THE
INTERNATIONAL
STYLErrary matt fan hie
wm a carly eed
eloped in Germany, Haid wt
and spread throughout the ward, extending fF
England o Rusia, and beyand lard
land to
the Un
The Iden of Style
Tiger ey rernen soak warteadte
jon on eden oft sporting seen fir a wee
‘rong oft bg deo in he nth rt, ate
tin edegering ths of th rere othe cli
pectin th that he prince fe ye lpr
‘av ples nd ser f te fae nl eld wii ad ih
Iie Flag nthe rx of Ge RonanAl spit of ier mati «etm ming fi
Sm Rach A 18
leo the ight century he hata
recur atenpt to aciee ad inne callag og
achtccurr achat xsd nthe eae pa ep Te
we chi thw tems were he Cael Reale
Melicval Revival. Out fh compromises Bete tee
‘posing schon the difelis omen ce
revivals withthe ew ne and he ee mateo ees
on ofthe day grew the lite cen the Lat ad
The nite century fled o eat a ae aime
cause it sublet achieves ener dln ate
ad af design the ter the day. Te rere sao
but decorative pment ache me hn ee
les according to which ied apo Othe wa ee
Selopment of ening in biting went mpc oe
Ciclo Maiev weiter ms hich ere reed
fv te pat. Ths the chan of elem saved tee
sey ideal ye had ame inh exit ee don
site eh ed be nincrh adhe began
nthe nineteenth cette ws leap ot oe yea
[pple ante ee sen he Tender
atic reval oh fit mors an dea acs
tthe “le bt it ot rena helpline
‘2 psy af chic nen ane eta concen et
den ad aa I tir econ agit eis se
‘me sot rate espera grat way a oe pie
Therm, the whole, add to the confusion of continuing,
clic, although the new work posts «general italy
hich the ater realists had quite lst. The revolt rum sti
scipline extreme individualism at the begining the te
‘ih conay was juste athe maret iu from a impaneof
ination and seit. The individuals decried eubmission to
‘ued esthetic principles athe impeston of «dead and ups
he ving material of architecture, bling op the failure of the
revival prof that the very ide of ye mas an nbealhy
isin
Tada the ste issue of reviving the wl of the distant past
is no longer ane of serious coserence Bu the pela ad
ica inition and molifcaton of the atl of the pat which
clei inherit from the enlier Clsieal and Medieval
Revival, hav nt een easily frgtten. The influence ofthe
st sil mos to be feared isha of he nvetoenth entry with
ltschegpeningf the very ido oft, Modem architecture bas
tuthing ut the healthiest lesen to lear fm the at ofthe fu
Sherpa that abe studied scentielly and non asp
imitation. Now that itis possible to emulate the great syle ofthe
Past nthe essence without imitating thei sree, the problem
Atestablishng one dominant stl, which he nineteeth century
‘eiulf interme falteratve revival coming oa ation
Theisen ofstye which began to deneate when he evn,
deste the dcipines ofthe Buogue, has hecine tala
fei again Tada a sngle ne syle has came itn existence
‘he esthitic conceptions on which it dineiplines ae ated de-
"rem he experimentation ofthe india, They and et
the rvnalits were the immediate mater of thou who have
rated the new style: This contemporary sgl, which exe
hougout the well, unified ad inlet fagmentary
snd camtatcioy ike so mac ofthe pct the fit en‘ration of moder architects In the last decade th pn
sufficient monuments of tinction o display jis aie
vitality. Itmay fly be compared in significance wiht te
sf the past Inthe handling of the problems of src
lated tothe Gai, in the handling ofthe problems of designs
‘more akin othe Classical. nthe pretninence venta th
ling of fection itis distinguished frm oth
The unconscious and halting architectural develope
the ninetenth century, the confused and contadicry ee
Ietation of the begining ofthe tweatith, hae Ben sic
‘ceded by a directed evolation. There is now a sing byl
iscipline, fixe enought integrate contemporary sla
lity and yet elastic enough to permit individual lneelta
nd to encourage general roth,
The idea af style asthe frame of potential growth ate
ssa fixed and crushing mould, has developed with the eng
‘ion of urderyingprineples suchas archeologist dice nie
feat syles ofthe pat. The principle are few an ba. Ts
‘re not mere formulas of proportion ach as dtinguish he Dare
{rom the Ionic one they are fundamental ke the nani ve
ality of the othe the tythnialsymmey ofthe Bara.
