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Test anxiety, perfectionism, goal

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a a
KoUn Eum & Kenneth G. Rice
a
Department of Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL,
USA
Published online: 24 May 2010.

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 Anxiety, Stress, & Coping
Vol. 24, No. 2, March 2011, 167
178

Test anxiety, perfectionism, goal orientation, and academic performance

KoUn Eum and Kenneth G. Rice*

Department of Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA

(Received 8 October 2009; final version received 22 April 2010)
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Dimensions of perfectionism and goal orientation have been reported to have

differential relationships with test anxiety. However, the degree of inter-relation-
ship between different dimensions of perfectionism, the 2 2 model of goal
orientations proposed by Elliot and McGregor, cognitive test anxiety, and
academic performance indicators is not known. Based on data from 134
university students, we conducted correlation and regression analyses to test
associations between adaptive and maladaptive perfectionism, four types of goal
orientations, cognitive test anxiety, and two indicators of academic performance:
proximal cognitive performance on a word list recall test and distal academic
performance in terms of grade point average. Cognitive test anxiety was inversely
associated with both performance indicators, and positively associated with
maladaptive perfectionism and avoidance goal orientations. Adaptive and
maladaptive perfectionism accounted for significant variance in cognitive test
anxiety after controlling for approach and avoidance goal orientations. Overall,
nearly 50% of the variance in cognitive test anxiety could be attributed to gender,
goal orientations, and perfectionism. Results suggested that students who are
highly test anxious are likely to be women who endorse avoidance goal
orientations and are maladaptively perfectionistic.
Keywords: test anxiety; perfectionism; goal orientation; academic performance;
word recall; grade point average

The purpose of this study was to examine the association between cognitive test
anxiety and different dimensions of perfectionism and achievement goal orientations,
and then to further test the association between these three constructs and academic
performance. Previous studies are in agreement that cognitive test anxiety decreases
the academic performance (Zeidner, 1998). Worry about failure, self-criticism,
comparing self-performance to others, and distraction are commonly entertained
by test-anxious people in evaluation situations (Flett & Blankstein, 1994; Hembree,
1988). Worry, understood to mean any cognitive expression concern about ones
own performance (Liebert & Morris, 1967, p. 975), is the definitive and most
powerful component of cognitive test anxiety in academic performance (Sarason,
1988). At various stages of an evaluation process, people with high test anxiety are
adversely affected by worry, especially worry associated with the consequences of
failure (Flett & Blankstein, 1994).

*Corresponding author. Email: kgr1@ufl.edu

Portions of this study were presented at the 4th conference on Emerging Adulthood, Atlanta,
GA, in October 2009.
ISSN 1061-5806 print/1477-2205 online
# 2010 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/10615806.2010.488723
http://www.informaworld.com
 168 K. Eum and K.G. Rice

Empirical findings have consistently reported that high levels of cognitive test
anxiety are negatively related to global indices for academic performance, such as
scores on standardized achievement tests, grades, and overall grade point average
(GPA) (Chapell et al., 2005; Putwain, Connors, & Symes, 2010; Zeidner, 1990). Tests
requiring generic cognitive functions, such as memory and attention, seem prone to
the adverse effects of high cognitive test anxiety. For instance, compared to those
with low test anxiety, people with high test anxiety show poor performance in
delayed retrieval of a word list, digit span tests, and paired-associate learning tests
(e.g., MacLeod & Donnellan, 1993), and on more complex memory tasks, especially
when those tasks are low on sequential processing demands (Dutke & Sto ber, 2001).
Among highly test-anxious individuals, worries and self-deprecatory internal
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dialog regarding failure intrude into consciousness, disrupt cognitive functions, and
generally occupy cognitive capacity which otherwise could be deployed to aid test
performance (Hembree, 1988). The main goal of the present study is to clarify how
cognitive test anxiety is related to personality constructs, specifically perfectionism
and goal orientation, that have particular relevance to worry, self-deprecatory
internal dialog, and academic performance.

