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EDs Basic Histology PDF
EDs Basic Histology PDF
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This site was placed originally for the medical students at Kansas City University
of Medicine and Biosciences in Kansas City.
Since then, I have been delighted that many other learners at all levels have
found it helpful.
Especially if you plan a career in medicine or bioscience, you will need basic
histology competency in the years ahead.
As a lay person, this exercise will help you understand popular articles
about medical science, especially when there are schematic drawings of
tissues.
KCUMB Students who complete this exercise can expect to be successful on the
first histology signoff. (We are considering this as a requirement for completing
the first unit of the new curriculum.)
In this exercise, you will be required to identify, all by yourself, under a real
microscope with a flesh-and-blood instructor, EACH of the following:
nuclei
euchromatin and heterochromatin
nucleoli
mitotic figures
cytoplasm
exocrine glands
smooth muscle
skeletal muscle
collagen fibers
fat
blood vessels
lymphatic vessels
neutrophils
lymphocytes
We hope you enjoy the dynamic approach to histology. We encourage you to ask
at any time, "What is this cell DOING?"
Start Learning
1. Cells and Fibers
2. Cells in Relationship
3. Some Large Cells
4. More Epithelium and Fibrous Tissue
5. Nuclei and Cytoplasm
6. Nuclei at Low Magnification
7. Some Abnormally Large Nuclei
8. Nucleoli
9. More Nucleoli
10. Still More Nucleoli
11. Heterochromatin and Euchromatin
12. More Heterochromatin and Euchromatin
13. Looking At Nuclei
14. Cancer Nuclei
15. Mitotic Figures
16. Mitotic Figures
17. Mitotic Figures
18. Mitotic Figures
19. Mitotic Figures
20. Introducing Red Blood Cells
21. More Red Blood Cells
22. Arteries and Veins
23. A Larger Artery
24. A Small Vein
25. A Capillary
26. Another Capillary
27. A Small Artery
28. Artery and Vein
29. Artery Branchpoint
30. Dilated Lymphatic Vessel
31. Another Big Lymphatic
32. A Slender Lymphatic Vessel
33. A Collapsed Lymphatic Vessel
34. Cancer Cells in a Lymphatic Vessel
35. Neutrophils and Hemorrhage
36. Neutrophils in Smooth Muscle
37. Neutrophils in Tissue Fluid
38. Neutrophils in Pus
39. Neutrophils in Dead Tissue
40. Neutrophils in Acute Pneumonia
41. Neutrophils in Hemorrhagic Pneumonia
42. Lymphocytes in Tissue Section
43. More Lymphocytes in Tissue Section
44. Another Group of Lymphocytes
45. Lymphocytes and Neutrophils
46. Large Lymphoid Aggregate
47. Lymphocytes and Giant Cells
48. Lymphocytes in Edema
49. Lymphatic Channel in Inflammation
50. Small Blood Vessel
51. Lymphocytes and Plasma Cells
52. Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
53. Smooth Muscle, Longitudinal Section
54. Smooth Muscle, Low Magnification
55. Smooth Muscle, Longitudinal and Cross Sections
56. Smooth Muscle, Interlacing Bundles
57. Smooth Muscle, Cross Section
58. Smooth Muscle vs. Dense Connective Tissue
59. Smooth Muscle in Arterial Wall
60. Inner Circular, Outer Longitudinal
61. Skeletal Muscle, Longitudinal Section
62. Skeletal Muscle, Cross Section
63. Muscle Vasculature
64. White Fat
65. White Fat and its Vessels
66. White Fat, Low Magnification
67. White Fat, High Magnification
68. Fat in a Gland
69. White Fat with Capillary
70. Brown Fat
71. More Brown Fat
72. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
73. Mucin-Producing Columnar Epithelium
74. Short Columnar Epithelium (Exocrine Glands)
75. Exocrine Pancreas
76. Cuboidal Epithelium, Thyroid
77. Eccrine Sweat Glands
78. Columnar Epithelium, Stomach
79. Columnar Epithelium, Higher Magnification
80. Malignant Epithelium
81. Cuboidal Epithelium, Two Layers
82. Columnar Epithelium, Mucus-Secreting
83. Small Intestinal Crypts
84. Ciliated Epithelium
85. Intestinal Columnar Epithelium
86. Ciliated Epithelium of Oviduct
87. Ciliated Epithelium of Airway
88. Columnar Epithelium and Smooth Muscle
89. Stratified Squamous Epithelium, Smoker's Lung
90. Stratified Squamous Epithelium, Mucosa
91. Stratified Squamous Epithelium, Thick
92. Stratified Squamous Epithelium, Glycogen-Rich
93. Stratified Squamous Epithelium, Lower Layers
94. Stratified Squamous Epithelium
95. Hair Follicle
96. Endothelium (A Simple Squamous Epithelium)
97. Macrophages
98. Review: Cancer
99. Review: Neutrophils in Loose Connective Tissue
100. Review: Island of Langerhans
The hematoxylin stains nucleic acids (plus calcium deposits and bacteria)
blue.
