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Radio waves dOBI WKuD ud u
Microwave ndJO* u
Infrared Rays dL( X% WF_
visible WOzd* WF_
Ultra violet WOHM u WF_
X-rays WOMO WF_

Gamma Ray UU WF
Cosmic rays WOuJ WF_
d*U Wu* u
1 1 - 10-3 10-3 - 7x10-7 7x10-7 - 4x10-7 4x10-7 - 10-8 10-8 - 10-12 10-12 - ...
WUM dJ UOO_ UdOJ e' c uM r Wu*
ud ndJO dL( X% WOzd* WOHM u WOMO UU WF Wu*
wOUMGdNJ nOD UuJ qJ
p Wu* u d w UNMO ULO nK Wd fHM dH w dAM WIU Uu* q

WO W F V
Ud Wu* u uC Wd
c=fx
YO
WOU d uC Wd c
edONU Wu* d f
d*U Wu* u
U Ud dOBI Wu*U UN U Ud s q l U OJ VUM Wu* u W F s k
WOOUMGdNJ UUF qJA `{u q UN U qOK Ud WKuD Wu* d UN U
Uu Uu WF_ WF_

ud ndJO dL( X% WOzd* WF_ WOHM u WOMO WF_ UU WF
WKuD Wu* dOBI Wu*

qOK Ud U Ud
q UN U d UN U
W UD dU Wu* u jd w W F qJA

WOzd* WF_
duU wu uD wHMuCU b UeO9 WdA 5F lOD w UUF w
qJA w UL (4.28 1014 Hz) duU wu uD dL_ uCU wNM(7.51014 Hz)
400 nm
w????H?M?
w?? ? ? K? ? ? ?O? ? ? ?

d?? ? ? C? ? ? ?
d?? ? ? ?H? ? ? ??
w?? U?? I? ?d??

d?? ? ? ? L? ? ? ? ?
700 nm
wzd* nOD u qJA
d WU WdA 5F b
d_ s UMNM& ULK nOD u_
WU vK uJ qb v
dC_ uK bM WdA 5FK
WU
`{u dOuU wu* uD

WU bI 5 W F qJA
Wu* u 5F
WU; UuLK WMU U
dOuU Wu* u
u WF_ UL WOzd* WF_ b*
Wu* u WdA 5F WU 5 W F qJA
WF_ wUF d WOHM
q _ d dL( X%
L d UN dL( X% WF_U ULN% tUDU sJ ULN lOD U S
qLF YO WOKOK Wd eN vL WOzd WF v dL( X% WF_ qu% q qLF dOU UM bu

dH UN dF S WOHM u WF WMU U U_ s lA w dL( X% WF_ l vK
bK' Ud V b bK' w U d V WKu

u??C U??O
uC UO w Wb * bu UOLJ iF wQ ULO
Brightness uK W uD
Lux f uK bu UI U{
Lumen suK bu UI uC ob
Candela WFLAU UI U{ b
u* U w
uCK wzUdNJ d_

u* U w uC dR nO sJ uC WFO s WIUdIH w UMLKJ
5O 5dUE b w WK
u* W u* vK uC dOH sLJ
(Photoelectric Effect) WOzu{dNJ dUE

d e
] 5 w U* d UuuH s e SWOzu{ We( WK
u t U idF bM
YO uM s bF_ RUJ b w UdJ W U b U U* UdJ l bDBh1 u
S WOU uuH s WBL* W UD XU S vK W U u v iHM W U u s dJ qIM
pc hole u W
uIM WOLU WD U U tUJ d d `B b s XKH dJ c
U U0 dJuWMA U s U uJO WK
u* t U* w uu UB S
U wMF WOzu{dNJ dUEU e WK
u* t U* WOK
u S j U uC WU l e WMA
uCK UN{dF WO WK
u* W u* WOK
u
(Photovoltaic Effect) wzu{ dNJ dOQ dU

U s WK
d^ F s Yb( r dUE c w
P N
k YO uCK (p-n)Vu rOFD U VU rOFD
UNd vK WOzUdN WF u bu uCK WK
u dF ULKF
V
u U OzUdN UO S d_ c 5 wzUdN qL q

wJ UO WU w P-N WK
qJA VU WK
uK dHM p Ò{u d
UOzUM b w pF d U vK ULU Vu
WOzu{dNJ dUE
dF e eM WIDM d S qJA w UL wJ UO WU w WK
u XU
WMA U dF YOd( W qFH 5dD w bu* WOK WMA U WK
u

U dF 5 w VU rOFD U* U&U UdJ Vu* rOFD U* w WOK _
"UM UO dF Vu* rOFD U* U&U uH VU rOFD U* w WOK _ WMA
(Dark current) E UO W d( c s
uC Uuu bDB UbM
uC WF
W UD S Vu VU WdA
H V UuuH c s WBL*
rOFD WU U
bu RUJ b UdJ iF
uH UdJ s U
rOFD Wu U
wze s q w (Electron hole pair)
wbF f WMA U b e WdA
P-N WK
vK uC uI d qJA
.bF fHM WOK _ Wd _
UO S wJ UO WU w WK
u uJ WOK _ UM vK d Ue W uJ pc
WK
u d vK bu WOzUdN WF u S WuH w WK
u XU e wJF d
qJA w UL
UNM U CF UMM w WOzuC WOdJ d
UMF s bbF UM - 5dUE 5U vK ULU
wQ ULO
(Photo Resistor) WOzuC WUI*

UNLO VUM UND vK WD U U{ bA U F UNLO b WUI w WOzuC WUI*
vK ULU p dOH sJ1 uCK UN{dF bM UNLO h UM YO U{ b l U OJU UM
WOzu{dNJ dUE
Ue dF qJA vKD uCK WU WK
u W U s WOzuC WUI* lMB WOzuC WUI* VO d
U* Ud qB uC d0 `L UH G nKG WU bU vK uCK dF* WUI* `D
.qJA w UL WOzuC WUILK WOU) qO
u d JA 5ObF 5 WK
u* t
uCK WU U
WU bU
qO
u d
WOzuC WUI* e ?qJA WOzu{ WUI qJA WOzu{ WUI* lDI qJA

WOK)U WHK UOL0 WOKLF UIOD w dF qJA w 5* edU WOzuC WUILK ed
uC vK bLF* WUI* (Photo Conductor) wzuC q
u* (Photo Electric Cell) WOzu{dNJ
(Light Dependent Resistor 'LDR')
U uO d dO_ bF
WUI* UNM lMB w U* vK UNOU bLF WHK* uC Uu* WU WOzuC WUI*
b Ud WOzuC UUI* dN s WOzuC
c CdS uOUJ bOd U s WuMB* pK
uK q WOzuC UUI* WUMB qLF d u UM WOzd* WF_ b w WUF WUI*
ULdO U
d bOd U
d
uCU U UL sd w U FOL dA UIOD s dO w WOzuC UUI* qLF
d c UIOD c s EU U
O uA U w rJ tb uC u vK bLF* rJ WLE

od uu c tb uC u vK bLF* c WLE
Vu qOGA d YO s WUF WUI*U qUF WOzuC WUI* Q dO c UMuH dO

UD_ YO s pc bI U
uB UNUd
uC bU wzUdN qL qOGA rJ% 5 qJA U
WOzuC WUI* bU d qOGA w rJ qJA
b qL
WUI* WLO S
] WOU U{ b uJ UbMF b qOGA w rJK wU_ qUF uC bF

uJ* WOuH e s ued bU vK wzUdNJ bN' WLO b% YO WCHM uJ WOzuC

WLOI WCHM WU( c w WOzuC WUI* uJ WOzuC WUI* WLO WU WUI* dOG* WUI* s
qLF qB WU w vI c uedK UO dOu U dO WLOI iHM uJ UNOK bN' S
qd*U qB* qL(
wzUdNJ bN' WLO b% WOU uJ WOzuC WUI* WLO S WCHM U{ b uJ UbM U
WOzuC WUI* WLO WU WUI* dOG* WUI* s uJ* WOuH e s ued bU vK
uedK UO dOu U OU U OU uJ UNOK bN' U WLOI WOU WU( c w WOzuC WUI* uJ
t qB* qL( qLF pc tU l{ s dOGO qd* nK w UO dLO q
WU v u c
R???????????????
s q WHO b
dOG* WUI*
(R1) WU WUI*
qd* l u
u* wzUM
R???????????????
qLF b qL fJ sJ1 nO uC UDI bM qLF qL( oU U* w UME
uC u bM
(Photo Diode) wzuC wzUM

wzuC wzUdNJ dOQ dU vK wzUM qLF WOzuC d
UMF b wzuC wzUM bF
WU w u
u* wzUM w U* wJF d UO U vK uC qLF (Photovoltaic Effect)
bM WUI h UM U Ud sJ WOU WUI t wJ UO WU w u
u* wzUMU wJ UO
tOK WD U U{ b l U d wJF d UO VUM uC uI
WOdJ b w wJ UO WU w tK
r wzu{ fL wzuC wzUM s UH
WUM rOC l wzuC wzUM q
u wJF d UO WLO dGB dE
tA E w UF wzUM qL wzuC wzUM qLF
qOGA b UD_ YO s UF wzUM wzuC wzUM
b w t ed hH d wJF qOGA bN bIU
wzuC wzUM e qJA
qJA w UL edU WOdJ
u wzuC wzUM eO1 U sJ WOzuC WUI* UNO b w pK UIOD wzuC wzUMK

uCU WIKF* WIO b UUOIK U UM tKF U2 wD qJA uJ uCK WU
WOzuC ued ?
WbI
tA wzuC uedK lzUA uM uCK WU ued w WOzuC ued
uCK U `D b c bUI d b sJ WODI wzUM ued
YO WOzuC WOuH dUE vK bLF t UF ued qL wzuC ued qL tA
uCK U( `D vK U{ b l VUM uCU bu bUI UO
UO d1 lD WU w `B E w wzuC ued l{ bM
dOG
bU UO d1 uCK U( `D dF bM YU lL* 5
ued UC bu UL YU lL* 5 d1 dO UO p s ZM
c Wu bN bOu w wzuC dOQ b w WOzuC U* dOQ
wzuC ued qJA (Source)lM* (Drain)dB* UO rJ
wzuC ued qL WO

U Ozu{ ued qJA 5
bN bB l u
u WODI wzUM 5d
U IU Ud UL YU lL* tOd vK
u WODI wzUM ued qL tKL tA
bM dO P bUI WI UF NPN
WOzu{ WF
u l uC Uuu bDB uCK UN{dF
UdJ U WOU W U UNJ P U* UdJ
lL* WIDM v qB eM WIDM eU
c& U Ud Wu Uu UNUJ d N
UdJ dO U& qJA pc WO N YU UdJ UNO
tKL WO 5dD wzuC ued e qJA
YU v lL* s d1 wzUdN UO
WOzuC ued u
d W WOzuC ued

bUI w UO bOu vK U dO 5dD WOzuC ued U0
UO vK uBK U
XO b c bUI d WU{S d W ued UMN VUM YU lL
qJA uCK tOU w rJ s sJ1 YO ued UO
UIOD w d W wzuC ued b sJ1
b 5dD WOzuC ued s b jI 5d bU
bUI d b
ued e qJA
d W wzuC
WOzuC uM ued

lL*
WO
U s UHO wzu{ ued l U ued qO
u sJ1
qL tKL WO tA YO WOzuC WO
U) v WU{U uM WKO
u
sJ uCK tOU v WU{U WODI wzUM uM ued
UNb bU qd ued c du U O dO WU se
qJA
YU
ued e qJA
WOzuC uM
WOzuC uedK WOMH UHu*

vMM qOGA UO bN bF UON bN WUF uedK UL WOzuC uedK
UO V vK ued bU vK j U UF WU vK Ic lL* UO bLF UL hzUB
d_ WO WOzuC ued w wU) bUI UO vK (Gain)
20.0
UO d1 U E WU w
UO vL YU lL* 5 dOG
16.0
sJ1 (dark Current Id) WLKE
ICE (mA)
12.0
nA U w U dGB tUL
8.0 hzUB vMM w qJA 5
4.0 5 W F UMO wzuC ued
lL* UO j U UF b
0 20 40 60 80
Supply voltage VCC (V)
WODI wzUM wzu{ ued hzUB) vMM qJA

LASCR wzuC udU
bFB
dOG UHL qLF UOzu{ qFH udU u wzuC udU
V UJ dd9 WU w vI tOK WOzu{ WC uI d0 tU
Wu qUJU WcG qBH tUD fJFM V tKL UI tM uC
jN qJ
wzuC udU e qJA
wzuC udU qL WO
bFB qJ WUJ qJA w
bFB
bM wzuC udU VO d wO{u
uCK WU WIDM
PN WK
u w P VU' vK uC uI
Wu Wu s UNMJ9 W U VJ UdJ S
UO buO N uM v u
u eHI
U
jN jN w vI qOGA WU v udU qIM
wzuC udU VO d qJA .uC bB UDI bF v WU( c
wzUdN qL (Solar cells) WOLA U)

