INTRODUCTION

Trusses are triangular frame works in which the members are subjected to essentially axial forces
due to externally applied load. They may be plane trusses, wherein the external load and the
members lie in the same plane or space trusses, in which members are oriented in three
dimensions in space and loads may also act in any direction. Trusses are frequently used to span
long lengths in the place of solid web girders and such trusses are also referred to as lattice
girders.
Composite steel-concrete trusses can be considered as one of the most economical systems for
building, especially for greater spans, commonly to the 20 m. The continuous structural elements
of this composite type can be used for even greater spans up to the 30 m, which allows better use
of internal space without restricting columns.
The trusses are appropriate also to meet the requirements for building height limitation as well as
the need to run complex electrical, heating, ventilating, and communication systems. Also
composite steel bridges, whose carriageway deck is supported on a filigree steel truss structure
and slim piers, are particularly preferable especially to ordinary concrete bridges. Primarily
considering the technical and architectural aspects as well as compromise between protections of
the landscape on the one hand and hard transports necessities on the other. Thus a composite
truss bridge, with its speedy assembly engineering can be a structural type which is both
economically and aesthetically attractive. To create the interaction between steel parts and
concrete, it is necessary to prevent the relative slip at the steel-concrete interface using the shear
connectors. But the local effects of a concentrated longitudinal force and the distribution of the
shear force between steel section and concrete slab, as special task, should be appropriately
examined. The finite element analyses can be used to investigate numerically this structural
system behaviour, exploiting several computer procedures. Nowadays, different types of shear
connectors are used. In our investigation, shear connection is developed using the welded headed
studs.
The economical span for a uniform reinforced concrete slab is little more than that it which its
thickness becomes sufficient to resist the point load on which it may be subjected or, in
buildings, to provide the sound insulation required. For span of more than a few meters (3 to 7
m), it is cheaper to support the slab on beams, ribs, or walls than to take it. At spans of more than
about 8 m, and especially where the susceptibility of steel to loss of strength from fire is not a
problem, as in most bridges, steel beams often become cheaper than concrete beams. But by
about 1950 the development of shear connectors had made it practicable to connect the slab to
the beam, and so to obtain the T-beam action that had long been used in concrete construction. A
composite beam construction is formed when a floor slab attached to a steel component (such as
I section) with the help of shear connectors. The monolithic action between a concrete slab and a
steel section leads to the composite beam action. By the composite action between the two we
can utilize their respective advantages to the fullest extent. The moment resisting capacity of
composite section is very high as compare to ordinary steel or concrete section. But due to some
restriction such as span depth ratio, deflection limit, frequency of the floor or equipment etc, the
length of composite beam is limited up to range between 6 to 10 m. In the construction of long
span structures, integration of services plays a vital role, especially in commercial buildings. For
such buildings, integration of the structures and services is the optimum solution. One of the best
solutions for beams in the range of 12m - 22m spans is the `Composite Truss` option. Presence of
maximum void zone between chords and bracing members in trusses facilitates to pass through
easily. The use of lightweight steel-concrete composite floors is a preferred option for use in
wide range of building because of it light weight construction, less work involvement at site,
greater construction accuracy, simple and speedy construction, and elements manufactured under
controlled conditions in factory to ensure high quality etc.

Structural Framing of Composite truss

Experiences abroad have shown that trusses are economically viable for spans greater than 2m.
Composite truss system are most often used with composite slabs comprising steel decking
which act as a main reinforcement and permanent shuttering. Other system such as pre-cast
planks or cast in situ slab can be used but are usually less cost effective. Composite trusses
normally have two basic framing arrangements. In one type of arrangement, the trusses form the
secondary framing elements and support the decking directly. In the other type, the trusses form
the primary framing elements and support the secondary beams, which is support the decking.

Fig. 1: Composite truss used as secondary beam

Truss shear connections

In Eurocode, there is no particular recommendation for the design of composite truss, except the
formulas in EC 4 [1], clause 6.6.2.3 for the local effect of a concentrated longitudinal force and
the distribution of the longitudinal shear force into local shear flow between steel section and
concrete slab. In the case of a composite truss, the longitudinal forces are introduced into the
concrete slab similarly only locally in the nodes, where the web members are connected to the
compressed chord. In this study the influence of the degree of connection, represented by the
connector diameter, the impact of the top chord section and the material characteristics of steel
and concrete are analysed pondering over the stiffness and the resistance of the beams and the
shear forces in the connectors.