The eosin stains most proteins (actually, arginine and lysine) pink.
Clear areas represent water, carbohydrate, lipid, or gas.
Don't be upset if the various recipes for "H&E" do not always produce exactly the
same colors. Try to understand what you are seeing.
Nuclei will always stain blue with the hematoxylin. The cytoplasm of cells will
stain according to its composition. The strong supporting proteins around the
cells will stain pink, and you will be able to see their texture. In all but the most
regular of tissues, between the fibers will be looser areas where there is a
proponderance of ground substance. It is composed of mucopolysaccharide plus
complex carbohydrates. The protein component of the mucopolysaccharide
usually imparts a weak pink color.
This is fibrocartilage from an intervertebral disk. The collagen fibers give strength
and shape, while the abundant ground substance between them makes the disk
springy and resiliant. Advanced students: Don't expect to see any blood vessels.
Collagen: CALL-uh-jenn
Roots:
colle: glue
gen: produces
matrix: mother
eos: dawn
muco: slime
When cells adhere to one another in order to cover an interior or exterior surface,
we call them epithelium. The cells are attached tightly to one another to protect
the integrity of the surface and keep tissue fluids from leaking out.
Epithelial cells cover every healthy body surface except the gliding surfaces of
joints and the surfaces of the teeth.
Epithelial cells stick tight to one another. There are many different kinds of
epithelium.
Beginning students are often disappointed that they cannot always see the cell
borders. This should not surprise you. Often they are only a few molecules thick.
Also remember that animal cells do not have cell walls.
This photo shows a group of cells, adherent to one another and forming a ring.
The cell borders are just barely visible. Don't be concerned if you cannot see
them.
This is a pancreatic duct. Its inner surface is lined (as almost all surfaces must
be) by an epithelium which makes up most of its thickness. Surrounding the
epithelium are strands of collagen which are continuous with the surrounding
fibrous tissue.
the epithlium of the little duct; notice both cytoplasm and nuclei
the fibrous tissue, with many strands of collagen surrounding the duct
Roots:
epi: on
thelium: layer
duct: guide
Fun to know:
Medical singular words that end in -um usually form plurals in -a (not -ae).
epithelium, epithlia
septum, septa (not septae)
trabeculum, trabecula (not trabeculae)
diverticulum, diverticula (not diverticulae)
glabella, glabellae
lamella, lamellae
This is skeletal muscle. For now, just focus on telling the cells from what is
between them, and recognizing their nuclei. For now, you will have to trust us
that these are multinucleated single cells, while the epithelial layer you saw in the
last frame was composed of many uninucleate cells.
With your study partners, find:
Note: A few of these fibers are cut tangentially, so you may see
what appear to be central nuclei. Think about the geometry.
Roots:
musc: little mouse.
Whatever form they take, you can recognize epithelial cells because they adhere
tightly to one another. Although you cannot always distinguish the cell borders,
you can tell where the epithelial cells' cytoplasm is located.
Of course, gland cells must have fibers to support their active epithelium, both
physically and by supplying blood flow. There are also some cells in-between
these fibers. You will learn about the components of fibrous tissue soon.
Epithelial cell nuclei. These are difficult to see because of the mucin.
Nuclei always stain blue, with at least a rim of dark blue at their edges. We refer
to this loosely as the "nuclear membrane", though of course the real nuclear
membrane is only a few molecules thick and is invisible on light microscopy.
The nuclei of the island cells are quite more-or-less and rather large. The
cytoplasm of the island cells is light pink. Don't expect to see cell borders.
Within the island, there are also some cells that make up the walls of the
capillaries. These nuclei are dark and elongated. Don't expect to see their
cytoplasm clearly.
Around the island are the glandular units that produce the pancreatic enzymes.
Notice the nuclei. The cytoplasm of the cells tends to be purple near the nuclei,
more pink toward the center of the unit. With your study partners, find:
Fun to know:
You have probably noticed that the nuclei of the island cells seem to vary
some in size. This is mostly due to their being cut through different planes.
A few of the nuclei are probably tetraploid. This is normal for human
endocrine organs. Can you spot these unusually large nuclei?
Islet: EYE-let
Nucleus: NUKE-lee-us
Nuclei: NUKE-lee-eye
Roots:
plasm: shapeable
In the nerve itself, the schwann cells are wrapped around the axons. You can
see their nuclei scattered around.
In the fibrous tissue around the nerve ("epineurium"), the nuclei of cells that
make tissue fibers are arranged with the long axes circumferentially around the
nerve itself.
In the fat cells around the nerve, you can spot occasional nuclei at the edges of
cells. It is hard to distinguish nuclei of the fat cells themselves and of the
capillaries within the fat.
