Graphic Design History A Critical Guide Second Edition Johanna Drucker University of California, Los Angeles Emily McVarish California College ofthe Ars PEARSON Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River ‘Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montréal Toronto Delhi Mexico City $80 Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo1. From Prehistory to Early Writing 35,000-500 ace 1. Stenciled hand, Pech Mere, France, 23,000-18,000 ae. The ur mate, rake fondant muman gue eating externa symbols es ack an rape fhe sl we eave sn {he wort The sence had shown here 'Sthovtnds of ers, Bu sir ars ‘an be fund thoughout histor. Graph ‘eg ates rm he relation Belcan that bac pulse an he stom ‘mmunisten tat cornet ndlals vwthin a cate. The pus owas Dereon! expression and compliance wth Convento ate the tn enh al roche deen From its beginnings, graphic communication hes depended nat ony on workable tools and production processes but aso on visual principles and the design of symbolic forms (signs and images) that can be recognized according to the conventions and beliefs of a community. “The design of proto-wrting systems introduced the fist stable codes for ‘raph representation of things and quantities by signs and token, The meaningful organization of graphic signs depended on compositional principles, such as juxtaposition, sequence, hierarchy, and direction, that followed systematic ules. “The impulse to design symbolic forms suggests that humans do nat simply Use signs to record their needs and activities but place great value on the representation of eas. Literate culture developed when a social group agreed on conventions for te representation of language by a visual code. The effects of writing as @ form ot social control and power spring trom this consensus. ‘Cro-Magnon culture in Europe lid the foundations for graphic communication in cave paintings and other designs around 35,000 ncr. Prehistoric artists shared a visual vocabulary, indicating that they worked within a system of socially recognized conventions. They organized their surfaces to support figure and ground distinctions and used forms consistently for their symbolic value as signs. This systematic use of signs 3. On these foundations, proto-writing took shape in tokens and seal after about 10,000 nce. By 3000 nce, more specialized tools for carving, inscribing, and marking were developed and used on material supports of varying durability, such as clay, stone, papyrus, skin, bone, wax, metal, and wood. But the design of writing asa stable code to represent language depended on more than tools and medi Itrequited the conceptual linkage of visual signs toa linguistic system, ‘The shapes ofthe first glyphs, letters, and signs are related to present-day alphabetic and character-based scripts. Our writing still uses versions of some of the earliest written symbols ever invented. Writing changed the power of language by aligning it with the administration of culture through economic, political, religious, and other social activities. Writing conveyed laws and constraints that could be enforced by symbolic rather than physical force. The uses and effects of written language distinguish literate from oral cultures. Oral communication is ephemeral and takes place in real-time circumstances that rely on presence. Inscriptions and textual isthe basis of communi records can reach contexts that are remote in time and space from their author or moment of origin (Fig. 1.al Ie) 0 6 Franee, 10,000 st. Tose ae Som 1.3 cared spear tomer, Mash, Mark-making Mark-making isthe most basi form of graphic expression and desig. Dr dng aline in the sand or making a handprint ‘on a wall isa direct sign of individual identity, Such imprints have a curious existence: a mark that isa sign of the self is also always other than the self. Once made, marks exist independently oftheir makers. A line makes a division, whether in physical space as a boundary or in an intellectual zone to define a category. Differentiating between marked and unmarked things isa conceptual act of enormous significance. We might even suggest thatthe idea of difference forms the basis of human knowledge, and that the making of « mark i the primary way of inscribing such difference. Ox this simple principle of differentiation, we can structure the complicated oppositions of /you, thisithat, selfother, and subject/object, which form our understanding of the world, Marks are not only different from each other but also distinct from the ground on which they are made and from the intervals that separate them, We take these notions for g and rarely pause to consider the conceptual leap required for thei development (Fig. 1.2) Prehistory ‘the terms Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic describe states of cultural complexity, not chronological periods, and occur at diferent moments in different parts ofthe