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    2.002 MECHANICS & MATERIALS II STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONS © L. Anand Introduction To Linear Elasticity e Elastic materials have a reference shape to which they will return if the forces applied to them are removed (provided the forces are not too large). e An elastic material is one in which the stress arises in response to the change in shape, that is the strain e, that the body has undergone from its reference configuration. e The stress is independent of the past history of strain, as well as the rate at which the strain is changing with time. « The behavior of an elastic material under isothermal conditions is desribed by a constitutive equation of the form oi = File), 7 =E(E). e For a linear elastic material the symmetric tensor valued function &(e) is linear in its argument: 5 iu) = LCisatenn Ge) =C[q. i The stress components are linear functions of the in- finitesimal strain components. The fourth-order ten- sor C which linearly maps the second order tensor € to the second order tensor o, is the called the stiffness tensor. The 34 = 81 constants Cixi are Called the elastic moduli. e An elastic material does not dissipate energy. e There exist a scalar valued function of the strain e, We) called the strain energy density per unit reference volume, such that the stress oj; is the derivative of W(e); that is — OW) oj ei; Expanding the strain energy function W(e) about the un- deformed state, « = 0, we have we), 1 6?W(o) WO = Wo) + os #5 Fag ot ijkl CEG EK W(o)=0_ No Strain energy at zero strain ij,residual = wee) Residual stress at zero strain, neglect ig ew Cigkt = ewe) Elastic moduli — constants; 34 = 81! DeijOEL Thus, for a linear elastic material,the strain energy den- sity function W is quadratic in €: 1 WO =5 YO Comenen- ij kL We) =F YS Cignreizeee ag kl Nie 8?W(0o) _ #PW(o) = = Cm =Chiy Degen Oem1eiy is 3 6 > Cages = Cpikt ht = ik => Cigkt = Cijtk these symmetries reduce the number of independent elas- tic constants to 21. Now, ow 10 goat Cogr: : M5 Oi 2 dey {r, _ nse) 1 7 =5 Cars (SipSjqers + 5irdjs€pa) » 2 PVPS 1 = 5D (Cirstrs + Cpaista) = Yo Cisnstrs- That is, o%5 = D> Czas ents kb which, as noted before, is the constitutive equation for a linear elastic solid. The stress components are linear functions of the infinitesimal strain components. Constitutive equation for a linear elastic solid: e159 = DL Cigkiess, TF =Cled, ‘el The elastic moduli C;;,; possess the symmetries Cijkt = Chtijs Ciskt = Ciikts Ciskt = Ciztk- For the most general linear elastic material there are 21 independent elastic moduli C;;x). The stiffness tensor C is said to be positive definite if SY Cijneigeat > 0, forall e#o ijkl We assume that the C is positive definite. Physically, we assume that the strain energy density W is positive valued, whenever the strain is non-zero. In this case the stress-strain relation is invertible, such that €ig = Do Sight ht kd ‘The fourth order tensor S is called the compliance ten- sor. MATERIAL SYMMETRY Most solids exhibit symmetry properties with respect to certain rotations of the body, or reflection about one or more planes. The effects of these symmetries is to reduce the number of elastic constants from the number 21 for the most general anisotropic material. Recall that if oj; = e;- ce; and oj, = e!- cel. are the components of the stress tensor o with respect to the two bases {e;} and {ei}. then oy and oj; are related by , O17 = Qn Qjon- kel This is the tensor transformation law for 2nd-order ten- sors. Tf Sij44 and Shin are the components of the compliance tensor S with respect to the two bases, then they are re- lated by the tensor transformation law for 4th-order ten- sors Stint = 2 QipQjqQkr QsSpars PW7,8 Note that these ransformation laws hold for all orthogonal matrices [Q]. If for some [Q] the values of the compliance coefficients in the primed system are the same as those in the unprimed system, yo Sigkt = Sights or equivalently, Sight = Yo QVipQjq@kr QWUsSpars, pars that is if the material properties in the two bases have the same values, then [Q] is called a symmetry trans- formation. Isotropy A material is said to be elastically isotropic if its elas- tic modulii are invariant with respect to all orthogonal transformations. That is, Sigkt = Yo QipQjqQkr QUsSpars Pans holds for all orthogonal matrices [Q]. Working out the details, it may be shown that an isotropic linear elastic material has only two 2 independent elas- tic constants, and that we may write the strain-stress relation jj; = Det Sijzei7ki in matrix form as 11 S1111 $1122 $1122 0 0 0) foi 22 $1122 Sii11 $1122 0 0 0] | o22 633 | _ |S1122 S1122 Si111 0 O 0} | 033 2623 0 0 0 € 0 O} | o23 2613 0 0 0 0 € Of }oy3 2612 0 0 0 0 0 &} \oi2 with € = 2(S1111 — $1122) - Physical Interpretation of Elastic Moduli For an Isotropic Material eu Sun Siiz2 Siz 0 0 0) fou 22 S122 Si Siz 0 0 0} for ess |__| Suz Suz Sin 0 0 0] | eas =2(Sun— 2en) =| 0 0 0 € 0 0| lax}? §=2(Si1 ~ Sirz2) 2eis oO oO oO o€go a3 2€12, O O oO 00 € 712, Consider a uniaxial stress situation 011 #0, all other oj; =0. Then eu =Siniei, 22 = «a3 = Stg2011 Defining the Young’s Modulus, E, and the Poisson's ratio, v, by a b= ana an we have Next consider a pure shear stress 012 #0, all other ai; = 0. Then 2(014+y 204), Then, defining the Shear Modulus, G, for an isotropic material by era = 2 (Suit ~ S112) 012 = o12 