Theres first. new conception of arhitetre a lame rather
than as mass. Seconly, regulary rater than axial symmety
serves asthe chit means of anering desig. These wo prin
les, with thin prscribing arbitrary applied decorstin, ak
the productions ofthe interational tls This new ee ot
iteration inthe sense tht the proton of one oy is
‘est ike that of nother. Nor ist so igi thatthe work of aris
leaders ot clearly itnguishabe Thenteratinal tle he
bhcome evident and definable only gradual a diferent innova:
tors throughout the weld have sucess caried et parle
experiment.
Intting he general principles ofthe contemparty spe in
anaysing hee desnation from structure and their malifcaton
by fnction the appearance of certain dogmatnn can bar be
-noied In oposton thse who claim that a new spe
chitecture is inpoale or undesirable ix neces to tes
the coherence ofthe results obtained within the range of posi
lilies thas fa explored For the itemationl syle ale ex
lnsinthe present itis not merely sumthing frre may ld
instore, Architecture abaya se of ctl monument nt
ae corp of heyI
History
ines nt oneal ibaa toad
scenes finkeu ey taristah at ow
i ec
pn a ee
sarc cond res ae
Tire ta cera er
Pei cpeer ara ao
Peller pris ele
Necrainia dere:
‘guia rn an glass constrtion, ha far morn common
with he architecture of our day than with tht of owt er
‘mecocrt, to which the contemporary syle owes 2 much, was
Invented in 1849. Yet twa at Teast iy year ele i fst
gan to play a.consderable part in architetral contruction,
etal had begun be used ineenally in architecture before
the end af the eighteenth century. Thecelrth it achieved a
Pace ofinceasing importance, even in bili of the moat
‘ial design. Finally in the eighties it made pomile theft
Aysrpers Bato the whole the “are” the tensed the
‘erates ad the exhibition bal, of which the Landon
‘iy Palace was the evita theft, were ants
xsbsiutes fr, convention] masonry bldg.
Behind the conventional star af nietenth century revivals
and elect there are wo further histories of architect
(One deas with the science af building sone. It trace the deve
‘ment of pew engincering methods of contruction ad the
gal replacement of tactonal masonry setae by euccee
‘iveinoratons- The ther history deals withthe development
‘heat farcical design eogardle of specie initatios
Design was teed bere and ther fom the contol the past
Same architects even sought novel forms and many aimed at
tte dict expression of the ew methods of eonsiton. A
wart af proportioning plane surfs, «fee sy of ion
ee even afk wea metal spear in the work af est af the
leading nineteenth century architects aan in England, Schi-
{edad his lowers in Germany, and Labote in France, wee
among these eal prsursrs of moder arhtecture.
Within the Clase! Revival there developed anew sense of
design pret and more rational thn hat of the Reais
the Baroque yt not etic rely othe purity and ational
inmotthe Grek, Within the Medial Revival there grew spabay of the practic of the ben ie
Middle Ages, which foreshadowed the tres mao
Thee i nt much to change today in the pasa tht
‘ote from Salomon Reina’ Apoll. At ate as 1804
possible to conceive of modern architecture ciel as wa
renaissance of the Gothic. Yet it haul be stressed hl then
tion ofthe mem style to the Gothic eco athe ue
sual «matter of principle rather than a mater patie
weed, the leading moder architects aim a Gra se
ptrne, based
design,
reny rather than Gothic apiaton,
In writing on mera architecture sme few years ago it ma
Possible to accept thatthe individualist o the end then
teenth century andthe beginaingf the twentieth, whit ke
consciously with the nominal discipline ofthe revival ete
lished tentatively a New Tradition. I appeared then as ast
‘tv in which the greatest carmen denominator af he ai
revivals was preserved and fased wih the new science fbi
ing. Today it seme mare accurate to describe the wrk fhe
‘older generation of architects as halemdern, Bach achite
broke in his own way with the inmate pst, each ought ins
own direction the postive cements which have bee emined
inthe last decade But there wa rea tla integration wl
alter the War
The industrial architecture of Pter Berens in Germany in
the year before the War was already extra simplifed wd
pula. Thee of volume beg o replace he atonal
fect of mass. Oto Wager, decade eatin in Vina, clive
‘tualities of lignes and developed the plane surface his a=
*hiteture for ter own sake The Helpon Van de Velde exer-
‘mented with comin of sutace, making mach eof cures.