world. In Western Europe, by bout 35,000 nce, Paleolithic (Stone Age) sculptures and eave paint exhibit the high level of craft that ch scterizes Cro-Magnon art, Artifacts of this period can be considered the origin of graphic design insofar as they present cleat evidence of conscious decisions about form. They often feature decorative ims es and marks, Their striking shapes, styles, and From Prehistory to Early Writing,1.4 Cave painting, Atami, Spain, 16,000°9000 sx Wren tha cave pang toma, Spa, wre ‘Sscoead in telat 1870s they crest 2 senate, Far rom bene pene ‘ores by unshlesa, hese pangs were sophisticated af every evel ‘eancepon and exert. Bacawe thoy wer recone a fn made they fallenged concep of progress at. “ie lures ae clear and dine, ond the round on wich tay appar s 8 wae enor an onied sue, These panting are ot only power aesthetic ftressens, hey ao documet along Fistor. Sucesshe waves of cimate ‘hang, fer example, wer recoded in ‘ve at nape fede, plas on ‘er tyr, wee ropaced by Thos of trae an cher aims as eee sets rece nr monn. thou) rrsrom mer. the mages ae ‘atu Wat rma, Mower, ‘Shon much smi ess nang eve Fairings. Tis rng fact shows at. ean estblches for producing ras. ‘hog i ald bea stetch cat ‘ewer of prhser cave parters 2 ‘esign community. ies gern at ‘rs formal posi and accept ‘ete ohowed ty tes ara, Te aes ‘i nt simpy vent val slurs at ‘andemn reupanse a excurstances of Impuses. Tey produces hig organzed wens nt Segre secon era nd cultura convene, Te cal ase fort argbly mars ine begining (pope communicate. imagery carry information about social and ritual practices and have thus ‘een the focus of anthropological study. These artifacts have much to tell us about the technological and cultural conditions that produced them. ‘They show us that human beings could imagine a shape and purpose for an jobject independent oftheir embodiment ina specific thing, These people had ideas about form- giving and an abstract model in mind to guide tool-making (Fig. 1.3) Prehistoric graphic signs embody values and express beliefs. Cro-Magnon painters approached their subjects realistically. Dating from 15,000-10,000 nce, renderings of bison, deer, and other game in the cave art of Altamira, Spain, and Lascaux, France are still recognizable. ‘But the graphic qualities ofthese images go beyond likeness. The ‘composition, elegance of line, care in production, and considerations of scale, color, and pattern in these paintings display a considerable investment in the quality oftheir visual design. These artists did not simply use raw ‘materials lifted from the campfire but mixed their pigments deliberately. Evidence of advanced material preparation implies a pause between ‘conception and execution that allows for critical reflection upon the act of making. This gap between thinking and making is crucial to all forms of design. As for the meaning of cave ar, it has traditionally been interpreted as a form of sympathetic hunting magic, More recent theories suggest that these graphic forms are the symbolic expression of ‘worldview rather than simply an attempt to gain power aver the uncertain, forces of nature, The realization that prehistoric graphic signs embody values and express beliefs places them on a continuum that includes contemporary design (Fig. 1.4) '35,000-500 ace. 51.5 cia tok tects sored oe fom af rtaton or esprced oa iret cle ‘greta grosetThe mason ie sat of sophisticated graphic principles. The spat rganaton tte surace a of val sins ae oidonce ef raphe dood “wig” because ate Sn thee thers are basal accountng Ba Bo » [ 2 Rg a7 2 .& z2 1 t €@ ALOwWIE—©) 3G Om 98 47 4 Ey Coad xo? o eS Bmw let gee R- 1.63 Chinese wing, second mien ecto the present. The vanstemston trgne to scnerate spy opnened ‘late apy, Chinese chracters tr seunds, er some camino be to. No wring asm tat requ @ Proto-writing. the Mesolithic period (or Mid Stone Age)—about 10,000-7000 acti characterized by the development of agriculture, leading to the rise of cities and civic ongunization in the ancient Middle Est Is also marked bya huge leap in graphic communication: the appearance of proto-wrting. This development i linked to changes in the social organization of human settlements, sich a8 the appearance of cy structures within clearly defined boundaries (the walls inthe ancient ety a ericho were 13 fet high by 8000 nce). The invention of proto-weriing coincides with the sucessful cultivation of hard grains (capable of being stored without rotting) atthe beginning ofthe Neolithic period (or New Stone Age)—about 8000-4000 nein the ancient Mesopotamian region. When more of this grain could be grown in a season than was needed for immediate or local use, accountng systems became necessary to help monitor its ownership, distribution, and storage, For the frst ime, these stems relied on symbols designed to signify numerical values and specifi objets in the work. After about 8000 