Uuu dU vK WOLA WOK) qLF
Photovoltaic wzuC wzUdNJ dOQ
N WI vK WOzUdN WF u bu YO Effect
P-N
WK
u
P WI
uCK UN{dF bM WK
d
UdJ UO w wzuC wzUM WOzuC WOK) tA
UND WU w tM nK VO d
vK dOJ `D qLF YO dOJ d
uH UO
WOU d b d WOLA WOK) qF
WOL WOK w lDI qJA
qJA dE uCK
qu UH l q s p bb duD qd0 WOLA WOK) d bI
w uJKO WOK v mK uOMOK WOK) v_ qd* w XU w tO
WUG qu UH UNO qB
q UNK_ XFM
w UIOD ULN sd w WOLA U) WOL hK
e qJA
WOzuC WOK) nUN eN UU WU( WOUMB UL _U WOzUdNJ W UDU eN' be
b* W UDK bBL ULNOU qJA w UL WOzUM oUM* w U eN

bN wDF WOLAWOK)U UUO WOK) bN UL b WOLA WOKK
WOK) `D WU vK UO WLO bLF 5 w U u 5 U U OzUdN
q
r 5uKD* UO bN' vK uBK UND q WD U U{ b
q
u d bN vK uBK wu vK q
u UUD w UL U U9 U)
wzUM qL E w WOLA WOK) qLF d UO vK uBK u vK
qJA w UL WOdJ b w UN ed UF
U b qJA
WOLA W UDU qLF
dFA fL bNK bBL WOd b v WOLA U) b
.WOLA W UDU qLF UEM w bMB jD* qJA 5 uCK
WOL U u bN UL b WOLA WOKK
UM* UOU qLF qL WIdD U) q
r UUO WOK)
UO WU
5uKD* UO bN' vK uB( sLC
sU DC - AC b f U wu vK q
u UUD w UL U U9
AC UM* UOU WcG vK q
u b bN vK uBK
DCdU* UOU WcG b UO vK uBK u
UUD
WOzUdN W U v WOLA W UD qu% vK qLF UEM jD qJA
(Optocouplers) wzuC jd

dG uC bU iF ULNCF 5
u dBM UL wzuC eF wzuC jd
b sJ1 YO WOzUdNJ d* u; qL dO b v p tA wzUdNJ eF
WUL( UNO ud dO dOG b qOGA WOu w 5HK d qLF rJK
wzUdN qK s rJ
w UF{u wzu{ fL wzu{ ued uCK bBL LED wzu{ u U b
wzuC ued qOGA v wzuC ub qOGA R YO rF
u% w wzUdNJ eF w oKG* jd b YO wzuC jd u iF qJA 5
nAJ fL U lODI eU( UH l jd b UL WOzUdNJ FH* w u*
W d( nA W d* d
UM w UJF b UL ÒUHL e U_
uB( s sJ9 wzuC uedU wzuC wzUM Z UNO - WKUJ dzb b c du
qJA w UL Xu s d v qB b wzUdN e vK

bB f
1 4 1 4
bB
VK
r
oKG wzu{ e
2 5 2 5
bB f
3 6 3 6 f
wUJF UH l wzu{ e
WKUJ* wzuC eF UJ iF qJA wzuC eF u iF qJA
wzuC jd eO s

dUF UOuH s WUL(
ZOC u iOH
W dA dO WO{ UIM 5 jd
WOzuC UOdJ vK UIOD
wzuC qOFH
p vK UL uC b dOG od s U qOFH WOKL w wzuC ued b
Relay l qB ued bUI UO rJO wzuC ued b - U U* qJA w
(Dark Activated) E WU w qOGA qOGAK 5U vK qB wzuC ued l u U

qJA w UL (Light Activated) U{ WU w qOGA qJA w UL
+VCC +VCC
E WU w qOGA qJA WzU{ WU w qOGA qJA

qOGA dU rJU wzuC ued b sJ1 UL
qJA w UL pc wzu{ udU b sJ1 Relay
UI
WOzu{ d* UI b wzuC ued b sJ1
U U UNO b w Remote control bF s rJ UIOD w
UNO b qJA 5 Infra Red dL( X% WF_
ued rC l WOzu{ Wu nUJ wzu{ ued
udU b qJA UOI
Relay ? rJU wzuC
Wd UOIL wzu{ ued b WOHO qJA 5
+VCC `L VI tO d b YO b b
b v VI d U* uC R q d d uC d0
b b Wd dF b v b qB* wzuC ued
wKJ b
Vout
wzuC ued qJA

wL d bF v
UI w
Wd UOIL wzuC ued qJA
7 Segment Displays WOL d dF UU

eN_ iF pc UOI eN s bbF w wL dRL WOL d dF UU b
wzUM Q ULK b vK wzUM q WU{S rJ sJ1 uCK tU UOzUM WOUL s uJ WOzUdNJ
dF UU UM w U b U uO d u dL_ uK
wzUdN bN bB l UOzUM lOL qO
u S tOK qJA w wQ UL WL d td UOzUM
q1 uN (d. p) wzUMK WMU U 9 v 0 s U _ WOI WMU cJ WOUL r d dNEO Uu bI
WdAF WU)

5IdD dF UU UM sJ1
(Common Anode Displays) dA* bFB* WKOu
(Anodes) bUB* lOL UUA c w
bB* Wu* dD l Wu
u UOzUMK
bN'
V WKO
u c w wzUM WU{
(a, b, c, d, e, f, g, wzUMU U) jN* qO
u
`zdA WOU d b qJ qJA w UL Xu dH

UbI US d. p)

Vu* bN' bB0 WKO
u c j bM
(2v, 20 mA) bu* UH
u Ud V
qJA w UL jN* l WUI WU{ V tOK

cN d WU WUI* WLO uJ tOK

q UUILK U U& bu* rOI s WLOI
`zdA WOU dF b qO
u qJ 470
(Common Cathode Displays) dA* jN* WKOu

l Wu
u UOzUMK (Cathodes) jUN* lOL UUA c w
bBLK dH
U bN VU dD
U) bFB* qO
u V WKO
u c w wzUM WU{
U 5F c_ l Vu* bN' bB0 (a,b,c,d,e,f,g,d.p) wzUMU
qJA w UL UOzUMK WUL( WUI
WUL( WUI qO
u qJ
`zdA d b l

b?????????????????????
WOdJ U??L?C*
UNd US rJ s UMMJL w WOdJ _ t vK wdJ rCL dF sJL
U U qbL U hzUB lOL rEF vK dL U u YO UNKb U od s
bI bN UO YO s u qbL U s d dL U uJ
qbL U dL U
rC
L
bI ULKJ UNb dOJ v U UMS wzu od s WOJK U U
WOJK U UNFDI sJL w WUL
wzuN
U Ozu UNU dL U

bI rC
qOFH vK U dO b dOG
qL w dI s UB WOuB U b d UL
uB UL wUU WUL qOFH s UNMJL Wb UNLOC eK c WUL
q?? AMPLIFIER
SPEAKER
G edU t ed rCL VJ tKb rCL d sO WM dF

Pi P0
Vi G V0
Ii I0
pc P0 bIL b dL U Pi bIL b qbL U XU qJA w

p0
Gp = p rCLK bI V S
i
UO V S I 0 bIL UO dL U I i bIL UO qbL U XU

I0
Gi = I rCLK
i
bN V S V0 bIL bN dL U Vi bIL bN qbL U U

V0
Gi = V rCLK
i
U???
UbI WUL qOFH W U XU 0.5 UNb qO s WUM U XU

WUL qOGA rCL V V 5
q??????(
u bIK WMU rCL V S pc 5 td U 0.5 rCL qb U
G0 5
Gp = = = 10
Gi 0.5
Wued U??LC*
UNL s UM
b v ued rCLK nMB
(Class A ) A n??M r??C

UMU qbL U l UNKJ UNBzUB w dL U oUD ULCL s nMB c w
wU qJA w UL qbL U U s d U dL U U uJ YO U
c _ rCL b WcGL bI v dL b sO WM UN vK rCL UH dF

WKOK uJ tUH S X u WKO qLF rCL

U O WCHM UH rCL c UH U UMMJL pc
Vcc R1 UIOD w U U b ULCL s uM c _ WuI UNMJ
OUT WO_ rOC qd w UHJU rN w
Q1
IN
R2
(Class AB) AB n???M r???C
qbL U s s 51% - 99% s tb UL rCL c qLF
VEE
UL qJA w UL
A nM
rC bF r UN XuA b dL U qJA s k
c dL U s e qbL U qJA w tNUA
R1 c lDI WU w ued u s Z uAK dF
VCC
OUT dH
Q1
nM
ULC s qC UNUH Q AB nM
UC UL
IN
R2
uB ULC w b U uA UNMJ A
VEE
AB nM
rC
(Class B) B n??M r???C
qbL U s s 50% bL ULCL s uM c qLF
qbL U VuL VU sOze b dL tS pc
WDO B nM
rC `{u U qJA
R1 `L s lAL bUI vIK UO k qJA s
VCC
OUT e S pc Wu qbL U ULU UO dL uedK
Q1 dOOG l rCL d vK dNE qbL U s jI VU
VBB tU
IN
R2 A nM
UH nF{ UF UNUH Q ULCL c UL
U w UIOD w uM c b U s nB qLF
VEE
U O WOU UHJ qbL U nB rOC v
B nM
rC

(Class C) C nM rC
+VCC U s s 50 s q WOM bL UM UL s uM c qLF
s q UO dL `L YO UL qJA w UL qbL
L
w qbL U d e UO c lD r ULMO nB
C dL
N r pc lDI b s q w ued qLF WU c
qbL UbM lDI b v ued c UB w qbL U s e
Tr
qO
uU ued b
rEF lD WU w vI t_ WOUF UHJU ued c UL
R C2 U uA qUIL w sJ W UD N w du wUU X u
UI w bU sO l rCL c q
u b dO qJA
U eN w WOzUNM qdL w b udL d
C nM
rC
b rCL Wud
U??OKLF ULC
XU UOMOF_ w WOU WOLUF d Operational Amplifiers UOKLF UC dN

WUM
w Xb YO qUJ q{UH dD lL q WOU UOKLFU UOI w UNHO
b UOKLF ULC dF UOKLF ULCL XOL cN X u p w uuL VOu
741 WOdJ W U d UOKLF ULC u dN s WKUJL dzb u dN
w qJAU UL UOKLF rCL ed
WU WcG -VCC
f U qb
d
V0
f U dO qb
WuL WcG
+VCC
UOKLF rC
t pc f U dO qb f U qb sOKb UOKLF rCL S qJAU `{ u UL

ULb sdL bN bBL tcG s b UOKLF rC qLF wJ WcGK b d

q
u -15V 15V ? tcG sJL
L Vcc edU t ed VU d +Vcc edU t ed Vu
U qJA w UL sdL bN bB sOUD
15 -15
WcG v
WcG v
WU
WuL + - + -
WUD WUD
15 15
Xu Xu
741 U UOKLF rC* Typical WOKLF hzUB)

be b d 200.000 v qB b WOU bN dOJ W
dO f UF qbL v WKb UO WLO dI YO 2M s be b dO qbL WFUL
dHB v f UF
75 U dI U b dOG
dL WFUL
U dI 2V ? UNM qI U U VCC VCC v qB sJL dL bN
UOKLF rC* Ideal WOU* hzUB)

WUN U U dOJ W t
f UF dO f UF sOKbL w UO S pc WUN U U b dO qbL WFUL
dH
U
dH
U dL WFUL
VCC s qI VCC s be sJL dL bN
Vp = Vn f UF dO qbL bN U f UF qbL bN
wU qJA w UL WcG d v U UOKLF rCL ed sJL

Vn
V0
Vp
WcG d b UOKLF rC
(Comparator) U?????I*
s bNU WLOI dF dO d bN WLOI dF bN WUIL UIL UOKLF rC b

dFL bN WLO XU d sbN sO U U sOKbL s sbN WUI u UIL
U OU U UI vL UIL S dH
U WLOI
Ideal Comparator wU??* U??I*

WcG WLO s qI +VCC WuL WcG WLO s be sJL dL WLO S U IU Ud UL
200.000 uJ UF w b WOU UOKLF rC dOJ qUF WLO VCC WU
f UF qbL bM bN f UF dO qbL bM bN dOJ W dL bM bN
V0
VO = GOL ( Vp- Vn) Vp - Vn =
GOL
U W s d v rCL w qB V0 wIOI UOKLF rC hzUB s

WcG bN WLO s q U tLO uJ c Vsat U bN UbM dL bN vL (Saturation)
2V UI UL
WU c w dOJ W WLO V0 WLO iuF
-Vsat +Vsat
Vp - Vn
GOL GOL
-13 13
Vp - Vn
200,000 200,000
-65 v (Vp - Vn) +65 v

VuL U WIDM
+Vsat (~13V)
-65 v
V
+65 v
(Vp - Vn)
-Vsat (~13V)
VU U WIDM
WOD WIDML
wIOI UOKLF rCL hzUB vMM
WUN U U dOJ W S wUL rCL WU w

-Vsat +Vsat
Vp - Vn
GOL GOL
GOL = sJ
-Vsat +Vsat
Vp = Vn Vp - Vn = 0 Vp - Vn

hzUB vMM qOL sJL t ZM wUL UOKLF rC hzUB b qL Vp = Vn WUFL
wU qJA w UL wUL UILK
V0
+Vsat
(Vp- Vn)
-Vsat
wUL UILK hzUB vMM

dL U `B Vn f UF qbL bN s d Vp f UF dO qbL bN U pc
Vsat UbI tu
WU dL U `B Vn f UF qbL bN s dG
Vp f UF dO qbL bN U
Vsat UbI
U???
WOO U qbL U XU dL U r w qJA w
-
Vn
V0
+
Vp
V0
T
T
T
2
q??????(
T
dO qbL vK bN WLO `B pc Wu bN WLO uJ t
0 sO U dH w
2
UbI Wu dL vK WUM U uJ pc f UF qbL vK bN WLO s d f UF
+Vsat
T
qbL vK bN WLO s d `B pc WU bN WLO uJ
2
< t T sO U dH w
Vsat UbI WU dL vK WUM U uJ pc f UF
V0
+Vsat
T t
T
2
Vsat

wU???* dO U???I*
UI u wUL UIL S U IU Ud UL
+ wUL dO UIL U dHBU dF dO bN WLO
Vs - dF bN dF dO bN WLO UI uN
VL
dH
U
Vi
wUL dO UILK U DO U L `{u qJA

Vd = Vi - Vs dHM
wU dO UIL jO r
s U d UNLO uJ U WU w Vsat YO V0 = +Vsat S Vd > 0 uJ UbM t sLC

+13v
w dL WLO uJ wJ Vd = Vi - 2 S Vs= 2v U w
Vi > 2v Vi - 2 > 0 Vd > 0 +Vsat
dL WLO `B wJ Vd = Vi - 2 S Vs= 2v WLO dHM V0 = -Vsat S Vd< 0 uJ UbM
Vi < 2 Vi - 2 < 0 Vd < 0 uJ V -Vsat ? WU
V0 < +Vsat UbM Vi > 2v V0 < -Vsat UbM Vi < 2v
wU dO UIL UOKLF rC bU 2V bI XU bN bBL WOO U WUI `{u qJA
(V)
dL bN qbL bN
+Vsat
2v
t (s)
Vsat
XU bN bBL WOO U WUI