Fig. 2: Geometrical composite truss system

Shear connection Properties

First of all the influence of the connectors size considering numerous theoretical values of shank
diameter varying from 0.1 to 100 mm on truss beam stiffness was analysed.
These values represent the progression of the degree of shear stud connection in the truss from
no connection to full interaction. It was recognized that the usual diameter of 19 mm is quite
sufficient to obtain a full connection. Moreover, the composite effect obtained by the shear
connector diameter variation can increase even twice the stiffness of the truss with no connection
in comparison to the composite truss beam with full connection.

Truss Configuration
A number of truss configurations may be considering for use as composite truss. Pratt and warren
truss configurations are most common and desired ones. A conventional warren truss
configuration limits service duct sizes to those that will fit between the diagonal bracing
members. However, the use of vierendeel panels without bracing member will be permitted in
most truss applications, which greatly increase the zone of services. The preferred dimensional
stipulations for composite truss are shown in following figure.
Pitch Roof truss
Most common types of roof trusses are pitched roof trusses wherein the top chord is
provided with a slope in order to facilitate natural drainage of rainwater and clearance of
dust/snow accumulation. These trusses have a greater depth at the mid-span. Due to this even
though the overall bending effect is larger at mid-span, the chord member and web
member stresses are smaller closer to the mid-span and larger closer to the supports. The
typical span to maximum depth ratios of pitched roof trusses are in the range of 4 to 8, the
larger ratio being economical in longer spans. Pitched roof trusses may have different
configurations. In Pratt trusses [Fig. 2(a)] web members are arranged in such a way that
under gravity load the longer diagonal members are under tension and the shorter vertical
members experience compression. This allows for efficient design, since the short
members are under compression. However, the wind uplift may cause reversal of stresses
in these members and nullify this benefit. The converse of the Pratt is the Howe truss [Fig.
2(b)]. This is commonly used in light roofing so that the longer diagonals experience
tension under reversal of stresses due to wind load.
Fink trusses [Fig. 2(c)] are used for longer spans having high pitch roof, since the web
members in such truss are sub-divided to obtain shorter members.
Parallel chord truss
The parallel chord trusses are used to support North Light roof trusses in industrial
buildings as well as in intermediate span bridges. Parallel chord trusses are also used as
pre-fabricated floor joists, beams and girders in multi-storey buildings [Fig. 3(a)]. Warren
configuration is frequently used [Figs. 3(b)] in the case of parallel chord trusses. The
advantage of parallel chord trusses is that they use webs of the same lengths and thus
reduce fabrication costs for very long spans. Modified Warren is used with additional
verticals, introduced in order to reduce the unsupported length of compression chord
members. The saw tooth north light roofing systems use parallel chord lattice girders [Fig.
3(c)] to support the north light trusses and transfer the load to the end columns.
Trapezoidal Truss
In case of very long span length pitched roof, trusses having trapezoidal configuration,
with depth at the ends are used [Fig. 4(a)]. This configuration reduces the axial forces in
the chord members adjacent to the supports. The secondary bending effects in these
members are also reduced. The trapezoidal configurations [Fig. 4(b)] having the sloping
bottom chord can be economical in very long span trusses (spans > 30 m), since they tend
to reduce the web member length and the chord members tend to have nearly constant
forces over the span length. It has been found that bottom chord slope equal to nearly half
as much as the rafter slope tends to give close to optimum design.

Analysis and Design

For the analysis of composite truss, three methods can be considered, all of which would provide
an adequate factor of safety:
1. Design all members using force equilibrium (elastic) methods for the full composite case,
assuming pinned connections. This is manual analysis method.
2. Design all members for the combination of forces resulting from elastic analysis of loading
applied to the non-composite truss, plus the forces resulting from superimposed loads applied to
the composite truss. This is appropriate for computer analysis.
3. Plastic analysis of truss. This analysis, which takes account of development of plastic hinges
in the members, is only appropriate for computer analysis (and is dependent on the sections
used).