nce, the numeric and pictographi signs of this proto-writing were used on tokens and clay tablets to mark ‘ownership and quantities of goods. Proto-writing systems made use of, fundamental graphic principles to order the shape, size, placement, and sequence of signs, Accounting tokens were designed to make impressions in clay These impressions were precursors tothe wedge-shaped signs of cuneiform, probably the oldest system of actual writing (Fig. 1.5). Early writing Graphic media entered a new era when writing proper evolved in ancient Mesopotamia around 3200 nc in the so-called Fertile Crescent that les between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers ully developed vriting as the capacity to represent language in a stable sytem of igs, and cuneiform isthe frst known example of such a system. Egyptian writing may have been a simultaneous development, or it may have evolved, in part as an imitation of cuneiform scripts. In China, writing emerged From Prehistory to Early Writing1.8 Dresden codes, Ycatan, 1200-1280 eg). Mesoomarcan swing, Sth Myon ad Ree. appears Bnd hasauieuly gach Testu: tes spl eaneaten wa meaning ay arangeg aero ments of language sch as prefs ad ufos ‘at hey ar lng according rir ‘scent eround a cena gph Mayen fone tne advantage of al arte Ina manner ery ater fom that of emi tre Tn ats trophic eerrents kon 35 atibutes reading over rp ran. though the ‘est extn art of Mayon wrt feet ony abot 200-300 este Scholars ble hal he syst ered trom are proces nthe teeth tun, European eonquerrs desoyed the marty of Mayan and Ae ees ed wile documents, Making eco) fhemtry almost moose Fully developed writing has the capacity to represent language. 1.7 chy tablet with cuneiform, ag, 3000 nce (tore. The sla a hs ay une wring. Made wn many sal Stokes, he sg sport be dromrg ‘uae can be Wad in thew (hor alos. Tose sgn are carded wing csi ty ca be ete nore Sinan reg frgered. The surface usually ‘ide nto clues ane rows, te Sucing othe masks ar ely, a ‘xzxtngiba stn whch, vu as S vet raphe oganaaton aise ‘San prediton meaning after 1500 nce, apparently independently, although some debate suggests cultural influences from Europe to Asia. Glyphic writing originated in Mesoamerican cultures around 900 nce, in advance of contact with Europeans, and has its own graphic rules (Figs. 1.6a and 1.6). ‘Cuneiform was first used to represent ancient Sumerian, one of handful of languages that have never been deciphered, The number of 1m signs suggests that they represented words in logographic ys recovered from sites like the city of Uruk in ancient Sumeria, indicate pictographic origins but these Sumerian pictograms soon became schematized so that they could be drawn ina few quick strokes of the stylus on a soft tablet. Writing and sign-making were directly related to administrative tasks and the social structures that enable civil societies. Forinstance, by 3000 nce, the state bureaucracy of Uruk had ten different ‘numerical systems in use, each associated with a specialized sphere of activity. Writing codified law, and its enforcement came to supplement (and sometimes replace) violence as an instrument of power (Fig. 1.7). Cuneiform script spread through the ancient Near East and was used extensively across various cultures and languages for diplomatic purposes '35,000-500 ace 7Qh |e, |Os |= [st pe | foe |e | vor | Bele ne et [ar | ae | aos] er Ee 8B les) leaaieelte| [ae |e] os fot] S| Ata | ype |e Pe pw foe | pe se| lala la] fs l= [eT SKK |e | oe | el ee fe |e pe fe lUR fale le dele] [oe ee & | po) 30] 3 at | a | ser | ay | er | ar fe Be 1.8 Development of cucitorm, 3100600 ac. The ree or eiiency Inweting sears prepeod smoieaton from poral toschematie sigs Ass Invat cay made soma rarks more Se wel a the sage and combination ff these mais change as whe Seca sales Somer nee 2 ‘unelorm mar om above 2400 ser, tore adopted ty sucess popes n {hesame geographic epons: Aad, Batyenans, and Aer each used unart fr hl onn die language ony wat cuneform sapicaly ws ay derepd, dota ten in the third and second millennia nce. The popularity of cuneiform reached its peak in about 1400 nce, when its diplomatic use extended throughout region that included present-day Iraq, Turkey, Syria, Egypt, Palestine, Lebanon, and Israel, Cuneiform signs were used by language groups from Indo-European, Afro-Asiatic, and other families. The adoption of a writing, system developed for one language by another isa pattern that is repeated ‘many times in the history of scripts (Fig. 1.8). The spread of writing as idea and script ‘he idea of ‘writing that developed with cuneiform may have been as influential as the actual script. Both spread to other areas in the ancient Near East A host of scripts developed throughout the ancient Near and Middle East in the second millennium ace, varying in form from hybrids of cuneiform and pictographic scripts to advanced schematic sign systems, But