we have ae EB 2(+v) Thus ar\ {#, GB #00 OV (ou €22 gE zo Ro 022 03 |_|-f -k & 0 0 0} Jos3 2e23 0 0 0 & 0 Of Jo23 2c13 0 0 0 0 4 Of }ei3 212 0 0 0 0 oO 3B) \n2 This strain stress relation may be written in indicial no- tation as l+v v Fae (=u) bis where the two-independent elastic constants are the Young’s modulus, FE, and the Poisson’s ratio v. The shear modulus G for an isotropic elastic material is given by E O= Ta Fy) Next consider a state of hydrostatic pressure 011 = 022 = 033 =—p, all other oj; In this case Qu a1 =o =a3= (pr), allother «jj =0, and 3(1—2v) 3(1 — 1 Lan = = E CP), 3 Yet = —(p) The bulk modulus for an isotropic material is defined by Ke AEA kk _ mean normal pressure sn volume change Thus E K= 31 — 2v) Considerations of the positive definiteness of the strain energy density W lead to the restrictions 1 E>0, O K 3 > Constitutive Relation For Linear Elasticity in terms of FE and v: amp aton—v (xu ‘| +Gq-ay (x) a] on= oe G+v) Constitutive Relation For Linear Elasticity in terms of G and K: + C5) E>) 4] 2 5 01g = 2Geig + (K — 32) (xa) bij. “1 = 36 Relations Between Elastic Constants c K B y 3 cE B26 GE 3GG-By a Gv ah 2G(1+v) C.K & Ev 2040) 36K. ELK) oK-e vy, K 3K(1~2v) For metallic materials it is commonly found that 1 3 ves, => GRE, Kx E. 3 8 Thermal strains In the absence of stress, the strain caused by a small change in temperature from 7p in the reference config- uration to T in the current configuration is called the thermal strain. These strains are expressed by the linear relation H efpermal — Ai; (T —Tp) where A;; is called the thermal expansion tensor. For isotropic materials, Ajj = 0655; where a is called the coefficient of thermal expansion. Thermo-Elasticity For Isotropic Materials Perm! = wy (T — To) 6; (A +y)oij—v (xu) | k mechanical _ 1 & =F For the case of both an application of stress and a change in temperature, the thermo-elastic strains in a linear the- ory are written as mechanical thermal aaa + efperml Hence, 1 “=F (l+ voi; —v (=u) | + a(T — To) 5ij; which can be easily inverted to give on= Gen [« +aq=a (x41) 845 — GA Rew-1) ‘| . Failure/Yield Condition In addition to the small displacement gradient and small temperature change restrictions in the theory of linear elasticity, we need to also explicitly introduce a failure cri- terion which bounds the levels of stresses beyond which the constitutive equation for isotropic linear elasticity is no longer valid. For isotropic materials, a simple statement of a failure condition is f(a) Soy, where f(o) is a scalar-valued function of the applied stress o, and the scalar number o; is a material property called the strength of the material. Isotropy requires that the dependence on @ in the func- tion f(o7) can only appear in terms of its invariants, f(invariants of o) < oy. or equivalently, in terms of the principal values of the stress, f(o1,02,03) Sof. For ductile metallic polycrystalline materials, “failure” of the elastic response occurs when dislocations move large distances through the crystals of a material to produce significant permanent deformation. Thus, for metallic materials the “failure criterion” is actually a “yield crite- rion.” It has been found experimentally that for the yielding mechanism in metallic materials the yield function f(invariants of 7) may be approximated as f(invariants of o) = f(o1,02,03) ¥G, ig eae c= yo Voie: \|5 {1 — 092)? + (022 — 033)* + (033 — o11)?} +3 fof. +033 + o3;} ¥| , |? = |s{o — 02)? + (02 — 93)" + (03 —01)?} is called the equivalent tensile stress. Thus, the yield condition for ductile metallic materials may be written as Soy, where oy is the tensile yield strength of the material. This yield condition was first proposed by Richard von Mises in 1913, and is known as the Mises yield condi- tion, and a is called the Mises stress. This yield condition stands for the physical notion that, as long as the equivalent tensile stress applied on a ma- terial is less than the material property cy, dislocations would not have moved large distances through the crystals of a polycrystalline material to have produced significant permanent deformation. The strength oy is typically identified with the 0.2% off- set yield strength in a tension (or compression) test and is defined as the stress level from which unloading to zero stress would result in a permanent axial strain of 0.2%. We will discuss failure/yield conditions for other mate- rial classes in a later part of our study on Mechanics of Materials. Tresca Yield Condition In terms of the principal stresses, the maximum shear stress in a material at a given point is given by 3(o1 —o3), and as early as 1864, Henri Edouard Tresca had proposed the yield condition 1 gli eal Sy for metallic materials, where zy is the yield strength in shear. In general three-dimensional formulations, there are some mathemati- cal difficulties associated with plasticity theories based on the Tresca yield criterion. It is for this reason that the mathematically more tractable theories of plasticity based on the Mises yield condition are in more wide use these days. SUMMARY Limiting ourselves to isothermal situations, we record that the three-dimensional theory of isotropic linear elas- ticity is based on: 1. The Strain-Displacement Relations 1[du, , du; ej== 92 lan; | Bx; 2. The Stress-Strain Relations v E aD lo ata subject to the yield condition F

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