Bevage at Ansterdam based hs composts an goer and
handled beth od and new mitral with uml strstr
verdes. Inthe constretions af Peet in France the ane fe
‘near led to visible atclatin ofthe eupporting skeleton
‘ith the wastrel at mere serena betwee the te, Ths in
the diferent counts of Europe before the War the conceptions
the iterstonal yl ad come independently int exsene,
trem forthe younger generation ocembine and erytlie
the varioasasthetc and tehnical reli fhe experimentation
lth ede
Butitwasin Amerie thal the promise of new sie appeared
fit and, up ote War, advanced met epidly. Richanlrn in
"beseventien and eighties fen went wf as di the ext gene
ston onthe Cote in simplifeain of design and in diet
‘pression of structure. Following hin, Root and Sullivan de-
acd fem tel lyserape constriction principles which have
been moifed bu ot esetally changed by later generation
This wrk ofthe cgi and nineties Chicago stil to ite
lon We have in America only fw commeril building of
1900 to compare with the radial sel and glans deparinent
‘srs of are: at thee few are mare able than all the ak
serper atthe allowing twenty-five years.
Tn the fint dees ofthe new cetury Frank Loyd Wright
‘continued bailey the work of the Chicago schon i aher
Sede farchitetre. He intaluced many innovations, partie
layin domestic ding, tite a importante thas of he Art
‘eaveav and Jugendstil in France and Genmany His open lan-
ing broke the mou ofthe tational ose, to which Burope
lung down tthe War. He alo was the Fito cenceve of =
cet design in terms of planes existing freely inthe di-
‘eto ter tha in era of enloed Backs. Wagar, Behr
ens ard Peet lightened the slid masiveness of tadioal
snhitetre: Weight dymamited it.
‘Wile much ofthe innovation in Europe merely consist inexpressing more frankly new methods of construction wins
framework of design still estertially Clase Ma
Wright from the beginning was radical in his esthetic ee
‘mentation. One may regret the lick of ony in hide
twllinness oabsebte innovation iw
temperaries and his junior in Eup. atone cnt den at
snong the architects ofthe older generation Wright made me
contributions than any other. His comely move oma
‘nay appear to lack even the vitality of the emai oe
tment ofthe fit quarter ofthe cemury in Europe, Pret ma
Pethaps, more important ingorator in contraction Va
Velde showed greater consisteney and a purer taste nis
‘esthetic experiments. But Wright preerved beter the ble
Letween the mere expression of stricture andthe achieemet
ment a is
Pest form
Thee is however a definite beach between Wright nd the
ounger architects who erated the contemporary aye fre
War, Ever since the days when he was Saliva dil,
Wright has remained an individual, A rebel by temperment,
hh has refuse even the disciplines of his own theories
‘of developing some coe of the manner whi he has nite he
hs begun again and again wit diferent material or adie
problem and arived at «quite ew manner. The new manner
ten enough contraits some of the exe qualities of his
previous work, qualities which European flere have em
lated wth distinction and ane asthe hai ther avanc. le
his final ofthe shackle of ised tle a rated the ill
‘son offre posible styl, like the mathematicians wh have
invented non-Evelidean geometries His tray young spit
‘bels against the new style as vgn as heeled aginst
the sys” of th nite centr.