The design procedure of composite truss depends upon the class of the compression flange and
web. The local bucking can be avoided by limiting the width to thickness ratio of each element
of a cross section subject to compression due to moment and axial load. The elements and cross
section can be classified as plastic, compact, semi-compact and slender.
Class 1 or Plastic: The cross section which can develop plastic hinges and have the rotation
capacity required for the failure of the structure by the formation of a plastic mechanism.
Class 2 or compact: The cross section which can develop their plastic moment resistance, but
have inadequate plastic hinge rotation capacity because of local buckling.
Class 3 or semi-compact: The cross section in which the elastically calculated stress in the
extreme compression fiber of the steel member, assuming an elastic distribution of stress, can
reach the yield strength, but local buckling is liable to prevent the development of the plastic
moment resistance.
Class 4 or slender: Cross section in which local buckling will occur even before the attainment of
yield stress in one or more parts of the cross section.
The basic idea of designing a composite section is that the coefficient of thermal expansion of
both concrete and steel are nearly same, which is also the basis for the development of RCC
designs. In India BIS initiated efforts by introducing IS: 113841985 as design guideline for
composite design.

The general analysis procedure consists of the following stage of elastic analysis:
1. To determine factored forces resulting from the truss self weight and slab dead load applied to
the non-composite truss.
2. To determine factored forces resulting from all superimposed loads applied to the composite
truss.
The above two analysis are carried out, and then the members checked to verify that their load
capacities are greater than the factored forces applied to them, for the structure to be considered
as safe. An additional load case that may need to be considered is for designing of virendeel
panels. In order to take account to possible unequal loading along the truss in the vierendeel
panels, these should be designed for shear force also.
The typical design procedure consists of the following steps
1. Find out Effective length (Le=0.85L) of top chord member.
2. Choose Section for chord (top & bottom) members & determine Section classification.
3. Determine axial, shear & moment capacity- Pc = Agpc, Pv = 0.6*Py*Av, Mcx,top = Py*Zx
respectively.
4. Determine Neutral axis depth in concrete, 0.45fcuBeXc= A*py
5. Determine composite moment capacity, Mc = Rb(Dt+Ds-0.5 Xc-Xb)
6. Determine Moment resistance for vierendeel bending, Mv= Mcv+2Mb(1-T/Rb)+2Mt
7. Find out spacing and numbers of shear stud.
8. Check vierendeel for unbalanced imposed loads.
9. Design of other truss member i.e. diagonal member, vertical member etc.
10. Check for deflection and natural frequency.(as per euro code 4)
Where,
At = X-sectional area of the top chord
Ac = X-sectional area of concrete in the effective breadth on slab
Be = Effective breadth of the concrete slab
Dt = Overall depth of truss
Ds = overall depth of slab
Dp = depth of profiled deck
d = depth of angle or tee section diameter
fsk = characteristic strength of reinforcement
fcu = Cube strength of concrete
Mcv = Moment capacity due to composite action of the top chord
Mt = Moment capacity of the top chord
 Mb = Moment capacity of the bottom chord
Pc = Axial resistance of concrete
Rt = Compressive or tensile resistance of the top chord
Rb = Tensile resistance of the bottom chord
rvv = Radius of gyration about the weakest axis
e = Effective modular ratio, depends in long & short term loading
f = Partial safety factor for loads
m = Partial safety factor for material

Mcv= moment resistance due to composite action of top chord & slab = Rt[(Ds+Dp)/2+Xt]
Rb = tensile capacity of bottom chord = AbPy
Mb,min= moment capacity of bottom chord = PyZx

Conclusion
In the entire roof framing system, it is observed that the composite truss provide the best solution in the
range of 12 - 22 m spans and it has a least steel weight. The analysis and design of the composite truss is
depends upon the class of the compression flange and web. The truss system can facilitate the
concentration of material at the structurally most efficient locations for transfer of force; hence
theoretically composite truss can provide the least steel weight of any steel framing system.