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modus ponens :

p q, p
q

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1.1 :
(i)

5 > 3, 10 > 6,

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

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. 2.

2 > 3, 4 > 6,
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.
.

3 = 3 2 = 2, 6 = 6,
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4 > 2, 4 > 2,
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1,
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5 > 8, 5 . .
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1
1
0
0

q
1
0
1
0

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1
0
1
1


p q p
q p q , p q .
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. , p q :
p
1
1
0
0

q
1
0
1
0

p
0
0
1
1

pq
1
0
1
1

. , .

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. p q, , p q , , , p q .
, :
, :
,
.
:
p, q

, p q

( [3] [11]), :
p q p q
. p q ,
:
q
pq
p q
pq
1 1
0
0
1
1 0
1
1
0
0 1
0
0
1
0 0
1
0
1

( [10]).

 ,
: p q p q . :
p q p q ( De Morgan).
p q p q.
( p q p q p q ).
p(x) q(x)
:
x p(x) , q(x) .
p(x) q(x)
3 (x )[ p ( x ) q ( x)] .
p(x) q(x) ,
A = {x / p( x) }

B = {x / q ( x) },

. , :
( IR)[ 2 1],
([4])
= IR {0, 1} = IR {1}.
. , Boole
. 4.

pq

pq

A +. B

pq
p _ q

pq

:
A B A c B = (1)
(x )[ p ( x ) q ( x)]
(1) Ac B = ,

. .
4
,
(. [1]).

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pq pq
.
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1.2 : :
= , 2 = 2
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:
( IR)( IR)[ = 2 = 2 ],
, 1.
|| p || p, 5:

( ( , ) IR )[ =
2

2 = 2

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|| = 2 = 2 || = 1 .

, 0 0 , :
0 = 0 02 = 02
.
. ,
= 2 = 2
= 2 = 2
= 2 = 3 .
, , , .

( [6]).
:
( p q ) (( p q ) (r r ))
. 6 . :
p q 7 ( p q ) (r r ) .
5

,
.
6
p : p ( p ( r r )).
7

( p q ) ( r r ).

, p q,
( p q ) (r r ). , r r ()
, p q () ,
, p q , . ,
p q p q . p q .

(
[7]).

:
B A (x)[ x B x A] .
.

= , (x )[ x x A]
, x x .
,
.

2.
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)
( ).
, ( ) , ( )
. ( [3], [7] [8]).

.
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2.1 : :
100 , 10 . .
:
10 ,
8 . A,
, 10 ,
. . 100
, , 8

a posteriori , .

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3.

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> , + > +
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,
,
.
( [9]), , .
, .. . , :

f ( x) = x 2 + 4 x 3
Rolle [0, 3] f(0) f(3),
f (2) = 0.
, 9,
. ,
. , 9

 . ,
, () .

[1] . . . : . .... (2010).

[2] . : .
1985.
[3] . . . .
.: . .
.... (1999).
[4] . . . .
.: . .... (2010).
[5] : . 2003.
[6] . : , 1:
. 1999.
[7] . - . - .:
. 2006.
[8] : . .
1991.
[9] : .
... . 73 (2010).
[10] : . . (1980).
[11] :
. ... . 72 (2010).