‘Weight belongs othe intratonl style no more than Behr
‘aso Pet or Van de Velie, Some ofthese men have been
‘ey toler om thee janis, They have sbi in pst o
the disciplines ofthe international syle. Bu thet work i all
srk by race ofthe individualist mers they achieved in
‘hic prine, Without ther wok the tye cal hay hae come
‘no being Yet hindi an th relation othe pat,
foals envousness, makes af thea ot so ach he crestro
Ane tle an the lt representatives of Romantic. They ae
‘te aka the men af a hundred year ago than the geen
‘nn which has come othe fre since the Wa.
"Te catinued existence of Romantic invidusi is nt &
qian of rhitecture ale. There dichotomy af the pint
‘mre profond than any mee tle can ever esol. The ete
‘pains indian in arhiteetare le in the fac that Wright
has been almost ale in Americ i achieving a dtingsished
amchitectare; wile n Europe, and indeed in ther pre ofthe
‘lds wel a increasingly lage group f echt works
ceadally within the disciplines of the new ate
‘Theresa asic cleavage betwen the international tle and
‘hehalémalem arhtectaraf th begining ofthe pent on-
tay We mast ot forget the deb that Le Cbuser, Grp,
Mis van der Rake, Oud and he rst oe oh older men with
ham they studied. We mst no forget such exceptional mon
‘ent af the ninetonth century asthe Cyst Palace, We mut
rot dismiss a lacking histerial sgieance the fine sense of
portion andthe vigorous purity ofthe Casical Revival othe
‘pln eerie ar the spi pracice othe Getic Revi
Eve the aburles of Romans aici ruin and the line
‘tl stl ormment of 1900 hae place inthe pair af
‘he contamprary ale. But the new tle afer ten years feitence an growth may now be tied for ill with cad
reference othe immediate past
There are certain times when new pra ly begin de
spite all the preparation that may he raced behind the ee
Such atime came immediatly after the Wat, when the inne
tional style came into being in France, in Helland ain Ge
‘many. Indeed if we follow the projects ofthe War yas ely
the Austrian Los an the Kalin Sat Eli may appear a
the new syle was preparing cn an even oer ft, While he
innovations of the half-meder were individual ao inp
leat to the pint of divergence, the innovations a tee jain
were parallel and complementary, aly informed bythe 6
herent spirit asl inthe making
1x pariculaly da the early wok of three men, War
Grp in Germany, Oud ie Helland, and Le Case it
France that he various sep in the inception ofthe new gle
‘st be sought Thse thre with Mies van der Rabe Cena
remain the reat leaders af made architect,
Gropias factory at Ald, bl jst before the War, came
‘are to an integration ofthe new spe than ay ee dif
nil before 1982 In indus architecture the triton ofthe
siyles ofthe past was not repesive, as many facie ofthe
ineteenth century well tate. The eed for wing mee
‘constuction thoughoat and fr serving ineton direc wp
clay evident. Hence it was easier for Gropi to abance in
‘his el beyond his master, Been, ta it would ave been i
ny other. The walls of he Aled factory are sree of lant
vith ypandelaf meal at the Nor levels. The ening ad of
brickwork dee nt projet beyond thee serena. The prey me
‘shania elements ae frankly hadled and ive intrest oa de
appli aramental decoration except the etering. Thee
ation ef he prt f the eomplex structures ordered by logic
so conitncy rae than by asia yet
Yet thee ae ces sill af the canceptoas of wadtionsl a
iota The plas sree ace ated ike projecting bay b=
tween the Wale suppers, These upp are sheathed with
Ick tht they appa ike the at agent ofthe sel
sony wall of the past. The entrance is symmetrical an bey
Tec al igi i bated wth a decorative expen
Grp nas ot dete achieve asi 0 fine ad so cober-
‘at production i the contemporary sl before the Baubaws in
1826, There he profited fom the intervening esthetic cape
eatin a he Dutch Neoplastic. The Bauhaus i same
‘hing more than «mere developmen fom the ecicltriumgh
the Ale fact (Se astetions on pages 150)
Dating the years ofthe War, Ou in Helland came into con-
‘ct withthe gmp af Dutch eubit pines led by Mona
td Van Daesbar, who ele themselves Neoplatcist. Thir
sitive influence on his werk tft was meligible. Oud e-
‘ined fora ine sil a disciple of Becag, whose hallamoder
‘nne he had previously followed rater closely. He profited
so by his tof the innovations of Wright, whee work was
‘day itr norm in Europe ther in Arie, Thon he ag
comseiosy to achieve a Neoplastic rcitecture and ftom
