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Chapter 2 Types of Bridge Superstructures
Chapter 2 Types of Bridge Superstructures
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Fundamentals of Bridge Design CEng 552 Chapter 2 Prepared by: M. K. Chandrasekar
Dept. of Civil & Urban Eng., IoT Hawassa University
3. Earth cushion: An earth cushion of minimum specified depth should be
provided at the top of the pipes.
4. Material of pipe: The pipes may be of RCC, cast iron, steel or wood. Cast-iron
pipes are suitable upto a diameter of 750mm and RCC pipes are suitable up to
a diameter of 1800mm.
Box culvert
Reinforced concrete box culverts are used for square or rectangular openings with
spans up to about 4m. The height of vent rarely exceeds 3m. The top of the box
section can be at the road level or can be at a depth below road level with a fill
depending on the site conditions.
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Fundamentals of Bridge Design CEng 552 Chapter 2 Prepared by: M. K. Chandrasekar
Dept. of Civil & Urban Eng., IoT Hawassa University
T- Beam Bridge
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Fundamentals of Bridge Design CEng 552 Chapter 2 Prepared by: M. K. Chandrasekar
Dept. of Civil & Urban Eng., IoT Hawassa University
A typical cross section of a reinforced concrete hollow box girder super structure
suitable for two lane traffic on a National highway for a simply supported clear span
of 30 m is shown in the figure annexed. The components of the super structure are,
the cantilever portion including the curb, the top slab carrying the roadway, the webs,
in this case two exterior webs and one central web, and diaphragms, typically two
end diaphragms and three intermediate diaphragms.
The advantages of balanced cantilever bridges over simply supported girder bridges
are listed below.
Less concrete steel and form work are required for cantilever bridge
constructions
The reactions at the piers are vertical and central permitting slender piers
Requires only one set of bearings at every pier
Fewer expansion joints are needed for the full structure, resulting less initial
cost and less maintenances cost.
Disadvantages:
Requires more skill on the part of designer.
After settlement of supports the super structure will not maintain the same
level at all the cross sections for the free traffic flow.
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Fundamentals of Bridge Design CEng 552 Chapter 2 Prepared by: M. K. Chandrasekar
Dept. of Civil & Urban Eng., IoT Hawassa University
Rigid frame bridges
Rigid frame bridges are structures consisting of a number of parallel girders (or slab
instead of girders) which are rigidly connected to the supporting columns or piers.
Usually the decking and substructure are cast monolithically. The types of rigid
frames normally used in bridge construction are shown in the figures given below.
Type (a) is suitable for single span opening as in the case of bridges over railway
tracks. Type (b) shows a two span bridge with the base of the column fixed. If the
base is hinged, which is a more common condition, the column is tapered downward.
This type can also be used for bridges with greater number of spans by adding the
required number of intermediate columns. Type (c) offers an aesthetically pleasing
structure over restricted access highways as has been used extensively over
expressways in USA and Germany.
Rigid frames possess the advantages listed for continuous bridges and have the
following additional advantages:
No bearings are needed at the supports
The rigid connections result in more stable supports, than possible with
independent piers of comparable dimensions
Due to the slender dimensions, the supporting piers or columns cause least
obstruction for the flow of traffic below the bridge
Arch Bridges
Girder bridges of reinforced concrete will be uneconomical for spans beyond 35
meters. Arch type can be used advantageously in the span range of 35 to 200
meters and has been applied up to 305 meters as in the case of Gladesville Bridge in
Sydney, Australia. A strong point in favor of arch bridges is their pleasing appearance
and aesthetic elegance. The arch form is best suited to deep gorges with steep rocky
banks which furnish efficient natural abutment to receive the heavy thrust exerted by
the ribs. In the absence of these natural conditions, the arch usually suffers a
disadvantage, because the construction of a suitable abutment is expensive and time
consuming.
Concrete arch for bridges can be in the form of arch slab or arch ribs. In the case of
slab type for short spans, the space between the deck slab or road way and the arch
slab (called spandrel) is usually filled with earth and the filling is retained by spandrel
walls. Such an arch is called a spandrel filled arch. For spans longer than about 25
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Fundamentals of Bridge Design CEng 552 Chapter 2 Prepared by: M. K. Chandrasekar
Dept. of Civil & Urban Eng., IoT Hawassa University
meters, the deck is supported on columns or walls resting on the arch and an arch of
this type are known as open spandrel arch.
All arches develop thrust at the supports and the thrust is to be taken by unyielding
abutments. This thrust tends to reduce the bending moment at any section of the
arch. The aim of the designer will be to maximize this reduction, so that the arch will
have only compression in the section. While it is possible to nearly eliminate bending
moments due to dead load by choosing the arch axis to coincide with the thrust line
for bending moment, live load will cause net bending moments.
The arch axis is generally governed by three considerations: (a) span and rise from
the road gradient and navigation or traffic clearance below, (b) the economical shape
from point of view of saving materials and (c) the beauty of the intrados. The most
important parameter is the rise-span ratio, the economical value of which lies
between 0.30 and 0.20. A large rise reduces the thrust and leads to thinner arch
section. The usual profiles adopted in practice are parabolic, segmental and elliptical.
Parabolic arches will be admirably suited in rugged country with exposed solid rock or
abutments. In plains and particularly for a spandrel filled arch, a segmental profile
may be more satisfactory. Elliptical shape is not much favored, except in cases where
clearance requirements need an almost uniform soffit height
Arches are designed by trial and error. First the preliminary dimensions are assumed.
Influence lines for horizontal thrust and bending moments are constructed using first
principles. The resulting stresses are then checked against allowable stresses, and
the sections are redesigned, if necessary.