only a few sustained widespread use. The oldest artifacts containing Egyptian hieroglyphics—from the Greek words hiero ("sacred") and glyph (earving")—show them almost fully developed, Many oftheir standard shapes were already set by the time they were adopted in 3200-3100 ce. Little archeological evidence exists for dating Egyptian hieroglyphs any earlier (Fig. 1.9). From Prehistory to Early Writing,1.9 Hierogyp es, ttl rom the reign of Seeostis il Eaypt, 1887 1880 ce. An uncaring a oases these Sans into quasars according tea grate of grachic encency ‘ahar han ganna HerepyenCs tre ening a represents of Wort ad seb, the deton Sra roupegs were abo Seine Sirs in prow wore read a5 ait Nez ata rape stem costars ‘he siz of hese sige. Objects at af very une seas ae altos ‘re sare unitary aeainconermance ‘nthe distinct design principe Atraugh frat ne appro, heroes could represent words logeerams) son phanagams Pega determinative. Detarminties,ocassfes, wore ‘sed larly the meaning ofan ‘combinatons Fer stance, one “ombinaton of smear to Be Stabe” unis ts accompanied by thei of» sparow the sg er el, Inn cae ered a tobe bod” 1.10 Heatie and demi serps, 2300-100 ace, The eouton ofa Feat serpttom meregne fms [onde fer more eft system that {ul be writen icky wah a brish rank Demote Sit eoresertes an ten more schema fm! wing {erm Used fr daly occastns. The mare tsar ptr rms of heroes were aed for oma fe purpose ‘Aarne Greek conquest of aye. ‘round 332 wx, by Aleader te ret, Retepypnics ook on ha aeane ana (Soto eseiatons The pres caste reduced a deterate obec the the of merogipnies e my ease ‘Greek nice a Pi Eat Nal Fd Rad Rad ad al Be Connections between the Egyptian writing system and those of the ancient Near East are debated. Some evidence of cultural influence can be found along the trade routes that passed through Syria. In any case, hieroglyphis did not spread, Both hieroglyphics and cuneiform fell out of use, although for different reasons. Hieroglyphics were banned when Christianity became the state religion in Egypt in the fourth century ce, while cuneiform was displaced by the mote efficient alphabetic system. beginning in the second millennium sce (Fig. 1.10) '35,000-500 sceee 1.11 Development of alphabetic eters, ninth es entry ex. Many dret srs ceveoped re ‘relent Neat East Al fhe sees ‘eect lates othe eariest. fermaton ofthe pad. Ths nar Shows sare fhe stages rough wich ‘he aphabe assed. New devepmers (pot aways resace err oes. ‘Some anges ocured she alphabet mfuences ard tecnica cenatarts ‘poe bythe vay of materia ay 3 Hi PGS Teal 3] ed] a a] = i Waele ele Ea om [eee x [Xl Al AT Ss] t Pp 1191919) 4 19/9)35] 3]y Bete el 72a ake Aenea || pin Jel ATA TAL 4 ALS) 4] To ne SALA LATAr [A] Xx] a | ls vm TENA TAL? [4] Ra] af erin fe{ eg foe] 2 [el Asta | pfs on fo] Al) A |] OH) |W] HT] TC ts | Ol @ @/wl/o| Ob va |rfZ] Z{L] LA] | arl ar] 9 hs aoe [k| A 4 3/4] dle 2d eiZ] 2121 al eters wen Je YM | > | yl) 4s) J) le me YT 21F] 9 | 71 3 Si 3 fo sean 0) ELF)” |G fap] >| Dl Ayia efolel|o lolviy|xylE re q}117) 7 1713/93) dle pee ee et | aS | Slo am fol PL PLR OP 1H] PLP | PLS rm fe] 4 Al4 | 4 (4) 4477] Tho sn ful wl] w | w wor) w] ame] | wD Ice mm |e] xx] x 1x7 | ALA] A] De ea wy vir The alphabet ‘he letters used in the type on this page first appeared ina limited, schematic system in the cosmopolitan Canaanite culture that flourished in the Sinai region 4,000 years ago. This sytem consisted of| about twenty signs and combined the simplified forms ofthe Egyptian bieraticsript wit principles of sound representation thet were the basis of cuneiform sylabares. The ficiency and flexibility of the etl alphabet represented an advance over both of these precedents. The oder ofthe letersseeme to have been fixed almost from the outset. Archaeological remains revel that this sequence was used a guide for asembling architectural elements in the building of temples (Fig. 1.1. “The alphabet was a remarkable invention. The letters were assigned names as an sid to memory and ute, A word beginning wit a given letter was often used as that ters name, According to this acrophonic principe the erly a was called aleph (from the Hebrew word fr “ox”, and b was beth (om the Hebrew word for *hous”). The etter shapes were not necessarily derived from an ox and a house, but their schematic forms From Prehistory to Early Writing,28285 58 8 & BEE eo SRS S838 88 1.128 Origins and development ot siabete serps, 3800 e900 ce The nereible ay os to wich alphabets how evolved cretes 1S ntact, most te agrabets| Othe word ae der tem se forms proved a eundaton for seri In Alia, he Naw East, AS, une, ‘ate Americas, Chines characters teste cer succes eng fm an Ie the alpnbet ware adopt and ets \ etm | sti resembled these objects enough to make taking their names work as a memory device. No myth is more persistent than that ofthe pictorial origin of the alphabet. Actually, the schematic and arbitrary