1017 nthe nonce of Berge and Wright gat diminish
Ashe same time he found in coerete an adequate mate for
the expression fnew conceptions of frm, Ova projects were
incesing imple, vigorous and amet. On the aealag of
nrc painting he came to ealize the ashe potentialities of
lanes i thee dimeosons with which Wright ad abready
rimeted He reacted sharply agit the picturesquenes ofthe other llomes of Berle and sought with alot Gr
‘ortoarive at ascheme of proportions eve puter me
se
In is fist housing projects cared oat far they Rabe
da in 1918 and 1919 bedi ot advance a far anise
cuted projects, But at Oud-Mathenesse in 1921-2, ang
‘ae was required to build the whol village in tational esta
and to continue the use af convent rol, the x se
promise inhi project came into beng. The anemic
turesqueness, th severe horizontal of the composi he
perfect simplicity and consistency which he achieve nee
nga very complex project all amounced the ens eee
La boy of mahaticdacpine.
Otud-Mathenese exceeded Groped factry in i
cance if nt in inpressiveness. Grape made his anos
rimarily in technics, Oui indesign He undoubted oe he
‘nil impetus tothe Neoplastic, bt his persona maser
had feed isl fm dependence on panting. The models Yn
Dorsbrg made of houses in the eal’ wens, in lean
with ther Neoplasicist, with her abr ply oles
bright colors, had heir own dic nen in Gemany
But the man who Fst made the world aware tht new le
was being bor was Le Corbusier: Aa late at 1916, wel fers
‘echnical and sociological theoiing had bg, his concypians
‘design were il stongy marked bythe Clasical sma of
his master Pet Hi plane, however, ete ven mae open th
‘howe of Wright hi housing project he nex ew years he
‘assed rapidly beyond hie master Pont and beyond Behres
nd Loos, with wh he had alsa come income i Groban
house model of 1921 wa the thorough expeson ef cones
io fachitectre as radical echnical as Grp at
‘9 novel ssthatially ae Oud’ village. The emmmoas window
sea andthe terraces made posible by thease of feracanrete,
torter wih the asymmetry of the comparin, undoubtedly
produced a design moce thorugh inftard with «new spit
ore completely fied frm the convention of the pst han any
than ar jected
‘The afuence af Le Corbusier wa the rater, the appearance
anew spe themore remarked, becatte a the vebement prop
‘ganda nhich be contributed tothe magaine igi Nouwea,
1920-1925. Since thes, moreover, be has writen seria of
books effectively propagandizing his technical and esthetic
‘hearin In thin way hi name hus heme alt synonymous
with he new architecture adit has been pried or condemted
‘very largely in is person, But he was ta we ve se, the
aly innovator nor was the tle a it came generally into being
sie 1922 poculiay his. He crystal; he dramatized: bathe
‘ent aloe in resting
‘When in 1922 he bul at Vauereton his int howe in the
newt efile to equ the puri of design andthe boldness
leontrctinn of the irokan projet. But he buses that in
edit followed this, one fr the punter Osean, and an
‘ae for his prem outside Vevey assd further beyond the
ttl stags then ething thet Oud or Crops were
build for several moe years. Ozefants et of euhiom, called
Pari, had pete inspired Le Corbusier in it serch for
sears of fra inspiration for anew architecture. But on the
vine Le Corbusier in these early years turned foe precedent
rhe to eamshis thant panting Some of his eary houses,
such as tat fo the sculptor Mictchaninall at Balognear-
Sine, were definitely naval in eling Bat this marine pas was
soon overlie Ou sricly Neoplastic phar, othe Expres
Sins pre in the work ofthe young architects ef Germany
Varios eater eflsences helped re achtetre fom thelast remnants of Kngering taitonalom. The new gee
sce in the rapidity with which tanned en
Ieyond recognition,
Mies van der Roe advanced oman the new stele py
at first than Grpias. Before the War he had simpli cla
an Iightened the domestic nye of Behrens to poi tly
ests conscious inspication from Schinkel nd Persia Ae he
{War in wo projects for skyscrapers entirely metal and ge
‘are technica innovation even futher than Grp ae
wed than anyane has yet gone in pace. Thee lie
would have been pure volume glsed cages spt
within, om asale such a not even Paton inthe nineteenth
‘ary would have dreamed posible, However, in thet fom i
plans based on clustered circles or sharp anges, they were
travaganily Romantic and stogly marked by the comm
‘ave of Expressonum in Germany.