In case of steel arch bridges, if it is a trussed one, fabrication and erection pose
more difficult problems than a girder bridge. The arch rib can be in the form of a box
section, tubular section or a trussed structure.
Stone masonry arch bridges are by nature strong and they require very little
maintenance. Their inherent reserve strength is evident from the many stone arch
bridges existing in service now, carrying many times their originally designed load.
Their disadvantage is the slow pace of construction; it takes time to build them, piece
by piece; each stone requires dressing and individually matching with the surrounding
stones. Hence in affluent countries with high labor costs stone masonry bridges are
not in favor. The components of arch bridges are shown in figure annexed. The arch
consists of voussoirs rising between the back of the abutment level and the keystone
at the crown. The exterior and the interior faces of the arch are called the extrados
and intrados, respectively. The space between the extrados and the top of the key
stone is called spandrel.
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Fundamentals of Bridge Design CEng 552 Chapter 2 Prepared by: M. K. Chandrasekar
Dept. of Civil & Urban Eng., IoT Hawassa University
The decking is usually between and monolithic with the tie members. Footpaths, if
provided, are cantilevered outside the ties. The deck slabs are cast monolithic with
cross girders, spanning from tie to tie. Each cross girder would be carried directly by
a pair of hangers (also called as suspenders). Curb of at least 150 mm height and
300 mm width should be provided to prevent damage to hangers from vehicles.
Bracings between the two arches are to be provided, where possible, to cater to the
wind load. The bow string girder bridge uses less quantities of materials than an
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Fundamentals of Bridge Design CEng 552 Chapter 2 Prepared by: M. K. Chandrasekar
Dept. of Civil & Urban Eng., IoT Hawassa University
alternate design with reinforced concrete girder bridge, but it would require more
costly formwork. Hence the overall economy is not quite apparent. However, the
enhanced aesthetic appearance of a bow string girder bridge merits attention.
When the number of stay cables in the main span is between 2 and 6, the spans
between the stay supports tend to be large (between 30 m and 60 m) requiring large
bending stiffness. The stay forces are large and the anchorages of cables become
complicated. On the other hand, the use of multiple stay cables would facilitate
smaller distances between points of supports (between 8m and 15m) for the deck
girders, resulting in reduced structural depth and facilitating erection by free
cantilever method without auxiliary supports. Cables can be arranged in a fan form
or in a harp form. Fan type configuration results in minimum axial force in deck
girders. The harp form requires larger quantity of steel for the cables induces higher
compressive axial forces in the deck and causes bending moments in the tower. Fan
shape is superior from structural and economical points of view. Harp configuration
of cables also warrants erection of the tower and the deck to progress at the same
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Fundamentals of Bridge Design CEng 552 Chapter 2 Prepared by: M. K. Chandrasekar
Dept. of Civil & Urban Eng., IoT Hawassa University
time. The cables may be arranged in one vertical plane, in two vertical planes or in
two inclined planes. The single plane system has the advantage that the anchorage
at deck level can be accommodated in the traffic median resulting in the least value
of required total width of deck. With the two vertical plane system, additional widths
are needed to accommodate the towers and deck anchorages. Aesthetically, the
single plane system is more attractive as this affords an unobstructed view on one
side of the motorist. In the case of a two plane system of cables, a side view of the
bridge would give impression of intersection of cables. The two inclined plane system
of cables with the cables radiating from the apex of an A-frame tower facilitates the
three-dimensional structural performance of the superstructure and reduces the
torsional oscillations of the deck due to wind.
The deck structure can be of reinforced concrete slab with ribs along the edges, if the
width is less than 15 m and the span is relatively small. For width greater than 15 m
and spans longer than 500m, the all steel plate deck becomes mandatory in order to
reduce the dead loads. Other combinations using pre-stressed concrete decks and
composite decks have also been used. Shallow box sections with wind nose at either
end have been used successfully for long spans.
Single free standing tower may be employed when the cables are in one plane. In
this case the piers should be sufficiently wide to accommodate the bearings. For
bridges with cables in two planes, the towers can be a free standing pair or a portal
frame with a slender bracing. An additional bracing may be introduced below the
deck. The height of towers should preferably be in the range of 0.2 to 0.25 Lm (where
Lm = the main span). The higher the tower, the smaller will be the quantity of steel
required for the cables and the compressive forces. But it is not advantageous to
increase the height beyond 0.25 Lm.
The steel used for cables have ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of the order of 1600
MPa. High carbon fibre cables having UTS of about 3300 MPa are under development.
Carbon fibre cables have negligible corrosion and possess high fatigue resistance.
Cables are used either as parallel bundle strands of wire or coiled bundle of strands
enclosed in a polyethylene tube. Anchorage of cables at the deck is fixed and has a
provision for a neoprene pad damper to damp oscillations.
Suspension bridges
Suspension bridge is currently the only solution for spans in excess of 900 m.
Suspension bridges consist of two large, or main, cables that are hung (suspended)
from towers. The main cables of a suspension bridge drape over two towers, with the
cable ends buried in enormous concrete blocks known as anchorages. The roadway is
suspended from smaller vertical cables that hang down from the main cables. In
some cases, diagonal cables run from the towers to the roadway and add rigidity to
the structure. The main cables support the weight of the bridge and transfer the load
to the anchorages and the towers.
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Fundamentals of Bridge Design CEng 552 Chapter 2 Prepared by: M. K. Chandrasekar
Dept. of Civil & Urban Eng., IoT Hawassa University
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Fundamentals of Bridge Design CEng 552 Chapter 2 Prepared by: M. K. Chandrasekar
Dept. of Civil & Urban Eng., IoT Hawassa University
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Fundamentals of Bridge Design CEng 552 Chapter 2 Prepared by: M. K. Chandrasekar