INVERTING AMPLIFIER f UF rC*
gain rOC qUFL rJ r UOKLF rCL WdFL Ub b u f UF rCL
WFd WOJF WcGU vL U w rCLK f UF qbL dL sO WUI q
od s
U U HU uJ WLCL U bN _ f UF rCLU wL (negative Speedball) WU
UNLOC dL
Rf If
Ri
Ii In
Vn
Vout
Ip
Vin
Vp
f UF rCL
WcG sOQ r 0v v f UF dO qbL q

u YO f U rCL WOU_ b qJA sO
UL f UF qbL v dL bN s U MOF e bOF w (Rf) WFd WcG WUI od s WF
wQ U wKOGA wUL rCL hzUB s S U IU Ud
f UF dO f UF sOKbL w UL WOzUdNJ UO S pc b WOU qbL WFUL
dH
U
wUL rCL WU w WU sOKbL vK bN WLO
(Ri) WUI* w
U* UO
Vi Vi - Vn
Ii = Ri
Ii = Ri
(If) WOJF WcG UO

V0 - Vn
If = Rf
(Vp = 0) f UF dO qbL bN
Vn = 0 (Vn = Vp = 0) f UF dO qbL bN U f UF qbL bN UL
V0
If = Rf

Ii = Ip - If UO lu WdE
u
Ip = - If Ip = 0 sJ
V0 -Rf Vi -V0

Vi
= Ri Ri
= Rf
Gi edU t ed f UF rCLK gain dOJ qUF w V0 WUFL s

Vi
Gi -Rf
= Ri
U???
UbN U fJ l UF{ dA bIL WOO U dOJ W WOJF WcG WUI V

U qJA w UL rCL bU
q?????(
V0 -Rf
Gi = = WIU UFL V
Vi Ri
-Rf -Rf
Gi = -10 -10 = -10 = -Rf = -250 k Rf = 250 k
Ri 25
qJA w UL b `B pc
Rf = 250 k
Ri = 25 k
V0
Vin
Ri ? WUI WOU uJ Rf WLO S wU dOJ qUF vK uBK t UL s k
(Non Inverting Amplier) f UF dO rC*

u UL f UF dO rCL b qbL U qUL bN WLC U vK uBK
qL U qJA sOKUL dL qbL UU uJ qbL U fJF tS r s `{
uM c qO
u WId

Rf
Ri If
Ii
RL
Vi
f UF dO rCL
dO qbL vK Vi qbL bN oOD r f U dO UOKL rCL WOU_ b qJA sO

qbL bN U U NUA dL bN uJ pc UOKLF rCL f UF
f UF dO rCL dOJ qUF uJ
Gn V0 1 Rf
= Vi
= + Ri
U???
UbN vK WEUL l UF{ 5 bIL WOO

U dOJ WOdJ rLB UB wM
qLF W WOdJ b rL
50k UNM q WLO UUI l wKOGA rC bU
p
q?????(
Gn 1 Rf
= + Ri
dOJ qUF WUF bU
Gn= 5 S R UODF s
1 Rf Rf
Gn = 5 + = 5 = 4 4Ri = Rf
Ri Ri
WFd WcG WUIL WLO vK uBK u wu vK UUIL qO

u sOu G lOD
sOKJA w UL Rf = 4Ri qbL WLO UF{ WF U

50 K 25 k vK uBK u vK sOUI qO
u uI
50 K
1 1 1 1 2
Ri
= 50
+ 50 Ri
= 50
2Ri = 50 Ri = 25
50 K 50 K
100 K vK uBK wu vK sOUI qO
u uI
Rf = 50 + 50 = 100 K
U qJA w UL wzUNM qO
u r pc
Rf
50 K 50 K
Ri
50 K
50 K V0
Vi
qH_ w UL qJA UB r
Rf = 100 K
Ri = 25 K
V0
Vi
Rf 100
Gn = 1 + Gn = 1 + Gn = 4 + 1 = 5 pc
Ri 25
Voltage Follwer b??N' lU

UNO r f UF dO rCL s W
U WU u bN lU
Vn dL q
od s 100% WM WU WF WcG vK uB
V0
Vp WcG WUI WLO `B wUU f UF qbL l dU
w qJA w UL dH
U Rf WOJF
Rf 0
Vi Gn = 1 + Gn = 1 + =1
Ri Ri
WUN U UU sJL uu dO Ri k

bN lU V0 V0 = Vi
Gn = 1 =
Vi
bB sO jdK U b bN lU wL pc qbL bN l U dL bN
b dOG
td WFUL b WOU tKb WFUL _ p dOG
WFUL qL l WOU WFUL
WMJL WFUL d _ WU uJ YO wUL bN UO UN qbL tb sJL UL qO vKF
U bO b vK guA r wJ
Adder l?????U??'
rU w WFzUA WLNL Ub s w U lU f UF rCL b sJL
lU dJ `{u w qJA UB
Rf
Ri1
Vi1
Ri2
Vi2
Ri3 V0
Vi3
lU
U dC f UF qbL vK Wu

uL UBL uLL U U UOKLF rC d bN k
WO WUFLU p qOL sJL t U dOJ qUFL
-Rf -Rf -Rf

V0 = Vi1 + Vi2 + Vi3
Ri1 Ri2 Ri3
V0 = G1Vi1 + G2Vi2 + G3Vi3

-Rf -Rf -Rf
G3 = G2 = G1 = YO
Ri3 Ri2 Ri1

U???
U qJAK dL bN bI V

100 k
10 k
Vi1 = 10v
20 k V0
Vi1 = 0.5v
q??????(
S oU uUI bU
-Rf -Rf
V0 = Vi1 + Vi2
Ri1 Ri2
-100 -100
V0 = 10 + 0.5
10 20
V0 = -10.0 - 2.5 V0 = -12.5 v
V0 = G1Vi1 + G2Vi2 WUFL b lOD
Subtractor U??????D
pc WFzUA Ub s u U lU f UF rCL b S U IU Ud UL
UD dJ `{u w qJA UD u f UF rCLK WFzUA WdFL Ub s
R4
R1
V1
V0
R2
V2
R3
U??D
U U uJO UOKLF rC d bN S WU UNK UUIL WLO XU qJA w

V0 = (V1 - V2) udU UDK dL bN WLO `{u WO WUFL sOOKb sOU d q
U

U???
U qJA w V2 WLO V
R2 = 100k
Ri = 100k
V1 = 15v
V0
Ri = 100k
V2
R2 = 100k
q??????(
WIU UD WUF bU U u qJA
V0 = (V1 - V2)
10 = (15 V2)
10 = 15 - V2
V2 = 5v
Differentiator q???{UH*
qbL vK Wu
uL U vMML qO US uI YO WO{Ud q{UH WOKLF q{UHL uI
UL nJL qbL WUI bU sJ f UF rCL b WNUA w q{UHL f UF
w qJA
Rf
Ci
Vi
V0
dvi
V0 = - Rfci wQ UL V0 q{UHL d WLO YO
dt
dvi
v_ WIAL vL WO{U WOKL w vMML qO qL YO
dt

U???
dL vK WUM U qJ r qJAU `{u u UL qb bBLK U

Rf
Vi
Ci
Vi
V0
t
T T
2
q??????(
bI s dF XU r u q{UH ZU S sOF OL rOI j s U qb bB U
OL
Rf
V0
Vi
Ci
Vi
V0
t T
T T
2
T
2
qJA w UL WFd Wu v WKL tuL qu w q{UHL b sJL pc
dH w
T
WU WLO uJ WUM U S pc U u U U WKb U qO uJ 2
V0
WU
Wu WLO uJ WUM U S pc U U U U WKb U qO uJ T V > T2
WU
YO U IU UNd r w UOKLF rC UIOD s dOG fO q{UHL S UL s `{ u UL
U qJ vK kU WO{U WOKL w UNK{UHL uI t_ WOKb U qJ dOG uI t
dL vK bb U ZM

Integrator q????U??J*
WO{Ud qUJ WOKLF qUJ rC uI
Cf U vMML X WUL US uI YO
Ri w qUJL f UF qbL vK WKb
Vi
V0
WUIL s U qb sJ q{UHL b WNUA
UL qJA w u UL nJL
wK UL V0 qUJL d WLO uJ
qUJL -1 Vi(t).dt
V0 =
Ricf
U cN vML X WUL qL Vi(t) U qUJ w Vi(t).dt YO
U???
qUJ ZU qJ b qJAU `{u u UL qb bB U

Vi
Cf
Vi Ri
T T V0
2
q??????(
j s U uJ qUJL d ZU S qJA w UL XU r s U qb bB U
qJA w UL sOF OL rOI
Vi
Cf
Vi Ri
t
T T V0
2
T T
2
WOJ WOKL w qUJ WOKL qJAU `{u u UL se l U OD e vMML X WUL _

q{UHK

b?????????????????????
U???????cc*
W d ZM WOdJ u ccL
Ei V0 WUM Uu bOu UccL b WOU U
rC
G UI UccL b ud eN w YK
uIO WuML UDL v UL UuL
WcG bB s tOK qB c XU bN qu ccL
Wu WF
XU d U v WcG
ccL WKBHM* WOdJ UuJ* Ucc*

WF WcG rC s ccL nQ
UL qJA w UL Wu
t WOdNJ WcG qO
u l ccL qL b
WKOK WuL dL UdJ WOzuAF W dK WO
c WLO e rCL q b O{ UO qL
US rCL v WFd WcGU UNU r U
d d UdOJ rO Ei wKFH qb w uJ q
ccL e
`B v dJd d uF UNLO e
lA l{ w rCL qF U O dO qb U
X p bM p s d U dOJ tMJL
ccL b qLF b WLO vK rCL d
S
LC c????c
C
wu vK u
u lu s LC cc uJ
L
V
WOO Wu bOu w ccL c b qH l
cc `{u UL qJA WDuL dK
WDO LC
LC cc

bM V WUD bN v C luL sA YO S UHL oKG UbM cc b qJA w
WO WdOQ WOzUdN WF u bu tu wOUMG U QAM L nKL luL dH S UHL `
W UF WOD WMA sAO h UML mdH UO wOUMGL UL QAM UI
WOO Wu U uJ cc w UO dL WO_ WODIU nKL mdH c luL b r
w qJA w UL WKLC
WKLC WOO Wu
VUML X u w cc b WUD qO

u r WKLC dO WK
u Wu vK uBK
OFF lDI wU sO qIM ued q wdJ UH pc b sJ U b UHL oK ` r
WFd WcG bU UHL ` S rJ r YO Saturation lA
wK UL WUM WOO WuL d U sJL
1
f0 =
2 LC
(Phase Shift Oscillator) WuD W cc

WOzuAF UdJ W d s ZM c noise guA u s UNOK uB r WOzb WOuH
WCHML WOuH c WOO d q vK U dI u WOuH c b w WbL UUIL w
W w w Feed back net work WcGL b v qb dL vK dNE UNLOC r
W uJ cc d u b d bM WLO vK b c vK WOuH _ Wu
WuD
s dOF sJL dK WLOI c bM jI WO
positive feedback network WuL WcG b
A
Af = W FU b w VJ bI
1 - A
WuD W w VJ bI
rCL w VJ bI A
UNu
bM Ucc qOJA r wUU b s d A VJ bI uJ ccL qOGA bM
r wUU b v qBO A VJ bIL pc qI rCL w VJ bI qI VUM b v
WOK Wu W vK uB r V WccK dA c oOI r wJ WU Uc vK uB

WuD W cc `{u (3) qJA WuD W s 180 bIL
Rf
Rin
C1 C2 C3
R1 R2 R3
WuD W cc
1
f0 = W FU wDF Wcc d
2RC 6
C1= C2= C3 = C R1 = R2 = R3 = R YO
(Colpitts) fu c??c*
V0
rC u od s Uc U r
WcG u feedback network WF WcG
Rf
sOFu nK vK WFd
R2
UccL s uM c s ZUM d vDF
1
L f0 = W FU
C1 C2 2 L C1 C2
C1+C2
ccL c VO d sO UL qJA

fu cc
(555 Timer) 555 X???? R*

w{ WcG bB r UOMOF Wb w X RL c d
Ground 1 5 Vcc
bOu w UIOD s dOJ w WdA c b
mdH
Trigger 2 6 Discharing UCM
d
3 7
bL 555 X RL Wd qL UL qJA
Output
rJ bN jLM sODLM (555 timer) 555 X RL qLF
j{ U
4 8 Control
Reset
Voltage dO jLM momastable dI U _
555 X R astable dIL
(Monostable) d???I U?? j?LM

Vcc bM b X w b WC U sJL jLM c w
R
WCM c s wDF (2) qbL vK WU WC oOD
4 8
d
3 7
W FU
555
t se 1.1 RC
6
2
Trigger 1 C
5
C1 bM WU WC US (3) dL vK WCM U sJL

dI U jLM qL UL qJA (4) dD
dI U jLM
U???
555 X RL s WOU WCM s V 10.4 f WFu 4.7k WUIL WLO XU

q?????(
luL WF WUIL WLO 1.1 se
(10 10-6) (4.7 103) 1.1 =
WOU 0.00517 =
(Astable) d??I jLM

Vcc ZM YO WFU UC U sJL jLM c w
s iHML l{u v uF r WMOF dH WC
4 8 R1
d dI jLM `{u UL qJA s uF r
3 7 (555 timer) 555 X RLK
555 R2
2 W FU WUF WCM tO uJ c se wDF
6 T1 = 0.693 ( R1+ R2 ) C
1 5 C
T b s uJ wUU
C1
T = T1 + T2 = 0.693 ( R1+ R2 ) (C)
1
d d U sJL
dI jLM se
R1 + R2 T1
R1 + 2R2
= (Dutyegcle) qOGA b WKUJ b s v WCM s sO WM dF
T

U???
V C = 1.4F luL WLO R2 = 2k WLO R1= 6k WLO XU

qOGA T WOMe dH T2 se T1 se
q???????(
T1 = 0.693 ( R1 + R2) C
T1 = 0.693 ( 6k + 2k) 1 f
WOU 0.00554 =
T2 = 0.693 ( R2) C
T2 = 0.693 2 k 1 f
WOU 0.00138 =
T T1 + T2 se
0.001386 + 0.00554 =
6.93 10-3 =
WOU sec 0.00693 =