{tyes Mies’ projets of 1922 that iste sgificance sat
‘esthetic inorator fist appeared na devin fr county ae
‘he broke wih the conception ofthe walls continous lane
surrounding the plan and bil op his composition fect of
‘ntersceting planes. Thue he achieve sil withthe use of sup
Porting walls x renter openness ven than Le Corbusier wh
erroconrete skeleton constuction. Mts’ sete of priputios
‘eentned as serene as before the War an even mor pare. This
‘rjc andthe constructions of Ou sd Le Corbusier in hit
Year emphasize tat ts jst a decade ago th the mew
The four leery of mer architects are Le Cabos,
(ud, Gropias and Mies van der Rohe, But tbr wel they,
‘Rietveld in Holland Largt in ance, ever Mendel in Gee
‘many, for al is Hngering dlance with Expres, took
Pale steps of nay equal importance in the yar jut ter
played it
the War. The styl didnot sping fom single source bt came
‘nb being generally. The writing of Oud and Gropis, and to @
fnaterdepre that Le Corbusier, with the fequertpubation
their projects af these year, eae the principle f the new
She broad. These projects have indeed become more fanoas
‘han many exeated bung.
From the Fist thre were als cris, who were nat architect,
toserve a publics. Everyone who was intrested in thee
ston ofaindem architecture ha to came terms withthe nar
‘eat spe, The pinciples ofthe style that appeared already
ny by 1922 nthe projet and the executed uldings ofthe
Jnr, il ent eda an ever inreasing group facie!
houphoat the weedTi
FUNCTIONALIOM
meh su
eee ne eee
Se eleaae eae
a emer
eae
nits mont gene accepted frm the ide of fnctionlsm
is sulci elastic. I derives its sanesins frm bth Grek
and Getic achtectre, fin the empl a well a in the cathe
Akal the esthetic expression ie based on xtuctre and fet,
Inall the erignal styles of the past the esthetic i vlad to,
‘ten dependent on, the technical. The supporters af bth the
‘ClasicalRevial ad the Medial Revival in the nineteenth
‘etary were ready to defend much af thee practice by function
lt arguments. The socalled rational of architects lke
‘Schinkel and Labeouste was type of fanctinaiom ei vigor
cul voted, moreoerin the arheloial eri of Vi
‘le-l-Dac andthe etic erica of Pugin and Rankin Mar
vis and his disciples brought this son of functionalist teary
aealaceraaer
‘The dcrin ofthe contemporary an-esthti anton
ismuch mare stringnt. hari seo rater than ethical
or archeoligical. Leading European eres, particulary Seg
fre Ciedion, claim wth somo justice that rhitectare has uch
Immerse praia! problems to deal with nthe modern word
‘hat thetic quentons mut ake a acomday place in archer
tual exci, Architect like Hannes Meyer go further They
clan that sees in propertions or in prablems af design Sor
‘hie cw ake i ail an unfortunate remnant of nineteenth cen
tary Sddgy, For thee men it san mat total abort he
smder sl in terms of esthetics at all. Ifa bulding provides
SR feet, lanl nied cemeeces cs
itis tothem good building rare aft pearance. Mode
‘em contraction receives fam them a stightforwa expe
‘So: they use standardized pats whenever posible and they
svc ormment or uanecessary deta Ay elaboration af design,
my unecessary ue of specially made ps, ny applied dow
,-.—srwaiwa=atdlt( ( ( ll T LITGTIEI_—‘ation would ao the cont ofthe building i homens ee
sible to onganize an execute «complicated budge
‘ut making some choices nat whl determined by tea
‘conomics. One may therefore refs o admit that inet