Perfectionism and cognitive test anxiety

Perfectionism can be defined as extremely high-performance expectations, often
referred to as high personal standards (Slaney, Rice, & Ashby, 2002). Very high-
performance expectations combined with low levels of negative self-evaluation have
been termed as adaptive perfectionism, whereas maladaptive perfectionism has been
characterized by high-performance expectations and extreme self-blame when failing
to meet standards (Rice & Ashby, 2007). In the present study, we operationalized the
relative effects of maladaptive, self-critical perfectionism by controlling the effects of
high-performance standards and likewise examined adaptive perfectionism by
partialling the effects of self-critical perfectionism on high-performance standards.
The association between perfectionism, test anxiety, and performance appears to
rest on the degree to which perfectionistic striving could be considered as adaptive or
maladaptive. For example, several authors have found that maladaptive forms of
perfectionism (socially prescribed perfectionism, discrepancy) were positively
associated with overall test anxiety (Mills & Blankstein, 2000; Stoeber, Feast, &
Hayward, 2009), although some of this research has surprisingly found maladaptive
perfectionism to be unrelated to concerns about failing in a test situation (Stoeber,
Feast, et al., 2009). Self-oriented perfectionism or high-performance expectations do
not appear to have a unique or consistent association with test anxiety across studies.
For example, after controlling for the effects of maladaptive perfectionism, Bieling,
Israeli, and Antony (2004), Mills and Blankstein (2000), and Stoeber, Feast, et al.
(2009), found a non-significant correlation between self-oriented perfectionism (or a
composite, personal standards factor) and test anxiety.
When examining facets of test anxiety, Stoeber, Feast, et al. (2009) found a positive
association between self-oriented perfectionism and concerns about failing, a more
specific and maladaptive element of cognitive test anxiety, and this finding suggested
that self-oriented perfectionism was associated with more anxiety. However, they also
found negative correlations with interference and lack of confidence. The directions of
those latter effects suggested self-oriented perfectionism was associated with less test
 Anxiety, Stress, & Coping 169

anxiety. These results led Stoeber, Feast, et al. (2009, p. 425) to conclude that
self-oriented perfectionism is an ambivalent form of perfectionism, and they also
supported the importance of examining test anxiety from a multidimensional
perspective. It is also important to recognize that maladaptive perfectionism may be
more strongly associated with perceived poor academic performance (e.g., satisfaction
with grades) than actual performance (e.g., GPA) (Grzegorek, Slaney, Franze, & Rice,
2004; Rice, Bair, Castro, Cohen, & Hood, 2003) whereas the positive association
between adaptive perfectionism and both perceived and actual performance seems
more consistent (Rice & Ashby, 2007; Stoeber & Kersting, 2007).
Consistent with Stoeber, Feast, et al. (2009), Dunkley, Blankstein, Masheb, and
Grilo (2006) pointed out that combinations of test anxiety domains may not present
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an accurate picture of the relationship between cognitive test anxiety and

perfectionism because different domains might have different relationships, in terms
of direction and magnitude, with perfectionism. To our knowledge, only Stoeber,
Feast, et al. (2009) specifically investigated multiple components of cognitive test
anxiety and perfectionism, though that study did not include an actual performance
measure. The present study sought to build on earlier work by incorporating an
academic performance task, similar to other studies examining sports-related
performance (e.g., Stoeber, Uphill, & Hotham, 2009), and examining the role of
achievement goal orientations in adaptive and maladaptive forms of perfectionism
and their links to cognitive test anxiety (with emphasis on worry) and performance.

Goal orientations and cognitive test anxiety

Goal orientation refers to different ways of approaching, engaging in, and responding
to achievement situations (Ames, 1992, p. 261). Although different conceptualiza-
tions and operationalizations exist, in the current study, we used Elliot and
McGregors (2001) 22 achievement motivation framework: mastery (approach,
avoidance) and performance (approach, avoidance). In this framework, people who
emphasize mastery goals strive for acquiring knowledge or improving competence
whereas those with performance goals focus on competence relative to others.
Approach goals indicate movement toward the attainment of success (make the best
of achievement situations and make good impressions) whereas avoidance goals refer
to the avoidance of failure (concerns about being able to master the task and concerns
about appearing worse than others).
Performance goals have positive associations with worries associated with fear of
failure and total test anxiety (Elliot & Church, 1997; McGregor & Elliot, 2002).
Adaptive, striving for perfection has been positively related to mastery- and
performance-approach goals whereas maladaptive, negative reactions to imperfection
have been associated with mastery-avoidance goals and, during competition, with
performance-avoidance goals (Stoeber, Stoll, Pescheck, & Otto, 2008). In research on
academic performance, performance-avoidance goal orientations have been associated
with poor academic performance whereas mastery goal orientations were linked to
positive academic performance. Performance-approach goal orientations have been
positively related to a limited set of positive academic performance outcome variables
(Harackiewicz, Barron, Pintrich, Elliot, & Thrash, 2002).
 170 K. Eum and K.G. Rice