T1
qOGA
T
0.00554
=
0.00693
80% = 0.8 =
U???
WUIL WLO V C = 100f WFuL WLO R1= 3k WUIL WLO 75% qOGA XU
T se V R2
q??????(
3k + R2 3 R1 + R2
= = = qOGA
3k + 2R2 4 R1 + 2R2
4R2 + 12k = 6R2 + 6k
2R2 = 6k R2 = 3k
WOU 0.623 = 0.693 ( R1+ 2R2 ) C (T) se

b?????????????????????
Filters U?????????d*
lML ULMO Ud dLU WMOF d U `L WOdJ dz s U UdL
ddL U U b UB rU w dO WOL UdLK dL s d d U
guA U U U uJ b w d_ U lM UN udL U
ddL V Ud* u r
Low pass filter iHML UDM d `d
high pass filter wUF UDM d `d
band pass filter UDM d `d
UNOUF V UdL rOI sJL

Passive Filter WKU UdL
Active Filters WUFH UdL
rJ YO UHK U UO UHJ UUI s U WKU UdL uJ WKU UdL

1 s UdL c w VJ be UNO udL d UO w UHJL UUIL rO
passive low pass lter iHM* UDM dd9 `d

vK d WHK U WuL XK
d u dL u WCHML d d `d
R
Vin C Vout WOUF d U dLL uN p w UL WCHML
`d `dL c wL c b c d w dNE
WCHML d d `d UM sJL iHML ddL
iHML UDM ddL `d

UL qJA w UL nJ WUI bU qU

Vin s q Ud U ddL w b c b
Vout
c d v Cutoff Frequency fc lDI d vL d
V0 W F s fc U sJL dLL bN dH
U
V0
2
WO WO{Ud
1
dL d
f
WF C WUIL WLO R YO fc =
2 RC
fc RC bIL vL 3.14 U XU bI nJL
`dLK wMe XUU
passive high pass Filter wUF UDM dd9 `d

`d vK d WHK U WuL XK
U WOUF d u dL u WOUF d d
C c dzb c d w dNE WCHML d
Vin R Vout
`d UM sJL wUF ddL `d b c XOL
w UL nJ WUI bU qU WOUF d d
nJ WUI bU U dL `d WCHML d d `d fH w U qJA
nJL WUIL s U bS sJ
Vin
Vout d s d Ud U ddL w b c b
fc U sJL Cutoff Frequency fc lDI d vL sOF
V0
1
V0 fc = WOU WO{Ud W F s
2 RC
2
XU bI nJL WF C WUIL WLO R YO

dL d f
fc `dLK wMe XUU RC bIL vL 3.14 U
( Passive Band Pass Filter ) qU) UDM d `d

Wud WOUF d d `d WCHML d d `d sOd s U `dL c
UDM c U d sJ dLU d s UD dL `L `dL c WOM UNCF
wU qJA w UL dLU

WOUF d d `d WCHML d d `d
R1
C2
Vin Vout
q bN R2 C1 U bN
w UDM d d `d
wUF lDI d fC1 _ iHML lDI d sO Ud U ddL w dzb c b

s UU sJLO fC2 U fC1 = 1 WO WO{Ud W F s fC WLO U sJL fC2 wU
2 R1C1 1
fC2 = WO WO{Ud W F
2 R2C2
w qJA Ubu d qUI qb bN U bN WLO UML u

Vin
Vout
V0
V0
2
dL d f
fC2 fC1
U???
UL UdJU 0.1 WF nJ U 160 WLOI WUI s uJ WCHML d d `d
lDI d u
q??????(
UHU uJ V nJL WF
U 10-6 0.1 = (C) nJL WF
1
lDI d
2 RC
1
edO 9947.2 = =
2 3.14159 160 0.1 10-6

W???UFH U??d*
udL d dL `d vK uBK 1 s t be qU `dL S d r UL
UOKLF rC b WU V U rC dL s UNO udL dOG d lML UNO
p w
(Active low pass lter) UFH iHM* UDM d `d

Rf bU UF WCHM d d `d UM sJL
Ri WU{S sJ qU WCML d d `d
V0
R
UL qJA w UL UOKLF rC bU V
Vi
1
fC = lDI d WUF uJ
C 2 RC
Rf
1+ U t
Ri
UFH iHML UDM ddL `d
(Active High pass lter) UFH lHd* UDM d `d

Rf
UM sJL UOKLF rC bU V WU{S
Ri
V0
wK UL sJ WOUF d d `d
C
fC lDI d WUF uJ
Vi
Rf 1
R 1+ U t fC =
Ri 2 RC
UFH WFHdL d ddL `d (Active Band pass lter) UFH UDM d `d
rN wu vK iHM UD d `dL u wU UD d `d s U `dL c
d b iHML UDM d `d fC1 _ lDI d b wUF d `d YO VOd
wQ UL `dL c uJ fC2 wU lDI
Rf1 Rf2
Ri1
Ri2
V0
Vi1
C1
R1 R2
C2
UFH UDM d ddL `d

1 1
fC2 = wU lDI d WUF fC1 = _ lDI d WUF uJ
2 R2C2 2 R1C1
Rf1 Rf2
G = 1+ 1+ sOdzb V d{ q
U u b V U
Ri1 Ri2
U???
fC2 fC1 V r 5 U b V U Rf2 WUI V w qJA w
Rf1 = 200k
Rf1 = ??
Ri1 = 100k
Ri2 = 100k
1 f
V0
Vi1 R2 = 100k
R1 = 1k
0.1 f
q?????(
Rf1 Rf2
G = 1+ 1+
Ri1 Ri2
200 Rf2 Rf2
5 = 1+ 1+ 5 =3 1+
100 100 100
5 Rf2 5 3 Rf2
=1 + - =
3 100 3 3 100
2 Rf2 200
= 200 = 3Rf2 Rf2 = k
3 100 3
1 1 1 500
fC1 = = = = Hz
2 R1C1 3 -6
2(1 10 ) (1 10 ) -3
2 (1 10 )
1 1 1 5000
fC2 = = = = Hz
2 R2C2 3 -6
2(1 10 ) (0.1 10 ) -4
2 (1 10 )
U???d* U???IOD
b wN bb UIOD UdLK
p UNU dL W UO UcL UN w
w b UdO lML dL s WMOF WO WD U sJL wUE d d `d bU
dL s guA U lM WudL U dd b UB WLE

b??????u W????K
w???dJ r??CL d??
wdJ rCL V ndF u U
b V 3 qbL U b XLK S 10 bI V t wdJ rC

dL U
UNHOMB U u U Wdd ULCL u r w U
ULCL b_ qbL U s 60% qL dL U uJ U UM

td vK WLOI c UD VUML ued rCL nM u UL Wued
UL WOUF d_ ued rCL nM u U
wUL wKOGA rCL hzUB w U
wUL UIL hzUB vMM r
fUF dO rCL fUF rCL sO dH u U
U rCL V uJ WuNL WUIL WLO V rCL u d U qJA w

5
5k
R2 = ??
100k
Vi
vK bN WLO V Xu 5 U bN oU qb vK bN WLO XLK

bN V U bN o d
b c vL U U qJAK dL bN bI V

20k
20k
10 v
V0
5v
20k
5v
20k
c?cL u?? U???
ccL c u d ccL d vK WUM U d WLO V U qJA w

S1
0.1 f 1H
V
td U WUF V wKU cc r
WO WOdJ WdA w 2 r Pin ub b u U
555 Timer
1 8
555
2 7
3 6
4 5
ULNMO dH u U 555 ccL qOGA UL w U
WUI 200 k UbI 1 WUI 1f WF nJ UN dI l{ 555 cc
T1 uu U iM UNO vI w dH T U V 100 k UbI 2
WUM U r
ddL YO s UNu r d WOdJ UdL d
t lDI d WUF w U qU iHM ddL `d r

dL U Wd UuJL r lDI d V `dL u U U qJA w
qJA w UL qbL U Wd UuJL XU
0.1 f
1 k
4 v 0 sO lI w Wd UuJL ddL uNL luL WLO V U qJA w

U rC `dL XLK WuNL WUIL WLO V WOuB U s KHz
2 U `dL V sOd
50 k
R = ??
V0
Vi 1 k
C = ??
tOK uB sJL d q V 150 KHz U f2 U f1 XLK UL w

UL d vK

b???????????????u
U???O???d??????J???
W??????O??????L??????d??????

b?????????????????????
b_ WLE
W????U Wb???I
bON????9
vK dFM UL d v UE s qu WOHO WFzUA b_ WLE vK dFM bu c w
WLE pK vK UNzd sJ1 w WOU
( UOKLF
bu b
vK U uJ pM lu bu c WUN w
dA U
wUL wzUM dAF bF UE WFzUA b_ WLE W dF
fJFU dAF UEM v wzUM UEM s qu
fJFU dA U
UEM v wzUM UEM s qu
wzUM bF UE vK WL
d{ d lL WHK * WOU
( UOKLF d
bu U
WU WbI
dAF bF UE
wzUM bF UE
wUL bF UE
dA U
bF UE
fJFU dAF UEM v wzUM UEM s qu
fJFU wzUM UEM v dA U
UEM s qu
wzUM UEM vK WOU
( UOKLF d

bU d
www.Yazori.com
U XU u VU( UOuuMJ UOU
bu c Wb tO U% U

u{u* UFO WOM b v jI WU X bu c w
WOzd lO{u*
(Decimal System) dAF bF UE

U
qLF
WFOD UO( wH U
W
MU U UM UA WH WLE_ d s UEM c dF
U dA s uJ t r cN UEM c wL
WHK * WOU
( UOKLF w dAF UEM
bF Wd0 dF U U vK rd U
sJ1
U????????????????
U 2 dA 2 U 2 222 rd
100 2 + 10 2 + 2 =
10 2 2 + 10 1 2 + 2 =
(222)2 = 200 + 20 + 2 =
q????????????????(
U* w UL b YO tO Uu d U ULFU rd s dOF sJ1

oU

U rdU WDO; u_ X% VJ c rd s wLM UE v rd c W dF sJ1
(100)8 rd wzUM UEM v wLM (100)2 rd U dAF UEM v wLM rd c vK b (100)10
dA U
UEM v wLM (100) 16 rd wUL UEM v wLM

(Binary System) wzUM bF UE
w (Bit) wzUM b( ULNM b q vL
[ UL 5L s uJ t r cN UEM c wL
c vK wKb UNOLB w VOu( WOdJ dzb bLF (Binary Digit) WLK s dB w
bN' U WU w rd vDF ULMO dHBK UU
bN' uJ UbM dH WLO UD r YO UEM
tO Uu d U_ ULFU wzUM UEM w rd s dOF sJ1 qJA dE (+5V) UU

wUU b j vK UNKO9 sJ1 b YO Wd* V
25 24 23 22 21 20
32 16 8 4 2 1
(Octal System) wUL bF UE

UN WU) Zd iF WU w UEM c b
U s wUL UEM uJ
d V
qUA* s bbF b v p _ wzUM UEMU X u
5Ld u w tM nK U wUL w dAF UEM wUL UEM WA
wUL UEM w UNb sJ1
UNKO9 sJ1 U _ WIdD d_ WLE_ w UL rd s dOF sJ1
wUU b j vK
84 83 82 81 80
4096 512 64 8 1
(Hexadecimal System) dA U bF UE

bF UE dF W W
MU U UM dF wzUM bF UE ULMO dAK W
MU UUM dAF UEM bF
dU* ULNF dE dA U
UEM wUL UEM WOL uF ULNMO oO u j dA U

w b q w wzUM UEM s b dOGB dOJ rOI s ULNDu dOF WuN wzUM UEM l
dA U
UEM UU) WOUJ* WLOI wK ULO dA U
UEM w b l WKUI wzUM UEM

b YO _ WIdD UNM dOF sJ1 UNMO1 vK lI w WU K W
MU nF{ U
WU qJ
wUU b j vK UNKO9 sJ1 U _ s
164 163 162 161 160
65536 4096 256 16 1
b r s dA U
UEM uJ
WdAF b_ q u u dAF UEM w UL s
b qb F E D C B A d( w W U{U

F E D C B A
15 14 13 12 11 10
WHK * b WLE w WdAF b_ qO9 WOHO 5 b wK ULO
dA U UEM wUL UEM wzUM UEM dAF UEM w rd

A
B
C
D
E
F

wzUM UEM v dAF UEM s qu
w dL
vK bF r
I WL
I wU WIdD wzUM UEM v dAF UEM s qu r
v qH_ s WL
I wU dI WL
I XN uJ UbM dH v WL
I "U qB v WL
I WOKL
5LO v U
O s VJ vK_
U??????????????
wzUM UEM v (64) 10 dAF rd u
q????????????????(
WLI "U WLI wU

(LSB) WOL q_ Wd*

nu (MSB) WOLd_ Wd*
VJ vK v qH s ÒB wU dI WL
I "U w dH vK uB( bM nu
(1000000)2 = (64) 10 WOL q_ Wd* v WOL d_ Wd* s 5LO v U
O s
U????????????
(77)10 wzUM UEM v wU rd u
q????????????????(
WLI "U WLI wU