Generally, the nuclei tell the pathologist "benign or malignant" while the
cytoplasm tells the pathologist "cell of origin".
Cancer cell nuclei have become genetically destabilized. Often their nuclei vary
greatly in size.
This is the edge of a lung cancer. The cancer is composed of bizarre epithelial
cells. They grow next to an area of normal fibrous tissue.
The nuclei in the cancer cells are much larger than in the normal areas. They
vary wildly in shape.
Although most eukaryotic cells have at least one nucleolus, you can only see
them on light microscopy if they are relatively large. This means that the cell is
planning to make a lot of protein.
Nucleoli appear sharply demarcated within the surrounding nucleus. They will
stain slightly more eosinophilic than the heterochromatin under the nuclear
membrane.
the nerve cell's nucleus (HINT: Look for the thin rim of heterochromatin at
the "nuclear membrane".)
the nerve cell's nucleolus (HINT: It is about the same size as the nuclei of
in the lower half of the section).
Basic Histology -- More Nucleoli
Neurons, the big electric cells of the brain, are good places to look for healthy
nucleoli. They are constantly synthesizing protein to maintain their processes and
connections, which may be several feet away.
This is another neuron.
Fun to know:
Did you notice that a section through a big cell might miss not only the
nucleolus, but even the nucleus?
In addition to brain cells, good places to look include liver cells, ganglion cells,
and regenerating cells.
This sensory ganglion cell might send one process to the big toe and the other as
far as the bottom of the brain. It is not surprising that you can see a good
nucleolus.
Ganglion: GANG-glee-un
Roots:
Gangl-: knot
The patches of heterochromatin are much smaller than the nucleoli, and stain
more blue, the same color as the heterochromatin at the outer edge of the
nucleus.
the nuclei
a mitotic figure
We can't really mark the heterochromatin chunks in the nuclei; they're too small.
We don't think you'll have trouble identifying them.
Euchromatin: YOO-chrome-uh-tin
Heterochromatin: HETT-err-oh-CHROME-uh-tin
Roots:
eu: good
Hotshots:
Did you notice that the epidermal cells are connected by a series of little
junctions, like railroad ties? These are the "prickles" or "spines" of the
epidermis. Actually, they are desmosomes. Fixation in formalin has pulled
the cells slightly apart.
The other kind of cell has very little euchromatin, and very scanty cytoplasm.
This is a tissue with two types of cell. One has nuclei which are mostly
heterochromatin. The other has nuclei which are mostly euchromatin.
The epidermis renews itself by division of cells at the dermal border, and
shedding of cells from the surface. This epidermis is somewhat abnormal, since
its nuclei are retained in the upper layers of the epidermis.
Notice that it is easy to see the cell borders in most of the epidermis. Notice how
the nuclei change from region to region. The lowest cells have nuclei of moderate
size and color. In the middle of the epidermis, the cells are actively synthesizing
keratin to protect the surface. So the nuclei are very large and pale and exhibit
nucleoli. On the top, the nuclei are no longer active, so they are dark. They tend
to flatten as do the surface cells.
In the bottom layer of the epidermis, a few of the cells have pale cytoplasm and
relatively small, dark nuclei. These are the melanocytes. They do not make much
protein, and rarely divide, so their nuclei are inactive.
epidermis
epidermal cell borders
dermis
derm: skin
This ultimately results in some very large nuclei. Since the nucleus does not
know exactly how to pack the extra chromosomes, the nuclear membrane
usually shows some wrinkles, like an overpacked suitcase.
Also as a result of problems with packing, and/or from having an excess of genes
that aren't really doing anything, cancer nuclei tend to have big clumpy blocks of
heterochromatin.
As a general rule, the more bizarre the nuclei, the more aggressive the cancer.
This is a cancer arising from glandular cells. Most of the nuclei are at least
somewhat abnormal.
With your study partners, find:
Hotshots:
We call these "mitotic figures." Counting mitotic figures sometimes helps the
pathologist tell benign from malignant.
Mitotis: my-TOE-sis
Mitotic: my-TOT-tick
Roots:
mito: thread
-osis: full of (this is the actual meaning, despite what anybody else may
tell you)
pro-: first
meta-: beyond
telo-: end
Basic Histology -- Mitotic Figures
Here is another mitotic figure.
In anaphase and telophase nuclei, you can see two groups of chromosomes
drawing apart.
Like the last picture, this is from the small intestine. These cells replace their
neighbors, which are continually being lost, by undergoing mitosis.
This is some tissue in the deeper epithelium of the gut.
Pathologists ignore these artefacts, but they tend to throw students off.
This is intestine once again.
See if you can figure out which red blood cells are in a blood vessel, and which
are outside. Red blood cells outside of the blood vessels are called
"hemorrhage".