faetinals building is quite withrat «potential eta de
iment. Conscious or uncinschusy the ait at me
ces before his design is completed. In these cies
European functionalist fll, rather than go guna th pn
ple of the general contemporary yl, Whether hey ada
‘ent is beside the point
In America also there are bath architects nd ete wna
Sider architecture not an art, anit has bee in the pa at
‘meray a subonfinate technic of industrial ication. Rathi
rita of builng appear to them neal a meaning
esthetic critica of road balding. Their atte has been
some extent beneficial ane in ite effect on American bling
ven from the esthetic point of view. Mast European ries el
"ish that American enginers hae alas een fr mer =
rovide tigtag trimmings a rhythmical fenestton. Fr ar
‘ment ca be aed aftr the wok isdn ao comes into po di
ect relation with the handling of fnctin and structure. Aer
‘can mavdersinm in design astally at ses a the
revivalsm which preceded i Mac Amerion architects would
‘are the loss of applied omament aed nitatve desi Sich
things serve to obncure the essential emptiness of syseraper
=a
The European functionalist are primal bude, anlar
iets ny unconsciously. This ha ie advantages even for a
cietret tat Cres shoud be artcalaie beat problems
‘desig bat architects whe training i oe terial than
inlet, ean afr to be uneonciae othe esthetic efits
they prac. So, t may be asumed, were many ofthe peat
hulders fhe ps. Sine the warks af the European funcional
it ally all within the Lmie of he tration style, they
ay be lined among it representatives. (Page 223 £) Nai
rly these doctimaives achieve works a esate dtintion les
tenth ome thers ho practice he tf echtectre a a=
‘duly they pure the cence af ding.
‘he American fnetionaliss cli ob bude fit, They
ovary sald octet th lle ceo th word. They
‘needy, she Buopean functionalist arene to deface their
[athe elected ngs te cet
Nor can the lai for thee skyscraper and apartment houses
‘he broad scoloial justification that exis forthe worke
using, the schals and hospitals of Europe. Or the wale,
Ameriean facie, where the cles expects no mney t be
spent on desi, are beter buieings and t Teast negatively
rer indesign than thowe constrains in which he rhitetis
fre by creumstances to be more than ax engineer. Tebnial
development, morn, re rapid forcing alot all ome
Cian indus building into the mould ofthe interational
‘ole
Teint necesay to accept the cntentions of the fanctonl-
isthe there mo new aye oe even consider their an work
sill anther kind f arbiter, Whe the ler generation hascomtnwed fithfal to individual, a et of genera etic
Principles hax come ito use. While the fancier
to deny that the esthetic element in architecture i mga,
more andl ore buildings ans prodeced it ie aa
ate wisely and elective fllaned witht saci teat
IV
A First PRINCIPLE
Arohitecture as Volume
lontemparary methods of constuctivn provide cage or
‘elem f sport Tis etn asi appear efor the uid
ings encloses familiar a everyone. Wheber he sports ae
fmt rol enforced cance, the et fom a distance ok
4 ple of verticals and vinta. For pectetion asia the
‘weather t ie necesary that this kelton oud be sme way
‘closed by all In traditional marry contruction the wl
ee tems the supp. Now the walls ae merely sabord
tat cleest fied ike sree between the suppor cata
lea shell oats them. Ths the uiding eke abst oan
bella wth stg internal suppot and continuous edea |