(1001101)2 = (77) 10

_ UE vL
wzUM v dAF UEM s Wd
qu UN s sJ1 d WId UM
b j lC
tKu% uKD* dAF bF U
UNuL w d sbF bF uU
UNuL nOC bd w WU) U dH UNHOC bd w WU) U b lC
U????????????
( )2 = (39) 10 b
q????????????????(
25 24 23 22 21 20
32 16 8 4 2 1
1 0 0 1 1 1
(100111 )2 = (39) 10
U????????????
( )2 = (77) 10 b
q????????????????(
26 25 24 23 22 21 20
1 0 0 1 1 0 1
64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 1
( 1001101)2 = (77) 10
V?????b?????
5HK 5IdD wzUM UEM v WOU U u
( ) 2 = (100)10
( ) 2 = (55)10
( ) 2 = (90)10

dAF UEM v wzUM UEM s qu
UNO uu* WU) w bF U s r q dC r dAF UEM v wzUM UEM s quK
dAF rd vK qB VUC* c lL r
U????????????
dAF W UJ v (101)2 wzUM rd u
q????????????????(
22 1 + 21 1 + 20 0 = (101)2
4 1+ 2 0 + 1 1 =
5 = 4+ 0 + 1 =
(5)10 = (101)2
U????????????
dAF W UJ v (1110)2 wzUM rd u
q????????????????(
23 1 + 22 1 + 21 1 + 20 0 = (1110)2
8 1+4 1+2 1+1 0=
14 = 8 + 4 + 2 + 0 =
(14)10 = (1110)2
V????b????
WdAF UNQ UJ v WOU WOzUM U u
( )10 = (1111001)2
( )10 = (10101010)2
( )10 = (11111) 2

dA U UEM v wzUM UEM s qu
w b WU r q9 UU U l q dF dA U
UEM v wzUM UEM s quK
(LSB) WOL q_ Wd* s b YO dA U
UEM
U????????????
( )16 = (011011110011)2 wU rd u
q????????????????(
(011011110011)2
6 F 3
(F 6 3)16 = (011011110011)2
U????????????
( )16 = (111111000010101100)2 wU rd u
q????????????????(
(00111111000010101100)2
C A 0 F 3
( F0AC3 )16 = (111111000010101100)2

wzUM UEM v dA U UEM s qu
U WF q1 dA U
UEM w r q dF wzUM UEM v dA U
UEM s quK
wzUM UEM w UU
U????????????
( )2 = (1000)16 wU rd u
q????????????????(
(1 0 0 0)16
0001 0000 0000 0000
(1000000000000)2 = (0001000000000000)2 = (1000)16
U??????????
( )2 ( A29)16 wU rd u
q????????????????(
(A 2 9)16
1010 0010 1001
(101000101001)2 ( A29)16
wzUM UEM vK WOU( UOKLF
lL' WOKL
U l bu 5OzUM 5L lL'
1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0

U??????????
(0111) +2 (1100)2 5OU 5Ld lL
q????????????????(
1
wU 1 1 0 0 rd
+ wU rd
"UM 0 1 1 1
(10011)2 = (0111) +2 (1100)2
lL' "U s bU r s WdAF UNU UJ v b qu% r q( W s bUK

(10011)2 ( 19)10 ( 7 )10=( 0111)2 ( 12 )10= (1100)2
U??????????
(1111) 2 + (111)2 5OU 5Ld lL
q????????????????(
1 1 1
wU 0 1 1 1
+
"UM 1 1 1 1
(10110) 2 = (1111) 2 + (111)2
V????b????
q( W s bQ WOU WOzUM U lL
( )2 = (111110) +2 (10011)2
( )2 = (11001010101)2 + (11001110)2

dD WOKL
U l bu 5OzUM 5L dD
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
u 1 0 0
dD qU `BO UF U u rd `BO WOK c b( s dOF
UMU WU w
U??????????
(011)2 (101)2 d qU b
q????????????????(
0 10 2 10 rd `B
1 dOF
1 0
0 1
(010)2 = (011)2 (101)
U??????????
(011)2 (101)2 d qU b
q????????????????(
0 10 2 10 rd `B
1 dOF
1 0
0 1
(010)2 = (011)2 (101)

U??????????
(010)2 (111)2 d qU b
q????????????????(
1 1
0 1
( 101 ) 2 = (010)2 (111)2
V????b????
q( W s bQ WOU WOzUM U d
( ) 2 = (11101)2 (11101)2
( )2= (10001001)2 (10001111)2
dC WOKL
U l bu 5OzUM 5L dC
1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 0 0 0
U??????????
(100)2 (110)2 d{ qU b
q????????????????(
1 1 0
1 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0 +
1 1 0
1 1 0 0 0
(11000)2 = (100)2 (110)2

U??????????
(11)2 (11)2 d{ qU b
q????????????????(
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1 +
1 0 0 1
(1001)2 = (11)2 (11)2
V????b????
WOU WOzUM U d{ qU b
( )2 = (11101)2 (11101)2
( )2 = (101)2 (110011)2
WLI WOKL
dAF UEM w WL
I WOKL tA wzUM UEM w WL
I WOKL
U??????????
wzUM UEM w (4)10 (20)10 WL
qU b
q????????????????(
(10100) 2 = (20 )10
(100)2 = ( 4)10
1 0 1
100 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0
1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
q( W s bQ sJ1
5 U
dAF UEM w 4 /20
(101)2 = (5)10
WO WU wUU
U??????????
(101111)2 (10111100)2 sbF WL
qU b
q????????????????(
1 0 0
101111 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
q( W s bU sJ1
(188 )10 = (10111100)2
(47)10 = (101111)2
(100)2 T UJ (4)10 = (47)10 ( 188)10
V????b????
WOzUM UNU UJ v UNKu% bF WOU WdAF U WL
qU b
(10)10 ( 50)10
( 5 )10 (100)10

w .uI
WOU UdH qL _ R
U
W
MU UUM UA WH d UEM dF
w U s wUL UEM uJ
vK WL
I w dC r wzUM UEM v dAF UEM s qu bM
UEM w WL
I WOKL wzUM UEM w WL
I WOKL WA
WOzUM UNUUJ v WOU WdAF U qu r wU R

( )2 = (15)10
( )2 = (70)10
( )2 = (88)10
WdAF UNUUJ v WOU WOzUM U qu r YU R
( )10 = (101100101010)2
( )10 = (111001010)2
( )10 = (0011010101010)2
WOU UOKLF dU r ld R

( )16 = (101100101010)2
( )16 = (111001010)2
( )16 = (0011010101010)2
( )2 = (4A55)61
( )2 = (FEC)61
( )2 = (25893)16
WOU UOKLF dU r fU) R

(1100110100101)2 + (010101010)2
(11001101010)2 + (10101010101)2
(1111 )2 (1111111)2
(101111)2 (10111100)2
(111 )2 x (110101)2
(1101)2 x (00000001)2
(101)2 (111011)2
(1010)2 (10000010)2
WuKD* WOU( UOKLF UNOK d WOzUM UNUUJ v WOU WdAF U qu r U R

q( W s bU r
(55)10 + ( 99)10
(20)10 (130)10
(2)10 x (60)10
(8)10 (80)10

b?????????????????????
wu d'
wu d' 5u vK dF r s WIA* WOU_ WOIDM* Uu vK dFM b c w
WOIDM* b' b U UN U WOHO
WOIDM* Uu
YO UN tKb* rOI uJ b d wDF d 5Kb v WOIDM* Uu U%
uB WLO s dF b U (0 V) dHBK U
bN d vDF UD s dOFK dHB WLO vDF
(+5 V) bI bN d vDF
b V
(Truth Tables) uB b vL
WU b b U Uu c qO9 sJ1
b* b n YO ( 2n ) WF V
W&UM UL b uJ dOG*
4 22 oU
uUI V
dOG* cN UL b uJ (A,B) 5Kb UN WOIDM Wu U
v WOIDM* Uu rOI sJ1

(Buffer) bB Wu (NOT) (OR) (AND) Wu qLA WOU_ WOIDM* Uu
UM XOR UM NOR NAND qLA WIA* WOIDM* Uu
XNOR
WOU_ WOIDM* Uu
AND Wu
b WLO wDF UN YO dC WOKL Wu c q9 b d d 5Kb UN Wu
WOU WFU UNKO9 sJ1 buK WU
b* lOL uJ UbM
F=A.B
UN ed
A
F
B
wU uB b UNKO9 sJ1

b* Ud*
A B F=A.B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
wU qJA w UL ÒUH* b U Wu qL b qO9 sJ1
A B 100
5V
qJA
OR Wu
sJ1 UNd w lL' WOKL e Wu c b
b d d 5Kb UN Wu
WOU WFU UNKO9
F=A+B
UN ed
A
F
B
wU uB b UNKO9 sJ1

b* Ud*
A B F=A+B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

A 100
5V
qJA
NOT Wu
Wu c uI tOM wDF b qb v jI U% UNQ 5IU
5M s Wu c nK
UNKO9 sJ1 dH qb* uJ UbM tOM uJ YO tLL* fUFU vL
c tOM fJF
WOU WFU
F=
UN ed
A F
wU uB b UNKO9 sJ1

b* Ud*
A F=
0 1
1 0
100
A
5V
qJA
BUFFERbB Wu
WOU WFU UNKO9 sJ1 b qb UN Wu c

F=A
UN ed
A F
wU b'U UNM dF U WuI U w Wu c b
b* Ud*
A F= A
0 0
1 1
A 100
5V
qJA
tIA* WOIDM* Uu
NAND Wu
WU
b* U dHBK WU
tOM uJ Wu UNF Wu s Wu c uJ
WOU WFU q9 dHBK
F=
UN ed
A
F
B
wU qJAU UNKO9 sJ1 w

A
F
B

wU b'U q9
b* Ud*
A B F
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
NOR Wu
b* lOL U buK WU
tOM uJ Wu UNF Wu s Wu c uJ
WOU WFU q9 dHBK WU

F= +
UN ed
A
F
B
wU qJAU UNKO9 sJ1 w

A
F
B
wU b'U q9
b* Ud*
A B F
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
wHM WOKL v ed Wu WbI w dzb ULM
XORUM Wu
WOU WFU q9 WHK UNb XU buK WU
Wu c WO uJ
F= B+ A
=A B

UN ed
A
F
B
wU b'U q9
b* Ud*
A B F
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
XNOR UM Wu
XU buK WU
Wu c WO uJ Wu? tu UM Wu s U w
: WFU q9 tUA UNb
F =A.B + .
=
=A B
UN ed
A
F
B
wU b'U q9
b* Ud*
A B F
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
W)
INPUT AND OR NOT NAND NOR XOR XNOR
A B A.B A+B + A B A B
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1

U????????????
WOIDM* Uu b U wU d r
F = AB + C + D
q????????????????(
A
B
C
F
U????????????
WOU dzbK VUM* d V
A A
F
B
F B
C C
D
B
F
q????????????????(
F = A. (B + C) qJ
F = AB + CD qJ
F = A +B + CB + A B C qJ
U????????????
A=1, B= 0 XU WKUI* WLd w
F WLO wU
dzb cN VUM* d V
dzb cN uB b uU
q????????????????(
F=1
d b* v qB v Ud * s b dzb l d WLO W dF*
WODu UIMU
Y1 = Y2 . Y3
Y2 = Y5. A
Y3 = Y4 . B
Y4 =
Y5 =
d vK qB iuFU
F= B +A =A B
dzb cN U) uB b
qb tOD h UI U
A B B B A F
0 0 1 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 0 0

U????????????
wU uB b q1 d V
A B C F
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0
q????????????????(
tKKE* buK UU
UN&U w Ud * bb uI uB b s d UM
cJ A =1, A = 0 dOF r YO b* UMU b r s
F= + BC+A C
U??????b???
VUM* uB b V VUM* d b WOU dzb w
B F
WOU Ud WUM* dzb r

F= + B + AB
F = AC + B D
tMOu wu d'

wUU WMJ2 u j
v Ud dB w WOIDM* dzbK rLB* wu d' 5u bU
Uu UuK b WOKL bU
UL v_ b( v d cOHM WuKD* UUd b qOKI
wu d' 5uI d wK ULO Wb
* UUdK uM qOKI vK W UJ
qb uU
A+B=B+A
AB = BA
lOL uU
(A + B) +C = A+ (B + C)
(AB)C = A(BC)
lu uU
A(B + C) = AB + AC
A + (BC) = (A + B)(A+C)
qUL uU
A+A=A
A.A = A
e* wHM uU
=A
wIDM* dOGLK dH uU

A = 1 S A 0 XU
A = 0 S A 1 XU
e uU
A + A.B = A
A.(A + B) = A

bu UOKL uU
1+A=1
1.A = A
dHB UOKL uU

0+A=A
0.A = 0
WKLJ uU
+A=1
.A = 0
Uu wuU
( )= .
( )= +
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q????????????????(
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0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
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0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
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U????????????
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q????????????????(
F = .B.C+ A.C
= C.( .B+ A)
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= C.(A +B) . 1
= C.(A+ B)
F = .B.C + A.C = C.(A+B)

U????????????
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q????????????????(
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= .B. + .B. .D + A.B + .B.C.D
= .B. + A.B + .B.D (C+ )
= .B. + A.B + .B.D
= .B.( + D) + A.B
= .B + A.B
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F = .B.( + .D) + B.(A+ .C.D) = B
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b d_
bI WCH M TTL WKzUF wLM NAND Uu l s WuJ WU q9 74L00 WUd L WUd UNK9
wK ULO WOdH zUF s WuL vK qBM WHK hzUB UHu0 TTL UU XOM
UNUHu r zUF c UL
Standard TTL WOUOI WKzUF
U WUd r l d b

Low power TTL bI WCH M* WKzUF
74L08 74L00U WUd r l L d( b
speed TTL High Wd

WOU WKzUF
74H0874H00U WUd r l H d( b
Schottky TTL Clamped vJuA WKzU

d U wUU lA WU( uu s ued lM* wJu wzUM Xb
74S00U WUd r l S d( b
power Schottky Low bI WCH M vJuA WKzU

74LS00U WUd r l LS d( b
Advanced Schottky WbI* wJu WKzU

74AS00 U WUd r l AS d( b
Advanced Low Power Schottky bI WCH M WbI* wJu WKzU

74ALS00 U WUd r l ALS d( b
mW b* bI ns dOQ s r?? ? ? ? ?