The present study

To our knowledge, no study has explored the concurrent relationship between
cognitive test anxiety, perfectionism, goal orientation (using the 2 2 framework),
and academic performance outcomes. We expected an empirically clear form of
adaptive perfectionism [high-performance expectations (standards) controlling
for maladaptive self-criticism] would show a pattern of associations consistent with
an emphasis on mastery over performance and approach rather than avoidance in
goal orientations. We also expected that a clear form of maladaptive perfectionism
(self-critical evaluation of adequacy in meeting performance expectations) would
reveal a strong and pervasive pattern of avoidance, more than approach, in goal
orientations. Because of research indicating positive associations between maladaptive
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perfectionism and test anxiety (e.g., Mills & Blankstein, 2000; Stoeber, Feast, et al.,
2009), we expected maladaptive perfectionism would be positively associated with test
anxiety. We also expected cognitive test anxiety to be positively associated with
avoidance goal orientations and inversely associated with approach orientations. In
terms of academic performance, we used a word list recall task and GPA as indicators
and expected both to be inversely associated with test anxiety. We attempted a partial
replication of Stoeber, Feast, et al.s (2009) findings in which we expected adaptive and
maladaptive perfectionism to account for significant variance in cognitive test anxiety
after controlling for goal orientations [Stoeber, Feast, et al. (2009) studied intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation and the present study used the 22 mastery and performance
goal orientation framework]. We expected the directions of effects in that model to
differ for the two perfectionism dimensions. Gender differences have been shown in
prior studies of cognitive test anxiety (e.g., Cassady & Johnson, 2002), so gender was
controlled in the major study analyses.

Method
Participants
A total of 134 undergraduate students (62% women) participated in this study.
Students were recruited from general psychology classes in a large, public university
in the southern region of the US. Participant age range was 18
23 years (M 19.08,
SD 1.25). Because the word list recall test was based on English, only native
speakers of English were permitted to participate in order to control for English
language proficiency. About 28 students (21%) were in their first semester at the
university and thus were unable to provide their GPA.1 Two other students did not
provide their cumulative GPA.

Measures
The Cognitive Test Anxiety Scale (CTS; Cassady & Johnson, 2002) contained 27 items
tapping cognitive components of test anxiety (e.g., I lose sleep over worrying about
examinations). Participants rated their level of agreement with each statement on the
CTS based on a scale from 1 (not at all typical of me) through 4 (very typical of me).
The Almost Perfect Scale-Revised (APS-R) was used to measure perfectionism
(Slaney, Rice, Mobley, Trippi, & Ashby, 2001). The APS-R is comprised seven items
to measure high-performance expectations (High Standards subscale) (e.g., I have
 Anxiety, Stress, & Coping 171

high expectations for myself), 12 to capture a self-critical aspect of perfectionism

(Discrepancy subscale) (e.g., I hardly ever feel that what Ive done is good enough),
and four measure preferences for organization (Order subscale) (e.g., I am an orderly
person). Participants responded to each item using a scale of 1 (strongly disagree)
through 7 (strongly agree). In the present study, separate regression analyses were
conducted in which each of two perfectionism scores (High Standards and
Discrepancy) were used to predict the other. Standardized residuals from those
analyses were used as our indicators of adaptive and maladaptive perfectionism
dimensions (Rice, Lopez, & Vergara, 2005).2
The Achievement Goal Questionnaire (AGQ; Elliot & McGregor, 2001) contained
a total of 12 items that measured each of the four achievement goals: mastery approach
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(e.g., I want to learn as much as possible from this class), mastery avoidance (e.g., I
worry that I may not learn all that I possibly could from this class), performance
approach (e.g., My goal in this class is to get a better grade than most of the students),
and performance avoidance (e.g., My goal for this class is to avoid performing poorly).
Participants responded to items using a seven-point scale from 1 (not at all true of me)
through 7 (very true of me); average item scores were computed for each goal
orientation type. In this study, students were instructed to respond to items with
respect to their current general psychology class.
Finally, academic performance was assessed by GPA and a word list recall test. For
the word list recall test, a word list of 45 words from the Rey Auditory-Verbal Learning
Test (RAVLT; Spreen & Strauss, 1991) was utilized. The words were simple and easy
(e.g., drum, moon, and bell) so that the impact of individual vocabulary level on
retrieval was minimized. A word list recall task is a commonly used method to examine
learning and memory performance (e.g., Skinner & Fernandes, 2008). Deception was
used in order to prime for test anxiety. At the top of the word list, the instructions read,
This task is a strong predictor of the intelligence of the test taker. Results of this task
predict success in academic areas as well as future career success. Participants had
5 minutes to memorize the word list during which time they could use any preferred
strategies. After 5 minutes, the word list was taken from the participant and an answer
sheet was provided. Then, participants had 5 minutes to write down as many words as
s/he could recall from the list, without regard to the ordering of the words. The total
number of correctly recalled words was calculated.