nature of alphabetic signs was partly responsible for their efficiency and rapid spread. Easily «drawn, alphabetic letters could be combined to represent the sounds of ‘many languages. When disseminated by Phoenician traders who sailed ‘throughout the Mediterranean region, the alphabet gained a foothold among Etruscan and Greek people who spoke quite different tongues. The Alphabet also spread into northern Africa, throughout the Middle Fast, into India, and beyond (Figs. 1.12a and 1.128). '35,000-500 sce n1.13 Hammurabi code, ta sightenth century oc From Prehistory to Early Writing1.14 Runes 8, 600 ct Runes were 2 ers se sipnabe vented Wy {eamane and Seandnavin pope athe tery contre of the Comeren Ea. The faa alphatel oe ofthe resto eteniy weno carats Atopy bre reay st arches sic othe. large bythe tos and raterals of “Senha iterertin fom than Lan "ie seniicance aria these names ‘ode se re mean or expressing language, ‘The alphabet’ development, spread, and longevity are proof ofits viability asa system of writing, Some variations of the alphabetic script, such as those found in Arabic and Indonesian writing, look so different from our letters that its dificult to see their connection. Yet the order, ‘number, and even names of the letters indicate the common origin of these scripts. Myths and misconceptions continue to surround the history of writing. Many scholars place the beginnings of literacy at the time of the Greek alphabet’ consolidation of vowel notation. Yet the list of cultural accomplishments and writen texts that predate the advent of the Greek alphabet is along one. On this list are the ancient Near Eastern tale of Gilgamesh with its legend of the flood: the Babylonian law code of Hammurabi; the developed philosophical systems of India and Asia; successes of astronomy, navigation, cartography; civic structures and administration; and advanced arts of poetry (Fig. 1.33). Conclusion ‘The cultural impact of writing was so far-reaching that it was considered by many societies to have been a divine gif. Is invention seemed beyond the sil of any mere mortal. "The creation of writing was attributed tothe tracks of birds, the constellations in the heavens, the Indian 0d Ganesh, the Egyptian deity Thoth and the tablets Moses brought down from Mount Sina. The Greeks atributed responsibility to Prometheus, ‘who, according to legend stole writing fom the gods along with fire, thereby incurring eternal punishment. Theoretical distinctions between oral and literate cultures stress the power of writen documents to codify law, produce historical records, objectfy experience, and facilitate rational, logical processes. Oral cultures, by contrast, rely on reinforcing memory by means of repetition or rhythmic pattern and tend to see language asa form of action (naming, telling, performing) associated with events in the present. In literate cultures, a record has its own existence, independent of its original context. The authority ofthe weitten word derives, in part, from this ability to circulate independently. The permanence ofa written record Tends its autonomy a power that is almost mythic (Fig. 1.14), '35,000-500 ace 13From Prehistory to Early Writing 25,000-500 ce 2 billion years ago Prtsz00 ite forms | 300 milion years ago Lie on land, amphibian and rts {5-55 milion years ago Paleocene epoch: wam, topical, poto-primates ike lemurs 40 milion years ago Proto-monkeys 25-5 min years ago Miocene epoch: beginning of human evolution 4 milion years ago Austalopthecus, early hominis 2-15 millon years ago Advanced austrlopthecus and proto-human uso of tools | 1.8 mlion-10,000 years ago Prestcene epoch: Homo erectus 700,000 years ago Erectnes (uprient hominids) teoughout Aca and Asa £220,000-30,000 years ago Neanderthals, seperate species, coexist with modern humans 180,000 years ago Homo sapiens sapians develops snd begins ceplacing Neancertnals Evidence of language through tools and social erganzation | 100,000 years ago Migration of Homo sapiens into Midale East then India, East Asi, Australia 40,000 years ago Migration to Europe (Stone Age people, Cro-Magnon culture) | 34,000 years ago Fist caveat | 18,000 years ago arming trends: migration to North America over Bering Stat 12,000-6,000 years ago Mesolithic period 12,000 years ago End of sacstio, earliest settlements in Americas {9000-8500 aE Naor ities developing in Levant, including Jericho 8000 ct Limited navigation of Mediterranean (9000-6000 set Fires clay pttry and ci tokens for agrcuturaleconony {6000-3500 sec Neolithic period in Middle East {6000-5000 see Cuthaton of har rene, ration, early civic bureaveracy in Sumer 5000 see Saharan region dy, population migrates toward Nile valley 4000-2000 set Neolithic culture in Europe 40008 vet Ancient Egyptian cute begins {3700-2700 set Cia tokens enclosed in envelopes ‘3200 se Primitive sailboats in Egypt 3100 ee Cuno seript sod a a sylabary by Sumesians