time changes slightly with
respect to local standard time. This time difference is called the
Equation of Time (EoT)
EoT = 9.87 sin 2B - 7.53 Cos B - 1.5 Sin B
= 360 (n-81)/364 (in degrees)
o B
o n = day number
For India (east of Greenwich),
Solar time = Watch Time - 4 (Lst - Llo) + EoT
(in minutes)
For America (west of Greenwich),
Solar time = Watch Time + 4 (Lst - Llo) + EoT
(in minutes)
Where Lst is the standard longitude and Llo is the local longitude

NOTE:

First longitude & latitude

EXAMPLE: 1
Calculate solar time on Feb. 2, 10.30 a.m. at 79.133E, 12.933N
HINT:
Solar time = Watch Time - 4 (Lst - Llo) + EoT
n = 33 (on Feb. 2)
EoT = -13.5 min.
Solar time = 10.30 - 4(82.5-79.133) - 13.5
= 10h 03
Hour Angle (
)
Angular displacement of the sun east or west of the local meridian due
to the rotation of earth on its axis (15 degrees per hour)

Considered as ve in the morning and +ve in the afternoon

At solar noon, = 0.
= 15 (solar time - 12)

(in degrees)

Declination (
)
Angular displacement of the sun at solar noon w.r.t. the plane of
equator
When the sun is directly overhead at any location during solar
noon, the latitude of that location gives the declination
Daily variation in Declination ()
= 23.45 sin [360 (284 + n)/365] (in degrees)
Zenith angle (
z) The angle subtended by a vertical line to the zenith
and the line of sight to the sun

Solar Azimuth angle(s) Angular displacement from south of the

projection of the beam radiation on the horizontal plane
east -ve
west +ve

Surface Azimuth Angle () Angle measured on the horizontal plane

from due south to the horizontal projection of the normal to the
surface
east -ve
west +ve

Slope / Tilt angle () Angle the surface makes with the horizontal
plane

Day length (N)

Time between sunrise and sunset
At sunrise and at sunset, the zenith angle = 90
corresponding hour angles are denoted as sunrise hour angle
( ) and sunset hour angle ( ) or simply (if symmetry)
sr

ss

INCIDENCE ANGLE () Angle between the suns direct rays and the
normal to any surface

-1

Air Mass (m)

m = (Cos )
z

Ratio of the optical thickness of the atmosphere through which

beam radiation passes to the optical thickness if the sun were at the
zenith
AM0, AM1, AM2

Cos
=

Sin
Sin
Cos

- Sin
Cos
Sin
Cos
+ Cos
Cos
Cos
Cos

+ Cos
Sin
Sin
Cos Cos

+ Cos
Sin
Sin Sin

For horizontal surfaces, the tilt angle is zero.

Therefore, the incidence angle is given by zenith angle,
Cos = Cos = Sin Sin + Cos Cos Cos
z

For vertical surfaces, the tilt angle is 90.

Cos = -Sin Cos Cos
+ Cos Sin Cos Cos
+ Cos Sin Sin

PERFORMANCE
First figure of merit, F1
Depicts optical efficiency
F1 is the ratio of optical efficiency to heat loss factor
Evaluated by a stagnation test without load
Second figure of merit, F2
Indicates heat-exchange efficiency factor and involves heating
of a full load of water

Only cookers with good optical transmission of glass covers

and a low overall heat loss factor will have a high value for the
first figure of merit (F1)
Good heat transfer to the vessel and its contents will be
ensured by the second figure of merit, F2

SCHEFFLER CONCENTRATORS