Procedure
The study was approved by the universitys Institutional Review Board and a signed
informed consent form was collected before the experiment and after debriefing. The
experimental session consisted of two parts: a word list recall test and completion of
self-report questionnaires. Half of the participants were randomly assigned to
complete the word recall task first; the other half completed the questionnaires first.

Results
Preliminary analyses
Table 1 presents means, standard deviations, and Cronbachs coefficients alpha for
each of the scores. Interestingly, individuals who had been randomly assigned to
 172
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Table 1. Descriptive statistics and partial correlations between anxiety, perfectionism, goal orientation, word recall, and GPA, controlling for sequence
effects and gender.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

1. Cognitive test anxiety 1.00

K. Eum and K.G. Rice

2. High standards .08 1.00
3. Discrepancy .50*** .11 1.00
4. Adaptive perfectionism .03 1.00 .02 1.00
5. Maladaptive perfectionism .50*** .01 1.00 .08 1.00
6. Mastery approach .15 .46*** .20* .45*** .16 1.00
7. Mastery avoidance .40*** .18* .39*** .14 .38*** .34*** 1.00
8. Performance approach .05 .24** .21* .22* .19* .23** .20* 1.00
9. Performance avoidance .38*** .01 .21* .03 .21* .06 .27** .04 1.00
10. Word recall .18* .16 .01 .16 .03 .17 .11 .03 .08 1.00
11. GPA .17 .17 .17 .18 .19 .03 .17 .15 .25* .11 1.00
M 62.93 41.76 42.24 .04 .05 5.05 4.10 5.01 4.92 23.02 3.32
SD 15.54 5.71 11.60 1.06 .93 1.06 1.23 1.19 1.42 6.76 .48
Cronbachs alpha .93 .87 .90

.79 .63 .83 .82


Note: We used pairwise deletion of missing data. N125
129, except for analyses involving GPA (N 96).
*pB.05; **pB.01; ***pB.001; based on two-tailed tests.
 Anxiety, Stress, & Coping 173

experience the word list recall test first, before completing the questionnaires, had
significantly higher CTS and Discrepancy scores compared with those who had been
randomly assigned to complete the questionnaires first, before they were adminis-
tered the word list recall test, t(131) 
2.90 (d .50) and
3.74 (d .65), pB.005,
respectively. Because of the size and significance of these findings, the sequence effect
was controlled in all remaining analyses. The manipulation check indicated that
anxiety was successfully primed: 80% of the participants reported at least some
pressure to perform well on the word list recall test.

Correlations
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Partial correlations were calculated between the scores, controlling for the sequence
effects of test administration and gender (each dummy-coded 0, 1) (Table 1). There
was a significant, inverse correlation between cognitive test anxiety and word list
recall, and, in terms of effect size (but not statistical significance because of the
reduced sample size), a trend effect in the inverse correlation between test anxiety
and GPA (p B.10); test-anxious students performed less well on the academic
indicators. In addition, test-anxious students were more likely to be maladaptively
perfectionistic, and more avoidant in their goal orientations than less anxious
students. As expected, adaptively perfectionistic students were more likely to be
concerned with approach than avoidance goals. Based on essentially a null
correlation, there was no apparent link between adaptive perfectionism and cognitive
test anxiety.
Using a Meng test (Meng, Rosenthal, & Rubin, 1992), there was a statistically
stronger association between adaptive perfectionism and mastery approach goals
than between adaptive perfectionism and performance approach goals (p B.05).
Expectations regarding maladaptive perfectionism were partly supported by some-
what stronger correlations with avoidance goal orientations than approach orienta-
tions. For example, the correlation between maladaptive perfectionism and mastery
avoidance was significantly greater than the correlation between maladaptive
perfectionism and mastery approach (pB.05). However, the correlation between
maladaptive perfectionism and performance avoidance was not significantly different
from the correlation between maladaptive perfectionism and performance approach.
The positive correlation between adaptive perfectionism and GPA was significantly
different from the negative correlation between maladaptive perfectionism and GPA
(pB.005), but there was no difference in the correlations between perfectionism
dimensions and word list recall.