eriyphies make tel fst appearance in Eeyet | 3000 x Yar, coffee, watermelon, gourds cultivated in West Arica Nore Pale; coherent sentences and stable hieroglyphic in Egypt 2600 vt Faypton lunar ealendor established wih twenty-elght day cyte £2800 vx Rice cultivated in China 2800-1800 sr Stonehenge built in stages 2650-2000 set Legend of Gigamesh composes (with ood native) 2600-1800 et Ins Vey srt and culture flourish ana isappear 2875-2485 ac Groat paris and Sphinx consructos at Giza 2800-2300 se Biblical fod 2300-1800 st Minoan civlization in Crete 2000-1500 vt fae of patiarchs Atatam, Ise, ond Jacob 1800 ser Early Bronze Age in Ching 1780 ee Signs of zodiac invented in Babylonia 1700 set Canasites and poto-sphabet 1700-1400 tt Palace at Knostos built 1600 sc Mitts adopt cuneiton for Indo-European language Voleano erupt on sand of Santorini gender Atlantis) 1800 ne ron perfecto by Hitites East remaining Egyptian Book of Eatlest Ome culture in Mescareica Hindu religion bought by nomads o India 1467 we Exodus of Jens from Egy begins distinctive branch “1400 we Cuneiform peaks a plate seit in Near East 1325 ot Death of King Tutankhamun 1300 se Shang dynasty in Chin, east oracle writing 1100 see Phoanicians adopt, modify, and spread Canaanite alphabet 1100-1000 vee Etruscan sate in southern ay 1000 ser Ntoan culture begins in Mesoamerica 800s sec Phoenician traders fam Syrian coast go a fe a Spain 900 / Ching, oldest Chinese classical text composed {50 er Phoenicians cxcumanvate Atria Assurbanipa’s itary contains 22,000 tablets 100 ser Hanging gardens of Babylon bultby Nebuchadnezzar! {582-500 oc Lite of Pythagoras, Greek mathematician 580-500 vc Lite of La Ta, founder of Taoism ‘531 at Enlightenment of Siddhartha (Buddha) Tools of the Trade Pens anima vege, mie Site insu) Fray wigs and nachos tks fae, wod, toe sys rete te utc ats les ter 2500 Be) Otlampsrutand oes) 15doznho2. Classical Literacy 700 sce~400 ce 2. scription rom a Dpyon vase, 1730-720 vr. Teary Grek rerpon ‘not sts thave been statchad no ‘he neck of he vase banaue Iss “Who now oft canoes most, ‘ele parlorms, may e acept tis” Esoressvencharectr he ine fe ‘sorte emetons a cleo trond ad moved ts ater act ot wetng The ters are cutee bat ‘ear enough be read. Thei ‘Sekine terms rave erp Seles and Sew Cures The wing reads fom rg, ‘in Poooncan ets nd he eters fe ‘ner ses~anoter etre he ‘te oar alphabet at gave nse Tebh Geck an Lan ss. In the Classical period, graphic design became a component of literacy Design literacy suggests the existence of a common cultural understanding of the meaning ofthe visual forms, as well as the materials and contexts, (of graphic information, In Classical culture, the functions of written language were encoded in distinct graphic forms: Informal communication between individuals was expressed in the ‘ephemeral form of handwritten script, often on impermanent materials, Conventional communication regarding professional, personal, or public business relied on standard codes and consistent, legible ltterforms. ‘written on papyrus, parchment, or wax, ‘Commemorative writing used permanent materials, such as stone or clay, to inscribe acts of official memory or tribute in formal scripts and highly visible public spaces that signified importance. Performative discourse—containing statements that enacted events, laws, ‘or decrees—was marked by ritual or ceremonial warrants, seals, official signs, and sites that conferred authority The distinction between spoken and writen language became more elaborate, as writing came to be considered not merely a transcription of speech but a communication system with its own formal properties. ‘The design of letters was defined in two very different ways: asa sequence of expressive gestures and as a set of ideal shapes or constructed models ta be copied, ‘Access to writing did not map precisely onto class or gender divisions, but the shift from oral to literate culture introduced new means of representing, and administering power. In the Classical period, literacy took on new graphic and cultural «dimensions. When the alphabet arrived in ancient Greece and Italy around 700 nce, earlier writing systems had fallen out of use, but their legacy had ‘established the value of written communication in many areas of public nd private life. Within the city-states of Greece and the extensive, ‘multicultural empire of Rome, reading entailed more than the recognition ‘of letters and words, A text’ physical and social setting were taken into account, and its graphic and material codes were interpreted, Classical Greek and Roman cultures used writing for individual expression, communication, commemorative acts of public record, and decrees or commands, These functions were distinguished graphically by letterforms and styles, and physically by the contexts in which messages were located. Formal properties signaled to a reader important information