In the bloodstream, you will always see some nucleated cells as well. These are
normally your white blood cells, which fight infection. This slide shows several
neutrophils. You can spot them by their lobulated nuclei. You will learn more
about them soon.
This is a specimen from bruised tissue. There is a large blood vessel in the
middle. The large clear cells are fat cells.
fat cells
United States Pronunciations:
Neutrophil: NEWT-row-fill
Erythrocyte: ee-RIHTH-row-sight
Hemorrhage: HEM-ridge
Leukocyte: LUKE-oh-sight
Roots:
rrhage: flow
erythro: red
leuko: white
hemo: blood
Spotting one member of a group will help you find the others.
Most bleeds into tissue come from injured capillaries and small veins.
This is a bleed into tissue, near a vascular group.
Both types of blood vessel have an inner lining of simple, flat cells called
"endothelium". They often, but not always, contain at least a few red blood cells.
Except for one curious exception in the ear, blood vessels run only through
fibrous tissue, never through epithelium. Even in muscle and nervous tissue, they
are always surrounded by at least a tiny rim of collagen fibers.
the vein
Hotshots:
Do you think the two cross-sections of artery might really be the same
artery, looping in and out of the plane of section?
United States Pronunciations:
Roots:
end-: inside
The hole down the middle of a hollow organ is called the "lumen". Of course
blood flows down the lumen of an artery.
This is an artery in the pancreas.
Hotshots:
There is a little nerve to the left of the artery. If you remember what the
schwann cell nuclei looked like, it will be easy for you to spot.
United States Pronunciations:
Lumen: LOO-men
Roots:
the vein
Endothelial cells, in three dimensions, look like fried eggs, sunny-side up. The
nucleus would be the yolk. Now think of a long lines of fried eggs, cooked close
enough so that their edges meet on the right and left. Roll the line of fried eggs
into a tube, and you have a capillary.
This is a section of brain showing capillaries.
capillaries
Hotshots:
Find the neurons, the brain cells which have easy-to-see pink-staining
cytoplasm.
Some of the cells on this capillary are pericytes, a second layer of cells
applied on the outside of the first layer. Don't try too hard to figure out
which is which. We'll show you how to use a reticulin stain to do this later
on, if you're curious.
Basic Histology -- Another Capillary
Despite their small size and easy permeability, capillaries are quite strong.
They are protected from the full force of the heartbeat by the muscles of the
arteries which lead to them.
You have probably heard the old story about how every pound of fat adds thus-
and-such many capillaries that your heart must work to perfuse. That's true -- but
most of the time, the vast majority of the capillaries in the body are not receiving
appreciable blood flow. Fat receives very little blood flow despite its many
capillaries. Most of the increased cardiovascular burden of obesity results from
the extra weight that must be carried.
This is a lucky shot of a capillary that shows it at considerable length as it runs
through the brain.
Hotshots:
Again, some of the cells in the capillary are actually pericytes, a second
layer of flat cells on the outside of the endothelium. Don't worry about
distinguishing them now; you're free to guess, though.
Basic Histology -- A Small Artery
An organ's larger arteries and veins flow between its functional units.
Often there is a generous amount of loose fibrous tissue separating an artery and
the business cells of the organ. If you're interested in the layers of the arteries,
they are:
Intima: Inner layer, the endothelium, a bit of collagen, and perhaps a few
other inconspicuous cells
Arteries have thicker walls and tend to have narrower lumens. They have to
constrict and dilate to control how much blood flows where, and they must bear
the powerful force generated by the heart. Because of the large amount of
muscle in their walls, they are usually round when cut in cross-section.
Veins have thinner walls and tend to have wider lumens. They have to store
blood, and need muscle only to push the blood back to the heart. Because the
walls are collapsable, they may change shape depending on the surrounding
tissue conditions.
This is a vascular group in the pancreas.
Hotshots:
You will learn about recognizing smooth muscle soon. For now, notice how thick
the arterial walls are.
This is a bit of fatty tissue, with three branches of an artery cut in cross section.
One branch has a little lymphatic running with it.
To see the little lymphatic, look for a tissue space next to the artery
that looks to be lined with endothelium. Often the identification of a
lymphatic vessel is only tentative -- as it is here.
Hotshots:
These are your lymphatic vessels. They are easiest to see when they are
distended, i.e., when they are draining excess tissue fluid.
This is a section of fibrous tissue from a patient with some some extra tissue fluid
that needed draining.
When there is acute inflammation (which always includes extra protein moving
from the blood vessels into the tissues), you can often see a tinge of pink in the
lymphatics as they carry some of this fluid back to the bloodstream.
This is a dilated lympatic in the serosa of the colon in a person who had
peritonitis.
We'll let you find the endothelial cell nuclei yourselves, and won't point them out
any more.
Hotshots:
Can you find the pus in the left lower corner? More about this soon!