Hierarchical regression analyses

To partially replicate Stoeber, Feast, et al.s (2009) findings, after controlling for
covariates, we regressed cognitive test anxiety on the four goal orientations,
DR2 .21, pB.001. In the next step, the two perfectionism dimensions accounted
for significant, additional variation in cognitive test anxiety, DR2 .10, pB.001.
After this last step, the significant individual predictors were mastery- (b .17) and
performance-avoidance (b.24) goal orientations, and maladaptive perfectionism
(b.37). In the final model, almost 50% of the variance in cognitive test anxiety was
 174 K. Eum and K.G. Rice

accounted for by gender, goal orientations, and perfectionism. These results are
summarized in Table 2.

Discussion
The purpose of this study was to investigate the inter-relations between cognitive test
anxiety, different dimensions of perfectionism, and goal orientation, and how these
constructs are related to proximal (as measured by a word list recall test) and distal
(as measured by GPA) academic performance variables. More test-anxious students
performed poorer on the recall task and their trend was also to perform less well in
terms of overall academic achievement. These results, in size and direction, are
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consistent with other studies of cognitive test anxiety and academic performance. For
example, Putwain et al. (2010) reported a
.23 correlation between test-anxious
worry and total points earned by students (sum of grades in math, science, and
English) and in regression and path analyses, Cassady and Johnson (2002) reported
partial regression coefficients ranging from
.22 to
.26 for the association between
cognitive test anxiety and academic performance indicators. The strength of these
associations provides further warrant for examining the inter-relations among
variables linked to variation in performance.
Consistent with expectations and prior research (Chan, 2009; Stoeber et al.,
2008), adaptively perfectionistic students endorsed approach goals over avoidance
goals and emphasized mastery over performance. Adaptive perfectionists were more

Table 2. Goal orientation and perfectionism predicting cognitive test anxiety.

B SE B b DR2

Step 1: Covariates .17***

Sequence effects 7.69 2.55 .25**
Gender 10.78 2.66 .33***
Step 2: Goal orientation .21***
Sequence effects 5.39 2.27 .17*
Gender 8.11 2.51 .25**
Mastery approach 1.35 1.22 .09
Mastery avoidance 3.57 1.04 .28***
Performance approach .74 .99 .06
Performance avoidance 3.10 .83 .29***
Step 3: Perfectionism .10***
Sequence effects 2.12 2.21 .07
Gender 8.10 2.34 .25***
Mastery approach .89 1.25 .06
Mastery avoidance 2.19 1.00 .17*
Performance approach 1.29 .93 .10
Performance avoidance 2.61 .77 .24***
Adaptive perfectionism .62 1.24 .04
Maladaptive perfectionism 5.84 1.22 .37***
Note: N 129. Adaptive and maladaptive perfectionism based on residualized High Standards and
Discrepancy scores. Sequence effect was coded 0 (word recall test after completing questionnaires) or 1
(word recall test before completing questionnaires). Gender was coded 0 (female) or 1 (male).
*p B.05; **pB.01; ***p B.001; based on two-tailed tests.
 Anxiety, Stress, & Coping 175