about the relative authority of their source and the intended effect of their message vInscription, 638 se, fo the insertion, This Inseton soar oe righ and wet ‘alums nde ard as found he wal oF ® publi these Crt, Te et flows {heey boustropeden oma each line charges ect wing tre {ote ten et rah The osrtaon of te letor swtenes awl 0 tat Lhe any ear manumertal oe replat afl fs czns. Asa ermnent cay of ste. resents cer example a ec communiaton ‘hat ences slate power na puble irage The aus concen dome “Srurs "he sats of lve, the is of ‘wows, Pas tow een bom er ‘Sores, the adoption fete, Erpety ‘omesie ad fami retars” The ot was unearned in 188) nea ie ancient ‘9 9! Gartm. Keoen in arty a he “alway, Gera ws associated vat the ego King Wino a his [Byrn Ahaugh tne septs eters ‘est he developed shape ct Cassa res, Weonaine ony ane upton of be fv one tat eek narrate, 18 aga ruamz cron szosevaia1mo CeO MEN er Sastmmmennenace Beye Oe Pam aiaanenins 8 BareAMTATevAnmmoaors eat TAMMAAAAOTAMIASCOSASASAA Tod ERASE POMGAME PASINA. CA, amOTOTaRmsoawiseama | A BAe Geteraee a etetoatcnast Ree arieaarea oS dpneeanteceneaes Se Biri te ceteiecs fee Riaanconsienccasa en RE aeeesameas at CihgaRnSraeS | ENS iS mu stromasieetmaciat yee ene aeEre, iN cece tae AR onan A chante ROMS cnaeecenh oma elaneestrertiicaere, Bee srecaay eee eee acest Sdiaantra geben anleeaiarantaer ies BaLenan rena Hapeborpaeareeoe eaRiarer cent ie SERA ‘eustetna aries Gaerne AS eaiseatrarervaratans aweaaeanante ESAS eR IRC aaaat Ue ar eneraaien Hieee eouunes itererccassr anon eee esate Se tain, even before texts were read. Urban and cosmopolitan, Classical societies ‘were attuned to such graphic nuances. Degrees of literacy marked social distinctions and shaped networks of political power. In this cultura context, two very different approaches tothe design of letters were established: one based on gestures and expressive forms and the other based on ideal models and constructed forms, These two approaches would continue to diverge in subsequent centuries. Basic principles of visual iteracy inthe production and reception of graphic forms were encoded in the Classical period in enduring and thus familiar ways (Fig. 2.0, Variations of literacy and the alphabet Variants of the alphabet were used in Greece and southern Italy in the Classical period. ‘With the exception of early indigenous writing in Crete, all wee derived from scripts in the ancient Near East and dispersed by Phoenicians along their trade routes throughout the Mediterranean. By the eighth ‘century nce, this alphabet had taken hold among the Greeks, as well as the Etruscans (who populated southern Italy before the Romans). In Greece, the new writing system was linked to democracy insofar as literacy was a requirement for citizenship and its rights. But whether the unique properties of Greek writing caused the advent ofthis form of ‘government or merely participated in its institutions isan open question (Figs. 2.2a and 2.2) Classical Literacy12.3 Decree ona marble tle describing ‘procedures for but, 426 sk This be'olonedin case of depute cer te pant of be money oe ey ot [Aers. As a respon of bene ‘crmunicaes be power of oe city ake ‘verthe populace ot anahe Th eters scaly aranged with batt vera! Sn hoon columns atane Seino a lee es") The itary pocesson evoked by tis term and esl apie esanion " cosrbes seem we ss othe Inpton oft amorg naring ey Stes. The tr ar wien ar to fat paces hat besa Sands Western srs. For ret handed wes {ris aan, ot obeesed byte wring ant mea, f prevents smearing Rules for reading direction and word spacing were not yet fixed. ‘The oldest Greck inscriptions used letters that were very close in shape to their Phoenician sources. These scripts had only majuscules (uppercase letters). Lowercase versions of the letters (minuscules) came later. The format of early Classical inscriptions was varied, a was the orientation of \writing. Conventions for basic elements of graphic presentation, such as reading direction and word spacing, were not yet fixed. The distinctive style of arrangement known as boustrophedon (literally, “as the ox ploughs") had precedents in Egyptian hieroglyphics. By the sixth and fifth centuries ncx, ‘clean, monoline script with litle variation in weight became typical of| Greek Classical letterform design. This writing was very evenly spaced and aligned, and the letters were regular in size and proportion (Fig. 2.3) Greek and early Latin alphabets were soon modified. Like dialects of a spoken language, scripts developed local variations, Many ofthese variants are referred to by their geographical location. Thus, Fastern, Western, and CChalcidian scripts derive their names from parts of Greece. Other forms of the alphabet, such as the Etruscan and Roman, came from Italy. In spite of theie differences, remarkable consistency united these alphabets, and many innovations were shared among them a sign of dase communication 1700 ace-400 ce 19Nt IXANYA. gcsucon aa Fa ae otr TPOlBRCK NSS Enngowalupsiel DKIOSKAT PED @ E/yigorroTA MAO 5 sis ANT gAX or pOsosOBFE MOTA SI MTo AIrVTITIO$ ERAN ETD ROE AMER PHONAMOIBIY. 