Can you find the smooth muscle at the top? More about this soon!
Basic Histology -- A Slender Lymphatic Vessel
Lymphatic vessels are not always easy to see. Their walls have to be very thin.
If you are very lucky, you may spot a valve in a lymphatic vessel.
Here is a lymphatic vessel under a bit of ciliated epithelium. If you're curious, this
is from oviduct.
its endothelium
You can see them most everywhere in connective tissue. But there are no
lymphatics in the brain.
This is dense irregular connective tissue.
You can recognize them because their nuclei are very large.
Hotshots:
This lymphatic is reinforced by a bit of smooth muscle. Can you spot it?
Basic Histology -- Neutrophils and Hemorrhage
During infection, our tissues become a battleground.
We win all our battles with our bacteria except our last one. They win the war.
This is tissue which was badly infected. The hemorrhage should be obvious.
Once again, it is the multi-lobed nuclei which distinguish the neutrophils. With
your study partners, find:
neutrophils
hemorrhage
Hotshots:
Find the pink, acellular masses of fibrin. They have a very fine fibrillary
structure. Do you know what fibrin is?
United States Pronunciations:
fibrin: FIE-brinn
In addition to disrupting the tissue, proteolysis releases amino acids which bring
in water by osmosis.
neutrophils
Edema: uh-DEEM-uh
Roots:
oed- : swollen
The vessels are programmed for this to happen when injury takes place.
When proteins are being broken down, the increased osmotic pull generated by
the freed peptides and amino acids also causes water to enter the tissues.
This is some inflamed tissue. You can recognize the extra water between the
cells. It doesn't stain.
neutrophils
Later the nucleus can break up into fragments ("nuclear dust") or even
disappear.
This is some tissue with dead cells, including dead neutrophils. For now, just try
to find the dead areas. Do this by looking for the nuclear dust.
.
The adjective is "purulent" or "suppurative". The verb is
"suppurate". Don't try to put a "-y" on "pus". When you spell "pus",
use only one "s", please.
live neutrophils
Hotshots:
Lysis: LIE-siss
Roots:
Pykno: shrivel
In pneumonia, there is fluid and neutrophils inside the air spaces of the lungs.
Blood flowing through these areas cannot get oxygenated. Yet the area will
actually receive extra blood because it is inflamed. This is what makes
pneumonia so lethal.
the neutrophils
Hotshots:
Can you find the membrane, only a cell or so thick, which forms the wall
between two little air spaces?
This may hint at the type of pneumonia and the micro-organism responsible. But
it is not a guarantee that the outcome will be bad.
This is a severe pneumonia in a patient who coughed up blood.
neutrophils
red cells
Hotshots:
You can find them nearly anywhere. Often they are simply standing watch.
Resting lymphocytes have scanty cytoplasm, since they are not really doing
anything but remembering.
clumps of chromatin arranged around the edge of the nucleus, like the
numbers on a clock
a pale spot next to the nucleus; this is the Golgi apparatus
lymphocytes
the lymphocytes
44-Basic Histology -- Another Group of
Lymphocytes
Expect to find lymphocytes -- a few, or many -- just about anyplace.
the lymphocytes
lymphocytes
neutrophils
46-Basic Histology -- Large Lymphoid Aggregate
Large groups of lymphocytes are normal in many areas, including the lymph
nodes and the mucosa of the gut.
We won't expect you to spot single macrophages in tissue, unless they have
eaten a lot of something easy-to-see.
These macrophages have gotten excited about something and have fused to
form giant cells. You can recognize them because their nuclei seem to overlap
within a mass of cytoplasm. Often the nuclei are arranged in a rim around the
edge of the cytoplasm.
This is a cluster including two giant cells.
lymphocytes
giant cells
Roots:
Macro-: Big
Phage: Eat
the lymphocytes
In inflammation, the vessels let protein leak out. If the tissue damage is severe
enough, some of the local structural proteins may be solubilized as well.
Normally the fluid in the lymphatic vessels is scanty and contains very little
protein. This changes when a lymphatic vessel drains an area where soluble
proteins have accumulated in an area because of inflammation.
This is a lymphatic vessel draining an inflamed area.
Lymphatic: limm-FAT-ick
Roots:
-itis: Inflammation
Even if they do not contain red blood cells, you can recognize them as rings of
endothelium surrounded by at least some collagen, and usually some smooth
muscle.
This is a small blood vessel running through skeletal muscle.
Remember that plasma cells are the altered B-lymphocytes which produce
antibodies.
This is an aggregate with lots of plasma cells.
the lymphocytes
collagen fibers
Basic Histology -- Dense Irregular Connective
Tissue
Sometimes connective tissue is very rich in collagen.
In a tendon, the collagen fibers are all lined up in the same direction, so they can
help pull the same way. We call this "dense regular connective tissue."