10 10 TTL Standard WOUOI WKzUF
1 33 Low power TTL bI WCH M* WKzUF
22 6 speed High TTL Wd

WOU WKzUF
19 3 Clamped Schottky TTL vJuA WKzU
2 9.5 Low power Schottky bI WCH vJuA WKzU

CMOS uLO oDM WKzU
+V +V
B Y=A.B
CMOS UOuuMJ b U WOM* NAND Wu qJA CMOS UOuuMJ WuMB WU qJA
WKzUF wLM w UUd CMOS u s ued b U vM qJA w UL CMOS ? WKzU

UUd UU9 W UJ CMOS UU b$ sJL* s t UL 4000 WK
K w U UNzUDU UeOO9 r CMOS
74C00 WK
K UNOK oKD WK
K w U UNzUDU eOL d_ VOd WHOu YO s TTL WKzU
54C00 WK
K
UNL hzUB) s bF d_ zUF s nK CMOS ? WKzU
WOIDM WU vK U WU v vKK 0.01 jI pKN

YO bIK qOKI UNN
10 v ed UO 5 s WOUF d v d_ WU s dOG UM vKK 10 v lHd
dL qF vK UNbI UUD vK qLF v eN_ v dJ b
vN pc ed UO
u WUD
Xu 18 v 3 s d uN cG sJ1 YO WcG uN s l UD b WOUJ
Wu Wd WcG lM bN ULK sJ UNKL vK p dR
U{uCK UNUI
WMU
UdNJK b WU
UN CMOS ? WKzU UO s

b?????????????????????
WOFOL WOIDM* b
Combinational Logic Cir- WOFOL WOIDM* b
WOFOL WOIDM U
qb
WOIDM* Uu b U WOM s U cuit
rO WuL s V
% WE( w UNU rO
WOFOL& WOIDM qJA
WEK pK w qb*
lU' nB d WuL W b U b s uM c qL n sJ1
WK_ s dF U * bF UO qb* bF UO eOd p qUJ lU'
WOFOL WOIDM* bK WOIOD
Half Adder lU' nB

5OzUM 5L lL' b
(C) (S) Ud (B) (A) b UN WOIDM s U lU' nB
U Uu b U b UM WId q1 qJA (C)wU d (S) uL* ULb 5L wDF
lU' nBM wbMB jD * q1 qJA
A
S
B
A S
lU' nB
B C
C
lU' nB e qJA lU' nB qJA
lU' nB Ud
S=A B
C=A.B
lU' nB qL WO q1 wU uB b
A B S C
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1

U buK UU
wU uJ ULMO WHK Wu qb U buK UU
lL' qU uJ
buK WU
UNOKb
Full Adder qUJ lU'

lL' b
(C) (S) Ud (Z) (Y) (X) qb UN WOIDM s U qUJ lU'
(C) bb' wU d (S) uL* ULb 5L wDF WIU
lL' WKd s wU l 5OzUM 5L
qUJ lUK wbMB jD * q1 qJA U Uu b U b UM WId q1 qJA
X
Y S
Z
X
S
Y qUJ lU'
C
Z
C
qUJ lU' e qJA qUJ lU' qJA
qUJ lU' Ud
S=X Y Z
C = X.Y + X.Z + Y.Z
qUJ lU' qL WO q1 wU uB b
X Y Z S C
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1
Decoder eOd p

d eOd UE v 5F eOd UE s quK Wb
* WLN* b s dF eOd p d
bF vB_ b( D0D1D2D3 U l xy b UN eOd p q1 qJA
WOU WF s qb* b vK bLF eOd w U *
qb* b YO U * b
tKOFH rO b d UO r u qb* WU vK UL t uB b s k

w AND Wu s b NOR NAND Uu b U eOd p UM sJ1 c b WLOI cQ
b WLOI d_ U * cQ 5 w dH WLOI qFH* d * cQ WU( c
X
D0 = X . Y
X Y D0 D1 D2 D3
0 0 1 0 0 0 D1 = X . Y
0 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 Y
D2 = X . Y
1 1 0 0 0 1
D3 = X . Y
uB b eOd p qJA
qOFH rO x y z qb* s wzUM bF qI

eOd p b wKOL jD * q1 qJA
c enable qb u k wUL UEMU rd qLO D7 --- D0 WOUL UNU s b d
qLF s b U 5JL b
b c vDF 5J9 qb l U UL qb eOd p e q1 qJA

3 to - 8 line Decoder r

X
D0 = X . Y . Z
Y D1 = X . Y . Z
Z D2 = X . Y . Z
D3 = X . Y . Z
D4 = X . Y . Z
D5 = X . Y . Z
D6 = X . Y . Z
D7 = X . Y . Z
Enable5J9
eOd p b wKOL jD * qJA
qb* U*
z y x D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
3x8
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 qb Decoder d
0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
5J9
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
uB b eOd p e qJA
s UdA ed* wzUM bF qI

eOd p UNK w u% w WUd q1 qJA
U * dAF rd qLO Q9 --- Q0 dAF UNU s b d qOFH rO A B C D qb*
r b c vDF

4028 eOd p WU qJA
Multiplexer qb* bF UO

WU uD s d *U tDd qb* b UO r b d qb b UN w
WOU WF s vDF qb* b UO_ uD b 5 WF control lines qb* UOU
UO uD b YO qb* b
rJ r X b d X1X2X3X4 qb l UN qb* bF UO q1 qJA

. 4-Input Multiplexer r b c vDF AB UO UD s UNKLF
UO uD qb*
X0
A B U*
0 0 X0
0 1 X1 X1
1 0 X2 Out
1 1 X3
X2
X3
uB b qb* bF UO qJA
Demultiplexer U* bF UO

WU uD s qb*U tDd U * b UO r b qb U b UN w
WOU WF s vDF U * b UO_ uD b 5 WF control lines d * UOU
UO uD b YO U * b

IN b qb OUT0,OUT1,OUT2,OUT3 U l UN U * bF UO q1 qJA
.4-Output Multiplexer r b c vDF A,B UO UD s UNKLF rJ r
U oDM* q9 WU UU U * bF UO w IN qb* WcG UML t dcU db'
eOd p b dB u b
UO uD d* Out0
IN
A B U*
0 0 OUTO
0 1 OUTO1 Out1
1 0 OUTO2
1 1 OUTO3
Out2
Out3
uB b U * bF UO qJA

b?????u
w WbI

U????B r???K
UB rK w WbI
Wb( UB qzU WLE b s UM b UMd U w UMKL w u u q
w
Xd UHK Uc* uHK UdN
UHK Uc* UuHOK b U*U qO
sJ1 q
u uM U
dA bLF wU( dBF w UB uD VB w UB UL
UB rU w uD vK U*
w{U* dI UM u] D X d Wb( UB WLE rEF rKF q
W??OU W???;
Wd s dG b rUF XKF UuKF* dB UB rU w UNuM Ud d

l UuKF* U pMJ1 pc
UU* bF ULN bd c hA l UB pMJ1
WUI b rUF c w UU* qF U2 ULJMO WU* XU
ULN _ `D s WFI w h
v UJ s UuKF* qI UB q u d qN UB rUF dOG Wd w gOF UMU
K dOB W OU
fOz ULN U
5d d WOOzd uD W Fd bI
UM tdJ Wb cM d
Wb( UB rE uD
w
UB UE u u U w
bI UM Wd quJ WDu UJd U sO jdK WU XL U uK
V WOdGK UUO qI vK quJ c b dB
qO Ud bUJ d UbM U U d bOF UU d wuB UB ` U w
vK UB rQ
WUJ u nUN ` u Uu bU l WOHU WLUJ
oI v WU bOF UU d qzUd qIM WKO vK u u r U uK
v lL u d q WL vK tbU s sOM wu
U uLOOu s q
n UbM rK c
WUL U c XKIU d qL w UJU u dH uFL bI rNUI UN
W
d Wd Ù wJK UI pc XK dK w uu
s qO
ud d v wu
U
Y UOUHKM W w u WD b AM Uu bU w Y b U w
dU uN vK UN bI w WO UDL b mK U uK dU uN vK UN
WD

WM UNbU w Y b FM Uu Y UE duD r U
q s WOJd_ bL Uu w WMb w WKIML nuNK Wb qOGA r U w
bu WOK UE b XU
AT&T W
d
bF dN U Bell Labs W
d tdJ u bF uOK nU UE dN U w
WHK WLE b
iF q s duD Y s uM dA t XF{ bF GSM UE dN U
WO_ U
dA
wU( dBF w uD
l v rUF U lOL w WOL UA Ud
UB WLE b s WU UB bF

dBF UKD V
u uD XU WU UB WOuO UMUO w qIM* nUN WLE u
UB WLE w dOJ uD v U2 dO
qJA w VU( tO uD c Yb(
b??? v?? W??b??O? b??? s?? u???? u?? w??U??( dBF ?? u??D?? c?? `???? d?? s??
sJ wL d UEM v wKUL UEM s rI* u% UL
WOdJ b v r WOJOUJOdNJ
ATM SDH ISDN q WLE_ s bbF dN YO bOu uD u fO c
WOuO UMUO s e X dO
qJA Xd WJ dA td uU( UJ uD UL
d_ bF WOUMB UL _ WOzUCH UD; b wueHK UI WLE dA UL
uOK) nUN r dG v w WKUJ* dzb uD GSM UNM WuOK) WLE_ UA bF

UdO WAP GPRS GPS SMS dOBI qzUd q Udu w Ub) U
YU qO' CDMAONE qGSM D-AMPS AMPS WLE XK Wb WLE dN UL
b WOUMB UL _ b U UNM

WO{_ UD; s
q UuKF* u nK qI vK be* VKD
UIOuL ubOH
UUO uB
Uud uB
ubO
uN p sJ UB WLE qUJ u tu v
u
uNH u??% B-ISDN ISDN UE uN b WLE uD
Uu vIOu
UJA UuKF* qI uNH v UB
UUO u
UJ ?? UuKF* qI UUO W qJA q1
UB
qJ

UB UEM WOU_ UuJ*
rd qI q U j?? qd w UB UE suJ du V WOU UuJ UM
UB UE _ WOU_ UuJ* dJ `{u U wO{u
bB UN UN qI
q U j
UuKFL U UI UuKFL
qdL q UM ju qIL
UB UEM WOU_ UuJL
WOL uBU
WOUO uJ b?? UNKI d??* WuKF* UNM bB w _ UuKF* bB
uU( UJ 5 WK UM* UuKF*U
q UM ju d UI WKU WUM U v UNKI d* WuKF* qu uI c UN' U UN

c uJ b VUM* qJAU qd* s UNd bF U?? qL c ju qUM ju
WLE WuK) UB WLE w UL
U OJK uJ b XU nUN WLE w UL
U OJK ju
UO* d uJ b WOUMD UL _
WuNH WuKF v q UM ju s WKI U qu uI c UN' UI UN
Uc* wFL UHK sbUAL
UNO UuF* qI d* _ UuKF* qI
UbMF UB UEM WOU_ UuJ* q
u t UB WLE j s J bF

dOG Uc ZM Ub w WOuB tU pd UJ s dF tS qd* hA b
rOI lOD pc qI* lL* d hA UNu bM U wNM q UM ju uNU
w WOU_ UNUuJ v UB WOKL
bL hA U UuKFL bB
bL hAK wuB UN U UN
uN q UM ju
qIL hA UI UN
qIL hA U UuKFL qI

U???B U/
wQ U v UuKF* qI U& V UB WLE nOMB sJ1
b UU UB tO r (Simplex) jO UB jL

UHK ud WLE w UL
qIL v qdL s jI
qdL qIL
jO UB jL
UB tO r(Half duplex) e nB UB jL
fO sJ qI qd d qJ sJL YO sOUU
d _ dD uJ ULMF X u fH w
tMJL
I d dD uJ qI
s Ò fJF
qdL qIL (push to talk) JK lb UE UEM c WK
e nB UB jL
sOUU UB tO r (Full duplex) e UB jL
I
d uJ d qJ sJL YO b w
Yb uK nUN WLE w UL
X u fH w
qdL qIL
e UB jL
w
OUMGdNJ nOD
vMF* fH qL% UNK
WOOUMGdNJ u_ WOOUMGdNJU wOUMGdNJ nOD
WOOUMG* U qJ q1 wU qJA wzUeOH
wzUdNJ U*
UA U&
Wu* u
wOUMG* U*
WOOUMGdNJ U

u??C? q??? n??O?D? c?? s?? U?? e?? s?? b???? 5??
WuL u
ueHK Uu UUU f
U ndJU* wzd*
WL WL WOOUMGdNJ U?? rU dF U?? U UNK
u??d??
h??zU??B? ) f??H? U??N? U??N? K?
Electromagnetic Radiation
f d??? (Wavelength) w??u??* u??D? w?? nK UNMJ

U
.(Frequency)
5OU 5L 5 WU* s U WOzuC Wu* u bF

qJAU `{u u UL
WuLK
bu WOU w Wu* dJ b s U d
ZM cc w U??* ju Ue s uJ U* q j w WuJ* u??_ S rKF UL
U* j w dAM Uu9
qJ vK uN Ue w dD{ s qIM uB WOuB u_ w U( pc
dH w dAM qK jUC

U* u WU( c w cc uL c YO WOOUMGdNJ u_ w nK U( sJ
WMA ud WU WMA dJ q WuA* ULO' cc s TAM c wdNJ
Wu*
nOD b??$ UM s?? WMA U?? W?? vK WOOUMGdNJ U???? w??u??* u??D? bLF
U ud U q WHK UL XOD WOu* u_ 5 eOLK l b t wOUMGdNJ
w qJA w k UL
cJ UU U f
U WOzd* U ndJU*
Visible
X-Rays Microwave
Gamma UV IR
Rays Radio
10-11 10-9 10-7 10-5 10-3 10-1 10 103
Wavelength (cm)

The Electromagnetic Spectrum
10-6 nm
10-5 nm
10-4 nm Gamma-Rays
-3
10 nm
10-2 nm
10-1 nm 1A
1 nm X-Rays
10 nm Violet
10 nm Indigo
100 nm UVIS EUV - 55.8-118nm
UVIS FUV - 110-190nm Ultraviolet Blue
103 nm 1 m Visible Light Green
10 m Near Infrared Yellow
100 m Orange
Far Infrared
1000 m 1 mm Red
10 mm 1 cm
10 cm Microwave
100 cm 1m UHF
10 m VHF
100 m HF
1000 m 1 km MF
10 km LF
Radio
100 km
1 Mm Audio
10 Mm
100 Mm
nm=nanometer, A=angstrom, m=micrometer, mm=millimeter,

cm=centimeter, m=meter, km=kilometer, Mm=Megameter

WO
OUMGdNJ U hzUB
dH w U c qIM uC Wd w WU Wd dH w dAM WOOUMGdNJU

qI* v qd* s W UD qIM
WOOUMGdNJ U Wd jd UNBzUB b f d wu u UN WOOUMGdNJ U
W F s wu* uD d l
C = f
d*U UI Wu* u
edONU UI Wu* d u f
300000000 U uC Wd u C
U???????
WuL u V 900 MHz d UN uC Wd dO uK nUN U XLK
q????(
300000000 = 900000000 x
300000000
m 0.33 = =
900000000
WuK UB WJ UE w UL
GSM 900 UE w WbL U Wu u ZM
r 33 u u WOMODKH
ud u s b YO wOUMGdNJ nOD qUJ jD qJA w `{ u UL
WIDM r dL( X% U WIDM ndJU* U WIDM r iHM* d quD wu* uD