likely to endorse intrinsic than extrinsic motivation for learning (Stoeber, Feast,
et al., 2009) and to express interest in making the most they can out of achievement
situations. In contrast, maladaptively perfectionistic students tended to endorse goal
orientations consistent with fearing failure and concerns regarding their adequacy in
mastering material. Not surprisingly, these students were also highly likely to
experience cognitive test anxiety whereas essentially no relationship between anxiety
and adaptive perfectionism was noted, consistent with other studies (Bieling et al.,
2004; Mills & Blankstein, 2000; Stoeber, Feast, et al., 2009). The two forms of
perfectionism also appeared to have different implications for learning and
performance outcomes, with directions of effects consistent with prior research
(Blankstein, Dunkley, & Wilson, 2008; Chang, 2006). Although neither dimension
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was statistically associated with word list recall or GPA, the strength of the
association with GPA (but not recall) differed for the two perfectionism dimensions.
These latter effects suggest that positive or negative implications of perfectionism are
unlikely to be detected in proximal learning tasks, or unless the relative effects or
correlates of the different perfectionism dimensions are considered conjointly rather
than separately. Another implication is that, regardless of whether eventual academic
achievement for perfectionists is enhanced, or harmed, perfectionistic students
emphasize different approaches to learning. Adaptive perfectionists appear inter-
ested in learning for learnings sake and, although they may desire a positive
outcome, that does not appear to be their primary goal (Mills & Blankstein, 2000).
Maladaptive perfectionists appear more concerned making good impressions in
performance situations, not betraying their inadequacies (Mills & Blankstein, 2000),
and fearing failure. Also, although they may desire high grades, it is likely they will
be dissatisfied regardless of performance outcome (Grzegorek et al., 2004; Rice et al.,
2003).
Correlation and regression analyses indicated that 31% of the variability in
cognitive test anxiety could be attributed to goal orientations and perfectionism.
Indeed, with covariates in the model, we were able to account for nearly 50% of the
variability in cognitive test anxiety scores. These findings and the absence of any
substantial role for adaptive perfectionism to play in cognitive test anxiety, are in line
with the general agreement that it is more the negative reactions to ones failure to
meet standards than high-performance expectations in themselves that yield the
potential for academic performance and other, psychological consequences (Grze-
gorek et al., 2004; Slaney et al., 2002). The pattern of significant and non-significant
predictors is also consistent with previous findings regarding the deleterious nature
of avoidance goals and benign or non-deleterious aspect of approach goal
orientation (e.g., Elliot & Church, 1997; McGregor & Elliot, 2002).
Our findings should be considered in the context of design and measurement
decisions used in the current study, as well as study limitations. Longitudinal work that
links multiple later indicators of academic or job-related performance to earlier
assessed personality and goal orientation variables would strengthen our under-
standing of the roles these predictors play over time and over performance situations.
Whether the pattern and strength of predictors of cognitive test anxiety generalize to
clinical contexts is another matter that might be of future interest. For example, the
current results suggest that counselors may want to explore maladaptive perfectionism
and avoidance goal orientations as additional risk factors for clients presenting with
test anxiety concerns. Collaborations between counselors and other professionals who
 176 K. Eum and K.G. Rice

work with students experiencing test anxiety in university counseling centers may
result in further support or refinement of such recommendations.
An accidental finding in the present study also seems worthy of further research.
Apparently, making a cognitive performance task salient increases cognitive test
anxiety and maladaptive perfectionism. This effect may be consistent with cognitive
models that suggest certain dysfunctional self-relevant personality characteristics
such as perfectionism are not necessarily problematic unless activated by stressful
experiences (Brown & Beck, 2002). In the current study, test performance may bring
the discrepancy between expected and actual performance into consciousness,
producing negative emotions and perceptions on self. Interestingly, this finding
suggests that future research may want to examine performance-based interventions
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as approaches to test the malleability of maladaptive perfectionism.

In the present study, cognitive test anxiety was assessed as a general orientation
to test anxiety rather than a specific set of concerns tethered to a specific academic
task. Goal orientations were measured with respect to a specific college course but we
were not able to obtain actual performance data from that course. Future studies
might address some of these issues by including measures of state test anxiety in the
context of a specific academic performance situation, with goal orientations similarly
aligned at that level of specificity. In addition, some have recently raised concerns
about the AGQ, such as overlapping content or value-laden items, and suggested a
revised version of the AGQ (AGQ-Revised; Elliot & Murayama, 2008). Replication
of the current study using the AGQ-R would be a reasonable next step.
In summary, we specifically focused on cognitive test anxiety and its relationship
with different dimensions of perfectionism and the 22 goal orientation framework,
with additional attention on actual task performance and overall academic
achievement. The association between cognitive test anxiety, maladaptive perfection-
ism, and avoidance goals in this study supported a need to consider maladaptive
perfectionism and goal orientation concurrently with cognitive test anxiety in
predicting academic performance.

Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to Mark Lynn, Kyle Sandell, and Ashley Taylor for their assistance
with this research.

Notes
1. A multivariate analysis of variance using the main study variables (excluding GPA)
indicated no significant differences in the variance
covariance matrices for the first-
semester students and the other students, Boxs M49.71, p .15.
2. Following Stoeber and Otto (2006, pp. 313
314), the Order subscale was not necessary
given our interest in adaptive and maladaptive perfectionism.

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