When dense connective tissue is intended for protection instead, the abundant
collagen fibers run every-which-way. We call this "dense irregular connective
tissue".
This is from the dermis, the tough fibrous layer that makes up most of the
thickness of your skin.
fibroblast nuclei
collagen fibers
You cannot be sure that a few of the fibroblast nuclei aren't really
nuclei of collapsed capillaries.
Basic Histology -- Smooth Muscle, Longitudinal
Section
Smooth muscle cells are called "fibers". You'll always see them in parallel.
Don't expect every fiber in a section to exhibit a nucleus. In many, the nucleus
will be out of the plane of section. (You may already have noticed this when
looking at epithelium.)
Smooth muscle is not normally under your voluntary control. (Some people say
that you can learn to control it using biofeedback.) Smooth muscle gives
goosebumps, constricts the pupils, constricts the nipples, and shrivels a man's
scrotum during a cold shower.
Less conspicuous but probably more important is the role of smooth muscle in
moving food through your gut, regulating the diameters of arteries to determine
tissue blood flow, and returning blood to the heart through the constriction of
veins.
Leiomyo: LIE-oh-MY-oh
When smooth muscle fibers are cut perpendicular to the long axis, you will see a
ring of cytoplasm, and it is easy to see the cell borders. A majority of fibers will
have no visible nucleus, i.e., it is out of the plane of section.
Of course, a smooth muscle cell nucleus will appear round in cross-section rather
than elongated.
This is smooth muscle once again.
the area where the smooth muscle is cut transversely ("cross section")
Basic Histology -- Smooth Muscle, Interlacing
Bundles
Especially in the uterus, you may see bands of smooth muscle interlacing.
Cells cut in cross section will present round nuclear sections within pink
cytoplasmic rings.
This is smooth muscle.
Hotshots: Why might uterus be a good place to find smooth muscle bundles
running every-which-way?
Basic Histology -- Smooth Muscle, Cross Section
When smooth muscle is cut in cross section, you will see the smooth muscle cell
nuclei as round purple-staining masses within pink-staining fibers.
There are other nuclei too. Those between the masses of smooth muscle
cytoplasm belong to fibroblasts or blood vessels.
Spotting blood vessels is easy when smooth muscle is cut in cross section. The
blood vessels run parallel to the fibers, so you will also see them cut in cross-
section.
This is smooth muscle, cut in cross section.
blood vessels
Basic Histology -- Smooth Muscle vs. Dense
Connective Tissue
One important challenge is to distinguish dense connective tissue from smooth
muscle.
Remember that smooth muscle will present the features we've just seen, in either
longitudinal or transverse cut.
In dense connective tissue, the nuclei will usually be outside the fibers.
Remember that smooth and skeletal muscle "fibers" are cells, while connective
tissue "fibers" are cables of acellular collagen.
This is the border of smooth muscle and dense irregular connective tissue.
Veins have less smooth muscle, but it is also of great importance. It is the
venous smooth muscle that gently pumps blood back to the heart. Except when
the heart is failing, this is the way cardiac output is regulated.
This is an artery. You have already learned to spot smooth muscle when it is
present in large quantities. Seeing it around vessels is almost as easy.
At the dinner table... the more endomysium, the tougher the meat.
Epimysium is the thin, smooth, translucent connective tissue layer on the outside
of a muscle. You've seen this in the kitchen.
You already know how to spot the skeletal muscle nuclei. The cross-striations
are easy to see. Don't worry for how about which band is which.
This is skeletal muscle.
the cross-striations
the endomysium
United States Pronunciations:
Roots:
Endo: inside
Mys: skeletal muscle
The only place you're likely to see interlacing bundles of skeletal muscle is in the
tongue. Why?
This is skeletal muscle cut transversely ("cross-wise"). This makes it very easy to
see the nuclei at the edges of the fibers. However, you cannot see the cross-
striations.
The capillaries run in the endomysium. ("Blood vessels flow through, and only
through, connective tissue.")
This is the perimysium between two groups of skeletal muscle fibers.
Hotshots:
Find some red cells in the capillaries of the endomysium. We didn't label
these.
Basic Histology -- White Fat
Ordinary fat cells contain a drop of triglyceride, a kind of lipid. Of course you will
not see this stained in sections.
The membranes between the cells are always thin (sometimes so thin you
cannot see them.) By contrast, they may appear wide and diaphanous if they lie
at an angle near-parallel with the plane of section.
You cannot always be sure that a nucleus belongs to a fat cell rather than to a
capillary cell. Actually, fat cells are adapted pericytes.
Adipocyte: ADD-i-poe-site.
the hemorrhage
Basic Histology -- White Fat, Low Magnification
It's normal to have patches of white fat in the parathyroids, right ventricle, lymph
nodes, and pancreas. Americans treat cattle with hormones to get more fat into
the muscle, for some reason.