UU U WIDM r f
U WIDM r WOHM u U WIDM r WOzd* U
hzUB wOUMGdNJ nOD oUM s WIDM qJ Uu* c d Ue U F u qK c
w wzd* nOD WIDM S rKFK U cN WHK UIOD X tOK UM iF s UNCF eO9
W s sJL 5F WOJ UN VO w WIDM* w UN vK bI vUF tU tK UMM w
UMu s UO_
E = hf WUF*U vDF W U UN WOOUMGdNJ U
h = 6.6 x 10-34 J.s p XU u h XU YO
1 e.v. = 1.6 x 10-19 J WOOUMGdNJ U W U s dOFK Xu dJ b b

nOD w sJ1 U d
UU U W U S tOK W UD d ULK
t p s ZM
wOUMGdNJ
U{ _ u nOD W U bF
wzd* nOD W U UUB W U qL U r rKF UL
uD V UN dF dA bK d lOD f

U W U pc
r' U) U d V
dO
wu u UN U w 5DK w WOJK UB w Wb* ud U d

cU db
U r d UNMJ1 pc d 0.000001 mU U WOK dD s dOJ d
d 0.33
rUF q
w UNKL hOd r WdA UK d{ W w V
ud U
WUu dK d Faraday d Maxwell qu
S Hertz edO q ULKF U U
s bbF w UNb UNLN udU ud u UA

w qCH Marconi wu
U rUF
UIOD
UL
u _ qI w b wOUMGdNJ nOD w wu u d
UN w w ud u
ueHK U w
W F V 109 x 3 q d uJ pc 10 cm s be ud U w Wu* u YO
C=f
ndJU* U
b* w dLMU UI qu wu u WOOUMGdNJ U s e w ndJU*U
ndJU* dH dF U u UFD wN w bb Ub U cN dLM 30 v 0.3 s
d eN bF s UFA eN UuKF* qI UB w b UL
Infrared dL( X% U
d s q?? U??d?? w d??L?( X% U?? WIDM w UM wMF c?? X% Infra" WLK
wMF
wzd* wOUMGdNJ nOD w dL(U
UF vK bLF UN_ fb E w Wd UNMJ1 dL( X% U b w eN_
U_ s oKDM* d(
ndJU* U nO wzd* nOD 5 dL( X% U nO lI
d( UB* dH q UMu s UO_ WU
s YFM Wd U w dL( X% U
dFA fLA s UMKB w U w UMU s pc
YFM r 5 s UJ s
fLA WF v dF bM bU bK'

w UN uFA sJ1 WMU bF WdI dL( X% U w WLN WDI vK bO
Q V
bF s eN_U rJK dMJud eN w b w
WO{_ dJ pc
UUM uO( U r q dL( X% U bB UO_ s bbF
sJ9 W U eN bU d* 5FU UN sJ1 U?? c WUL d??_ fLA
WF_ c bU fb E w Wd s U
W????Ozd* U???
tUu d d c wOUMGdNJ nOD s e' u
e uI dF dD* uI bF UL w dNE wU
u qJ vK nOD c d
wzd* nOD w wu
> u u dL_ uK UNO uJ U wu u u_ c s u qJ
WOu* u_ dB _ uK uJ
nOD u v iO_ uC qOK iO_ uK wDF iF l UNCF u??_ c UL
wu* tu V W U We u q
dJM dM YO qJA w UL
uAM b
dEM UMu s UO_ W s sJL UNb WOzd* U wU_ bB* fLA bF

5F vK UNuI U_ s wOUMGdNJ nOD c UJF vK bLF
u_ WOI WMU cJ dL d pc u_ w U h1 dL_ uK fJF dL_ uKU
WOduuH duB dOU
qLF pc
5F WOJ vK UUJF c lOL WOzd* uB uJ
WLJ( wOUMGdNJ nOD WOI dB dO 5F v UM tuM V sJ WO fHM ubOH
wOUMGdNJ nOD s d U UD b lOD dOU
U u b vUF tU UNLKF
wzd* dO
WO
HM u U
WOHM u U _ uCK wu* uD s dB wu u UN WOHM u U
UN dF sJ UUM w WOzUOLOJ UH jOAM vK bU U c UL
U WOzd dO
WOUM U) qI s d
U dF bM bK' dL V c UF sJ WOOUMGdNJ UO_ WU

UML lA
u' G d lOD U c s jO dO e WOHM u U u fLA
WU w UN dFA WFK c UN dU UM{dF bM bK' vK fLA U WF UME b UM w p
WOHM u U h1 Ue _ Ue s cU s fLA U uI

X-rays f U
ZM c UN' d c UNbD bM Q UN U UdJ bIH UbM f
U ZM
bN vL bF0 bDB WOU Ud v WKO s WFM* UdJ qOF vK qLF f
U
vK YFM w U e' tU bF* v UN U s e WKF* UdJ wDF UbM Target
f
U WOOUMGdN
U u
u t 5 tKOK% f
U nO W bF
WOHM u U wu* uD s dB U Ou
d
UN U wMF c
duB w Xb cN rEF d UNMJ U r d f
U lOD V cN
vK dOB WOM dH f
U jOK U h U nK f
U U rKO l{u YO UEF
rEF qJA W{ u W rKOH vK f
U q duB sJLO U s d VU'
UNM WUL( f U uD
d0 WU v R s d
UN dF S f
U bbF Ub s rdU
b w UNb 5 UNM WULK WO( U) vK dOD U UN bK' U) d Ud
WF_ cN U UB u* d
U d _ U d s eU b b d
c WIU UIOD
UN UBU uIO uM fLA s WFM* U c s WO{_ dJ wL u' G UL
v UNM UHM U cN sJ1 dG u s sLJ _ VI uD _ `D v UNu q

_ `D
Gamma-rays UUU
ZM UN_ p vK_ W UD wOUMGdNJ nOD w dB _ wu* uD U c
WFA* d UMF s pc
WuM UUB s
W UD Wu_ qOF r UM U bN d w UdJ qOF - f
U U w U( u UL
synchrotron dKJM cyclotron dKJO q F* bU b WOU

uOK v UUU W U qB WuM UHK WO fLA s UU U?? ZM WFOD w
GU UNbD bM jI U c h9 UCH w WOJK UU UU U lDI Xu dJ
WO{_ dJK u'
dOQ 5 wU qJA db* U c s WO( U uKLK WUL u' G qJA cN
wOUMGdNJ nOD vK u' G
u u s lM9 dB _ WOu* u_ ULMO u' G dF w w jI WOzd* U k
u' G w _ WI WUu h9 UN_ p _ `D

wOUMGdNJ nOD vK u G dOQ
UNM WUL( UUU uD

WU u UdU WU w WOz uB V WdA UK sQ V UUU dF
qUF d
t YO U d s r tJL eU b UUU U w uKLF sc U_
WF_ cN UB
(Band Width) UDM d
d U UM UD d (BWinf) UuKF* U UD d UDM d s Uu UM
v_ d vK_ d 5 dH s U t UuKF* U UD d dF (BWch) qIM UM
scK v_ vK_ d 5 dH s U uN UMI UD d UUuKF* U sL{ 5u;
uJ b UM
d UuKF* qIM vWO bUI v hK wUU d*U UMI ULN `L
BWinf < BWch UMI UD d U q WuKF* U UD d
qIM UM UD d BWch WuKF* U UD d BWinf
U???????
edO uKO
5000 200 s UD d t qI qu
b wueHK U UE U

UMI UD d V
edO 3400 v 300 sO U d uIML uB d Q U LK WOuB U dL `L UMI c q
q??????(
BWch = 5000 - 200 = 4800 KHz UMI UD d
BWinf = 3400 - 300 = 3100 KHz WOuB U UD d

d s d
UMI c UD d _ d*U WOuB U `L UMI c
] `{u s
WOuB U UD
5LC nA 5LC
U WUM uJ UUO uB uB q UuKF* UB s UB U_
q U hzUB dOG p q UM ju VUM U c bF c q UM ju d qIMK
Modulation 5LCU WOKLF c vb d
5LC nA
v??b?? WOJ WOKL w?? WOK _ UNFO v?? U?? c?? U?? r qI* w??
Demodulation
NOISE guA
Ò qJA UNUI UNu{ s qKI UuKF* U w dR WOzuA WOzUdN
U u
5L v bB V rIM
(Atmospheric Noise) u' G guA
WOzuA WOOUMGdN
U bOu UNM ZM w ouB q WOFOD duE s "UM u
UU* WO Uu* UI tUA qJA qIM w d UDM w dR id d UD
30MHz s q _ d w dO
qJA dR bOF
v r
IM u' G U s guA
w
LA guA
jA V
u
UN_ Wu W v tD d W qB VNK r s U fLA _
b be id d UDM WOOUMGdN
U UNM ZM c WL{ Wu UH tO b%
U dI U U q
W d w dNE guA c
wuJ guA
U nFC bF c bOF U uL uM bF
UC uM tb% guA s fLA tb% U
UdOU `B v guA s dOJ ZM uM b d
sJ _ v WK u WOOUMGdNJ
U uLK
wUMB guA ?
WLE s WOOUMGdN
U ZM wUMB uD WOUMB PAM* s "UM guA u
dzUD UO s lUB* w WOUMB w WOzUdNJ ÒUH* s UF
UB eN s UUFS `BM guA UB s XMuKH ÒUB bF
UL

guA UNM ZM d wzUdN
mdH UNUB W UL
U dI 600MHz v d b* w wUMB guA dR

wKb guA
w dR U2 WOdJ d UMF d UH s ZM UNH UB eN w guA c ZM
tM hK U sJ1 dBMF d vK wzuA bN d uN wUU WOKb UNUI
UB WLE 5 qb ?
oUM* w d??? fH b UFO d UDM fH UB eN b b
WuF v R U2 UI UN v qB b d w WNUA* U c WHK* WOdG'
WO UD; iF UI w UUO p WE sJ1 UNMO odH
guA qUF
p guA s U UB UE t dF U bI bb% tUu sJ1 U UOI guA qUF bF
(S / N)in
F= WO WUF* V
(S / N)out
YO
guA qUF F
U b S
guA b N
5 WM v U UB UE qb w guA v U W U 5 WM u guA qUF

UEM p d vK guA U W U
1 s d
U Lz uJO guA qUF uUI s k
fJF UEM w guA W U vK p guA qUF ULK

b?????u
sOLC

WOKOL UB WLE
(Modulation) 5LC uNH
WOuB UU WHKL UuKFL UB s WUM U rEF

WUM uJ
WuLL UU vL
UuKFL qL w U c qOL uI pc qUM ju d qIMK
(Carrier) WKU UU vL
WHKL qIM jzU d qIMK WUM u d U vK
(Modulation) sOLCU WOKLF c dF
U F WKU U u dOOG UNDu r w WOKLF pK t vK sOLC ndF lOD
pc
sLCL b dF WOdJ bU WOKLF c r WuLL U dOG
WKU U
WMLC U
sLCL
WuL U
WLEM U d U UNQ WKU U UL

U
dz bU U c bOu r U U U WOO UU

U IU UNM e W r w UcL
se
UNKbF sJL w WOO U hzUB r s

uDU
d u sOLC WOKL
uD
wQ UL U O{U U c qOL sJL
C (t) = Ac Cos (2 fc t + )
WKU WuL u w WKU WuL d w fc WKU WuL U

u Ac YO
WO sOLC u b vK qB hzUB c b qbF s
dOG U F WKU WuL U

dOOG s U u (AM "Amplitude Modulation") U sOLC
U
sOLC U vb bb U ZM UuKFL U WuLL U
dOG U F WKU WuL d dOOG s U u (FM Frequency Modulation) d sOLC
d sOLC U vb bb U ZM UuKFL U WuLL U
U dOG U F WKU WuL u dOOG s U u (PM "Phase Modulation" ) uD sOLC
uD sOLC U vb bb U ZM UuKFL U WuLL

5LC W???OL
UB w sOLC WOKL r u b rN U
UM
wQ U UNM hK
UMMJL UB rU w dO WOL sOLC WOKLF
u S UHJ WO
OUMGdNJ UuL Y r wJ oOD WOUJ (Antenna) UOzuN u
WuLK wuL uD l U uJ UI U wzu
4
d bF
c 3400KHz v 100Hz L
d w ed WOuB U
UNu u uJ U O
U CHM
c 3 108
= = = 88235 meters
f 3400
nKJ c d 22058 U
wuL uD s 25% u U c Y wzuN U pc
qO oODK qU dO b
S pc WKCHL pD v lL
peM w wzuN c U p
vK WOuB U qL od s UNU U UI wzuN u WKJA q sOLC
S MHz 900 d WKU U WUu U c qOL UML u
L lHd d WKU U
uJ WUM U Wu u
c 3 108
= = = 0.33 meters
f 9 108
c r 8.25 U
qU t v WU{U U UB bF 0.33 U
wzuN u uJ
4 4
oODK
qb b b U F UNKI sJL YO WKU U vK WKL UuKFL U s b qI

qb u U c S qbF WOK_ UNU Y W UD u L UNMO
t
H Xu w WO uM b Y UJU uJ sK cN U dI t
H UDM qGA d UNHO _
uJ YO WHK d qu u U c qL sJL YO sOLC ULFU sJ
UI UN w UDL c qb lML WUHJ tO UL UNCF s bOF WKU UuL d
UcL w UL WudL WDL U UO dOOGK qU wUD d `d b

(Demodulation) 5LC nA
bF WKU U s UuKFL U WuLL U qB od s p sOLC W WOKL w
dF YO UuKFL U Ud UI UN w WOKLF c r uKDL UJL v UNu
(Detector) nUJ b Wb
L b vL
(Demodulated Signal) WBK
L UU
WMLC U n?? ? U?J WuL U
(Amplitude Modulation) U?? 5LC