You'll learn later how to distinguish this from diseases in which triglyceride
accumulates in the business cells of organs (i.e., the heart cells in diphtheria, the
liver cells in heavy drinkers.)
This is parathyroid gland.
fat cells
Before you ask: "Cellulite" is a pop term for areas in which the fat is relatively
resistant to dieting, i.e., it tends to be lost later in the process. We can't spot it
under the microscope.
This is pancreas, with a bit of fat.
You may hear of this as a "signet ring" look. Signet rings used to be used to
make impressions in wax, instead of signing your name. (It was harder to forge
and lots of kings were probably illiterate anyway.) Today, we might say such cells
look like class rings.
In people who are obese, the fat cells are large. In people who are very trim, the
fat cells are small.
There's an old adage about every pound of fat containing however many miles of
additional blood vessels that must be perfused. Yeah, sure. But most of these
vessels are tiny, and are past the arterioles (so they don't contribute to
resistance). Your heart gets more of a workout just from carrying the fat around.
This is ordinary bodyfat from somebody of about average adiposity.
Mitochondria are brown. Can you figure out why? Remember all the cytochromes
which they contain. Then think of all these colored substances mixed together,
like your tempra paints when you were in grammar school. They make brown.
their vacuoles
Basic Histology -- More Brown Fat
Islands of brown fat can occur in many different places in the body.
You may be able to appreciate a bit of extra pinkness to these cells, in addition to
the vacuoles. You are seeing the protein-rich mitochondria.
In this section, you cannot really tell where the cell borders are. But the vacuoles
make the brown fat clear.
This is more brown fat.
This is the prefix for brown fat, because it's what hibernating
animals use to re-heat.
Roots:
Hiber: winter
This extends to the tiny surfaces of glands. Even the glands whose ducts are lost
during embryonic life (i.e., the endocrine glands) have epithelium as their
business cells.
Here is how to name a surface epithlium:
This is a cluster of ducts in the pancreas. You can see the cell borders easily
here.
Don't worry about what's at the far right -- it's a curious little type of duct slipping
into a secretory unit.
Hotshots: We think that too much attention goes to memorizing where you're
supposed to see "tall cuboidal" vs. "low columnar".
Roots:
Squamo-: scaly
Here is epithelium from the lower stomach. It has to produce mucin to keep
things moving. Think about the alternative.
Usually they will display the lumen into which their product is secreted.
This is a bit of mucus-secreting exocrine gland.
the acini
The pancreatic acinar units are tubes of cuboidal epithelium. You usually will not
see the lumens, because they are very tiny. Probably this is good, because the
digestive enzymes need to get moving rather than staying around and possibly
digesting the acini themselves.
This is pancreas.
the acini
the ducts
columnar epithelium
lumens
tangential sections
Basic Histology -- Columnar Epithelium, Higher
Magnification
This is a very nice example of columnar epithelium. You can see the cell borders,
because it's a mucin-producing epithelium.
By definition, columnar cells are clearly taller than they are wide.
mucin vacuoles
downwardly-displaced nuclei
Basic Histology -- Malignant Epithelium
Most of the common cancers arise from epithelium.
lumens
Basic Histology -- Cuboidal Epithelium, Two
Layers
Sometimes you will see portions of gland with two cuboidal layers. You may call
this "stratified cuboidal".
Sometimes the lower layer is myoepithelium, i.e., cells that contract and help
squeeze the secretion out, as in breast and salivary gland. Other times, the effect
is local.
This is sweat gland variant with two layers of cuboidal cells.
Hotshots: We'll let you find, by yourself, the area where a tangential cut creates
the appearance of more than two layers.
Basic Histology -- Columnar Epithelium, Mucus-
Secreting
Colonic epithelium is composed mostly of columnar, mucus-producing glands in
simple, non-branching tubes.
This is colon.
the lumen
Most of their epithelial cells are absorptive, and are tall columnar with purple
cytoplasm. A few of their cells are goblet cells, i.e., mucus producers. They
appear plump and stain pale, with the nucleus pushed to the bottom.
This is a group of small intestinal crypts.
the crypts (there's one with a lumen at the bottom, to the right; the rest do
not have visible lumens)
Hotshots:
In the center of the picture is a "grape" plasma cell, full of round masses of
immunoglobulin. These are an occasional fun surprise under the
microscope.
Basic Histology -- Ciliated Epithelium
You have learned as an undergraduate about cilia on the edges of epithelial
cells. They look like little eyelashes. They move, and propel things (mucus in the
airways, eggs in the oviduct).
This is oviduct.
Cilia: SILLY-uh
Roots:
Cilia: Eyelashes
The absorptive cells are protein-rich, so they stain pink. On their free edges,
there is a "brush border", composed of microvilli. You cannot see the microvilli
without an electron microscope, but the brush border appears as a dark pink bar
on the luminal surface.
The mucus-secreting cells bulge out and compress their neighbors, so they are
given the repulsive name "goblet cells", as if each one is a wineglass full of
mucus. Of course, on H&E stain, mucus stains pale.
This is small intestinal mucosa.
columnar epithelium
In the oviduct, the cilia push the egg toward the uterus.
This is oviduct.
Hotshots:
Oviduct epithelium features occasional cells with large slender nuclei and
very little cytoplasm. They look like pegs driven between the ciliated
epithelial cells. Find a peg cell.
Basic Histology -- Ciliated Epithelium of Airway
Our large airways are lined by ciliated pseudostratified epithelium. For now, we
are happy if you can just find the cilia.
The cilia beat towards the oropharynx. They propel a thin layer of mucus, so that
you can cough it up and swallow it when you "clear your throat."
There's an old claim that smoking one pack of cigs paralyzes your cilia. If that
were true, then smokers would get the same lung lesions as do people born with
paralyzed cilia. They don't.
the epithelium
the cilia
Lamina: layer
Propria: belongs to
The purpose of mucin is to mix easily with water in any concentration, and to be
slippery. Think about how the molecular structure makes this possible.
epithelium
mucin vacuoles
Hotshots: The thin pink bar on the apices of the cells is the brush border,
microvilli.
United States Pronunciations:
Roots:
muco: slime
This is largely the result of genetic mutations, rather than being for protection (as
some people may tell you.)
lamina propria
Cell division occurs only in the bottom layer of a healthy stratified squamous
epithelium. The bottom cells are cuboidal. They flatten down on the surface.
basement membrane
thick epidermis
pegs
papillae
Basic Histology -- Stratified Squamous
Epithelium, Glycogen-Rich
The stratified squamous epithelium of the ectocervix is rich in glycogen at certain
times of the month. This guarantees a good supply of sugar for the sperms.
This is ectocervix. The glycogen-rich cells are much larger than their progenitors
in the basal layer, and have a pale cytoplasm.
basement membrane
basal layer
glycogen-rich cells
Basic Histology -- Stratified Squamous
Epithelium, Lower Layers
Here is a photo of skin, stratified squamous epithelium (here called "epidermis")
joining the connective tissue of the dermis. You can sort-of appreciate that the
cells of the lowest layer have scanty cytoplasm. This is called the basal layer.
Look for cells surrounded by prickles higher up. The prickles are desmosomes,
and the layer is the "spiny" or "prickle" layer.
This is dermal-epidermal junction.
desmosomes ("prickles")
dermis
Basic Histology -- Stratified Squamous Epithelium
We are not going to make you learn the names of the various layers of a
common stratified squamous epithelium yet.
Most of these epithelia have an region where you can appreciate the
desmosomes, as prickles between the cells. The prickle effect is a fixation artifact
caused by shrinkage of cells which nevertheless remain joined by their
desmosomes. We call this the "spiny layer" or the "prickle layer".
At the top of stratified squamous epithelia is a layer of dead cells (i.e., the nuclei
are pyknotic or gone).
This is a stratified squamous epithelium.
For now, the hair follicle is a tube of stratified squamous epithelium, invaginated
into the dermis, which gives rise to a dead keratin structure which is the familiar
hair.
This is a hair follicle.
hair shaft
hair follicle
dermis
Basic Histology -- Endothelium (A Simple
Squamous Epithelium)
Endothelium is the most familiar kind of simple squamous epithelium.
Nuclei seem to protrude into the lumen. The cytoplasm is so scanty that you
usually cannot see it.
This is the intimal surface of a large blood vessel..
the endothelium
Basic Histology -- Macrophages
Most of our tissues contain a generous supply of macrophages, cells responsible
for devouring particulate matter.
Macrophages are easiest to see when they have devoured pigment, such as
carbon.
carbon-laden macrophages
Basic Histology -- Review: Cancer
Here is a chance to review some tumor histology.
See what you can find in this carcinoma. For one thing, there are areas where
mucus has accumulated ("mucus lakes") becasue the glands no longer know
where to send it. The mucus will be pale-pink as it contains some protein.
This is a lung cancer derived from mucus-producing cells.
bizarre glands
mucus lakes
necrotic debris
Basic Histology -- Review: Cancer
Here is a chance to review some tumor histology.
See what you can find in this carcinoma. For one thing, there are areas where
mucus has accumulated ("mucus lakes") becasue the glands no longer know
where to send it. The mucus will be pale-pink as it contains some protein.
bizarre glands
mucus lakes
necrotic debris
Eosinophils are easier to see with a real microscope, but there's one here. You
can spot an eosinophil by its:
Be sure you can see the collagen fibers. There are occasional red cells in the
tissue.
the neutrophils
Roots:
eos: dawn
If you can do this with confidence, you're well on your way to mastering medical
school histology.
This is pancreas.