U dOG U F WKU U U
dOOG UN s r w WOKLF pK u U
sOLC
dOOG U U WKU U d vK WEUL l UuKFL U WuLL
U u (Amplitude Modulated Signal) U OU

WMLC U u WOKLF s ZUM uJ pc
b
(modulating Signal) sOLC US U C dF w WuLL U (carrier Signal) WKU
UL `d WUI wzUM s uJ sOLC dz j
(Radio) UcL WLE w sOLC s uM c
w qJA w
Vc
R
`d d
Vm
YO vc(t) = Vc cos(2 fc t) w WKU U XU qJA v dEMU

WKU U vB_ U
u : Vc
WKU U d u fc
Vm(t)

Vm(t) YO vm(t) = Vm cos(2 fm t) w WuLL U XU
t WKU U vB_ U
u Vm
WKU U d u fm
U qJAU uJ dL vK qJA S sOLC vK WuLL WKU sOU u bM
WMLCL UU dF w

qUFL Vm WuLL U vB_ U
Vc WuLL U vB_ U
sO W
M dF
Vm
Ò b s q sOLC qUF WLO uJ U m= sOLC
Vc
UOU WMLC* U d UuJ

w UL b d uJ WOO WKU U
d uJ uJ bI WuLL U U U qJA
fc
b d s d u UD b d
U
b U d U uJ u WuLL U XU

wU UDM wU UDM
wKH
uKF Wd UuJ W u U OU
WMLCL U S
d
qJA w UL WOU
fc - fm fc fc + fm w? UuJ* c
(fc) WKU U d
.(Upper Side Band- USB) uKF VU UDM vL
(fc + fm) sd uL Ud bb WuJ
(Lower Side Band- LSB) wKH
VU UDM vL
(fc - fm) sd d Ud bb WuJ
Mixer U??????*
u td S ULK WOD dO uK dE sOHK sd sOU eL UL b
UL ULK ed VUML `dL bU VUML d vK uB r YO b d vK

w qJA w

qb d
F1 F1, F2, (F1+F2), (F2-F1)...
F2 , F1 ULNe dL sOU d XU S
qb f1+ f2) , (f2, f1),.) uJ UL d d S

F2
uNE dE f1, f2 s q UHUC v WU{U F1, F2
+Vcc
w UL b sJLO dL vK bb d
C3 UOU p WOU d vK uBU d UIOD
C4
f2, f1 UU p U d iH f1+f2
R1 IF
Rf w w Y w wU qJA UL b
(f1) C1
Tr U sOLC U bOu r YO U dz
wMO d u
dz w UOzuN d UN UuKFL U
R2 C2
R3 wMO d dL
d vK uB r UI
UL qJA w UL WMLCL U s
f2
U
U???????
d V
2000Hz u WuLL U d 1000Khz u WKU U d XLK
J r wKH
uKF VU UD
sOLC WOKL s WUM U Wd UuJLK U OO{u
WMLCL U
q????(
(fc) =1000 Khz WKU U d
(fm) =2000 Hz WuLL U d
(fc + fm) = 2 + 1000 = 1002 Khz sd uL u uKF wU UDM d
(fc + fm) = 1000 - 2 = 998 Khz sd d qU u wKH
wU UDM d
U
d
(fc - fm) 1000 (fc + fm)

998 1002

U???????
u w udJUL d Khz 675 bI qU d b
W WD XU
U OU
WMLCL U WOU_ UuJL b Hz 3400 - 300 UDM
q?????(
678.4KHz = 675 + 3.4 675.3KHz = 0.3 + 675 w uKF wU UDM d
671.6KHz = 3.4 - 675 674.7KHz = 0.3 - 675 w wKH

wU UDM d
675KHz WKU U d
U
d
675 (KHz)
671.6 674.7 675.3 678.4
qI w dR WMLCL U s UNc S UuKF W UuL sLC WKU U UL

WuLL U
sLCLU WKU U c uI c sLCL vL
WJKN
L WUD s dO b du q
sLCL c qL U qJA (Balanced Modulator) uL
D1
WMLC U
WuL; U R1 C1
d*
R2 C2
WKU( U
D2
uL sLCL
U pc D2 D1
sOOzUM v WKUL WIdD Wuu WKU U qJA w k
UMA C2 C1 sOFuL _ p uu dO WuLL U XU dH U
sLCL d
wd sO bN d S sLCLU Wuu WuLL U XU U sOHK sOU
sOMA
WuLL U j WId V
WuLL WKU sOU d uLL vK bLF wzUM

d u sLCL d vK U uN v R c d_ WU
UO dL sOOzUM S
WKU U d vK u wKH
uKF sOOU sOUDM
uL sLCL d U WOU_ Wd UuJL `{u U qJA
U
d
(fc - fm) fc (fc + fm)

sLCL bU U OU
WMLCL U Wd WOU_ UuJL qJA s k
pc WKU U vK u U c wKH
uKF sOOU sOUDM s uJ uL
Double) WcL WKU sOOU sOUDM U
sOLC dF U
sOLC s uM c S
. (Side Band-Suppressed Carrier: DSB-SC
W
c; WKU( bu wU' UDM U sLC
WuLL U UD d nF{ U
WMLCL U UD d U sOIU
sOuM w
U UD dF U U
UDM d bI uJ wHJ WuLL U qIM sJ (BW=2fm)
ULMO uKDL UDM dL `L
VUM UD ddL `d bU p r (BW=fm) WuLL
WcL WKU b VU UDM U
sLC U qJA `{u d UDM V
wU UD
WuL U
u sLC UD ddL `d b
WKU U SSB-SC
S pc d UDM V ULMO b wU UD ddL vK `dL qLF qJA w

WKU U vK u b wU UD vK jI u WMLCL U Wd UuJL
WcL WKU bu wU UDM U
sOLC sOLC s uM c wL pc
(Single Side Band -Suppressed Carrier :SSB-SC)
(Amplitude De-Modulation) U 5LC nA

WuLL U qB od s p sOLC W WOKL u sOLC WOKL nA U IU X
WOKLF W
UF WOKL w uKDL UJL v UNu bF WKU U s UuKFL U
sOLC

dOJ WKU U
sOLC nA w b
w U
sOLC nA dz b qL U qJA
. (Large Carrier Amplitude Modulation Detector) dOJ WKU U
sOLC nUJ b c dF
WUI wzUM s uJ b S k u UL

U s WuL e_ ddL uI wzUMU lu
U WU
e_ d lML sO w UNHA dL
mdH sA b UuI ULNS luL WUIL
X Ue p U O
WOU WUIL WLO uJ U
WMLC* U
C R WuL; U d bN vK uBK p luL WM mdH
qLF UL WuLL U dOG tA WIdD dOG
lML wUU WKU U W
MU dB b luL
dOJ WKU U
sOLC nA UMd b uJ pc dL v U c d
jI WuLL U
(Frequency Modulation: FM) d 5LC
WuLL U dOG U F WKU U d dOOG UN s r w WOKLF pK u d sOLC
U u WOKLF s ZUM uJ pc U U WKU U U
vK WEUL l UuKFL U
c b
WuLL WKU U s u (Frequency Modulated Signal) U d WMLC
ULdO UHK UcL WLE w sOLC s uM
WKU( U
YO vc(t)=Vc cos(2fct) w WKU U XU

WuL; U WKU U vB_ U
u Vc
WKU U d u fc
YO vm(t)=Vm cos(2fmt) w WuLL U XU
WKU U vB_ U
u Vm
Ud WMLC* U
WKU U d u fm
UL qJA w UL d sOLC WOKL ZU S
hUM hUM WuLL U U
Ue e WKU U d qJA s k
VuL vB_ U
bM sJL U d U d WMLCL U d uJ YO WuLL U U
WuLL U

W
M dF (Frequency Deviation: f) d dU WKU U d w dOG bI dF
f
mf = YO mf d sOLC qUFL WuLL U d d d sO
fm
Ud WMLC* U d UuJ
UuJL u U d WMLCL U S b U d U uJ u WuLL U XU
WO WOU_
WOK_ WKU U
(fc + fm) (fc - fm) d U
U sOU
sOU
(fc + 2fm) (fc - 2fm) d U
U sOU
sOU
U U
bLF YO cJ (fc + 3fm) (fc - 3fm) d U
U sOU
sOU
sOLC qUF vK bb
U d WMLCL U WOU_ Wd UuJL `{u U qJA
U
d
(fc-fm) fc (fc+fm)
U???????
UuJL V
100KHZ WuLL U d 100MHZ WKU U d XLK
J r U d WMLCL U Wd
WOKL s WUM U Wd UuJLK U OO{u
sOLC
q??????(
100KHz WKU U d
100000 100 100100 KHz d U?? Lb UU??
100000 - 100 = 99900 KHz d d_
100000 200 100200 KHz d ULb UU
cJ 100000 200 99800 KHz d d_
WKb U bN od s WMLCL U td d rJ r cc u d sLC j
WuLL U

WMLC U jO
sLCL c qL `{u w qJA
UuKFL U Wd
VCO
(Frequency Modulation Demodulation) d 5LC nA

X uL U WKUJL dzb UUM bI d sOLC nAJ bb d b
d sOLC nAJ I
L UM w b
WKUJL dzb
nU b
r s U
U dOG v d dOG qu od s d sOLC nA U r
qJA U d WMLCL U s WuLL U wUU dOG pK nAJ U
sOLC
d sOLC nA WO `{u U
WMLC U WMLC U
Ud UOU
UuKF* U
`d wU
sLC
(Frequency Division Multiplexing) d rOI bU bF* U

u U c S qbF b dU WOuB UNU Y WO UDL s b d
t
H Xu w WO UM s d Y sJLL s uJ sK c t
H UDM qGA d UNHO _ qb
s UH p b qI UM vK U b U (Multiplexing) bFL U b
r YO UNKI dL U d UDM s dOJ d U uJ w qIM UMI d UDM WF

U OU UUDM c s UD q uJ YO UNM dG UUD b v WKUM UMIK d UDM rO
I
seL qIM w d rO
I b
U WOI l UNKb b WuKDL U qIM qIM
lML bU WHK d qu u WOuB U sOLC od s p U bFL
WuKDL WDL U UO dOOGK qU wUD d `d qLF
UI UN w qb
d rO
I bU bFL U qL b `{u U qJA
ddL `d ddL `d
Vm1(t) iHM UD UD
fC1
Vm2(t)
ddL `d ddL `d 1 2 3
iHM UD UD
fC2 fC1 fC2 fC3
ddL `d
Vm3(t)
ddL `d
iHM UD UD
fCn

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(Photoelectric Effect) WOzu{dNJ dUE

(Photovoltaic Effect) wzu{ dNJ dOQ dU

(Photo Resistor) WOzuC WUI*

Vu qOGA d YO s WUF WUI*U qUF WOzuC WUI* Q dO c UMuH dO

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(Photo Diode) wzuC wzUM

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d) WUI WOUWDu WCHM WOU

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U d U b U UB U wCO qL( d U O dOJ (I )lL* UO d qL(

YU bUI b WMU

WUFU wFA bUI UO wFA lL UO 5 W F vDF

.10 U lA WU w UO V qUF U

duOL dJO WOdJ b qLF sJ1

5 wU wJ bN bu lM vK (D)wzUM qLF

WOOUMGdNJ Wu* qJA

WO UUF s uJ c qJA w 5* w OUMGdNJ nOD s dOG

WUM dJ UOO_ UdOJ e' c uM r Wu*

ud ndJO dL( X% WOzd* WOHM u WOMO UU WF Wu*

wOUMGdNJ nOD UuJ qJ

p Wu* u d w UNMO ULO nK Wd fHM dH w dAM WIU Uu* q

Uu Uu WF_ WF_

`{u dOuU wu* uD

qLF YO WOKOK Wd eN vL WOzd WF v dL( X% WF_ qu% q qLF dOU UM bu

(Photo Resistor) WOzuC WUI*

Vu qOGA d YO s WUF WUIU qUF WOzuC WUI Q dO c UMuH dO

uC bU wzUdN qL qOGA rJ% 5 qJA U

WOzuC WUI* bU d qOGA w rJ qJA

WOzuC uedK WOMH UHu*

wzUdN qL (Solar cells) WOLA U)

N WI vK WOzUdN WF u bu YO Effect

WOzUdN W U v WOLA W UD qu% vK qLF UEM jD qJA

WKUJ* wzuC eF UJ iF qJA wzuC eF u iF qJA

wzuC jd eO s

(Dark Activated) E WU w qOGA qOGAK 5U vK qB wzuC ued l u U

E WU w qOGA qJA WzU{ WU w qOGA qJA

`zdA WOU d b qJ qJA w UL Xu dH

cN d WU WUI* WLO uJ tOK

(Common Cathode Displays) dA* jN* WKOu

G edU t ed rCL VJ tKb rCL d sO WM dF

pc P0 bIL b dL U Pi bIL b qbL U XU qJA w

UO V S I 0 bIL UO dL U I i bIL UO qbL U XU

bN V S V0 bIL bN dL U Vi bIL bN qbL U U

UbI WUL qOFH W U XU 0.5 UNb qO s WUM U XU

(Class A ) A n??M r??C

c _ rCL b WcGL bI v dL b sO WM UN vK rCL UH dF

XU UOMOF_ w WOU WOLUF d Operational Amplifiers UOKLF UC dN

t pc f U dO qb f U qb sOKb UOKLF rCL S qJAU `{ u UL

741 U UOKLF rC* Typical WOKLF hzUB)

UOKLF rC* Ideal WOU* hzUB)

WcG d b UOKLF rC

s bNU WLOI dF dO d bN WLOI dF bN WUIL UIL UOKLF rC b

U W s d v rCL w qB V0 wIOI UOKLF rC hzUB s

wIOI UOKLF rCL hzUB vMM

WUN U U dOJ W S wUL rCL WU w

wUL UILK hzUB vMM

WOO U qbL U XU dL U r w qJA w

s U d UNLO uJ U WU w Vsat YO V0 = +Vsat S Vd > 0 uJ UbM t sLC

XU bN bBL WOO U WUI

WcG sOQ r 0v v f UF dO qbL q

(If) WOJF WcG UO

Gi edU t ed f UF rCLK gain dOJ qUF w V0 WUFL s

UbN U fJ l UF{ dA bIL WOO U dOJ W WOJF WcG WUI V