0 KAIMERRQOSOMDAMO among peoples of the region. Their variations were a cultural equivalent to individual handwriting. The alphabet was the same in sequence and number of letters, but each local graphic version had different shapes and ‘proportions. The Ionic script became the official Greek alphabet in 403 1 ‘but such decrees had as much to do with the consolidation of political ppoweras they did with the value of one design over another. Military ‘conquests took the Roman alphabet into new territories as an instrument ‘of imperial administration and cultural domination (Figs. 2.4a and 2.4). ‘The most significant modification made by the Greeks to the alphabet 2a lone inseiptio, lat fth century tcrandbdbu Sibel atest” was the addition of five letters to denote vowels. These were derived from ee eee ite keecr Phoenician signs for consonants. Vowels provided considerable flexibility tremorumert atest Romssiis!| in adapting the script to a wide range of tongues. Because ofits efficiency, thetemol 'abuSinbslon Mewes! the Greek alphabet may have been easier to lear than its precedents in ‘monument had been but about 1000.ecc, the Near East. But the increase in literacy in Greece and Rome was also Se a gee te eae een ete detente ta oc imps aus arin 2® of writing in politics andthe busines of everyday if, Precise details about Sater toveingwin king Tey literacy rates among Classical populations are dificult to determine, but cron mesure eed certainly reading and writing were no longer limited to a smal cas of One ofthe tens Grok seins scribes. Literacy among men was higher than among women, and many ‘Rega mascape nate aor people could read than wrt, but alarge portion ofthe population ature in desert sand. Contasttnis could compose a personal message or conduct daily affairs in writing. In ‘sew ttf re Temele of Mine Fourth century Athens, schools were established, including the famous ‘gymnasium (school) where Plato taught ina park called Akademeta Rhetorical skills essential to Greek politics were taught in these schools and so were the values on which the social networks of power rested. Literacy training inculcated pupils wth cultural norms and social codes even as it passed on the poetry of Homer and the heroic tradition (Fig. 2.5) In their graphic evolution, Greek and Latin alphabets followed independent paths, and the distinctions that emerged in the seventh and sixth centuries ace remain characteristic of them today. Both, however, adopted the convention of writing from let to right, with leters consistently oriented in that direction. Roman leterforms were marked by a blocklike geometrical regularity The tilting diagonals and angular points of earlier scripts were regulated and codified as even curves and upright lines that expressed stasis and solidity rather than movement. Regimentation and administrative organization were basic features of Roman society; too. Extrapolating from the graphic qualities ofa script to characterize a culture can be a risky proposition, but it ssa to say thatthe graphic stability of Roman letterforms conveyed an image of solid state power and authority (Fig. 2.6), 20 Classical Literacy25 Boy wing th century ec. The tay ins gpg ose wh crepes se Wing was 2 Prepay ing men, eraug slves ty tnt gener rr larg ead 2.6 Chara Greek and Roman leters 4] [omen atrnanens Bile rede x [ATA [Aaa git} 2 jee] 2 AME | <:[ ac fal, | 4] > | aD al |e |e lece ¥ fal Fie Wj. | x] x] x dof a | w | an els) @ | @ | eo af odadoo vik} exe] « 4ppayeye sylin | mf | mm gi |v | | ow File) + | + ello |on| 0 | 0 afefe je }ern le 15 abo al] P| e | pre we |Z] S | See xfef tpt] or e |v] yv| xv | © o> 5 v yf reason [eres fm tas] an + | AA [aaa [Anal A ‘|B se |B e| | pr | 44 |rpp |e | im | mm «| 9 gaala +| Pp | daa }eer|R et]4 £6, gR2i/s950 1S iherta laren | seer “| or fevy| vv fv “) 4x x |x Ae? hoe ay ee i 38 The function of graphic codes writing had served many purposes in Egyptian, Babyloni Near Bast. Legel and literary id ts, business records and accounts, official naanite cultures of the ancient decrees and documents, maps, ritual prayers, and expressive grafiti had all been developed. Long before the alphabet was imported to Greece and Italy, writing included a range of socal functions and a set of visual forms. The relations between specialized functions and particular forms were embodied in the design of letters, their material production, and physical contexts. Chisels, broad brushes, pens, and styluses each had characteristic formal effects. Surfaces were also varied, and marble, papyrus, wax, and pottery each posed specific challenges. But material conditions alone did not determine the style of scripts, The forms and material contexts 700 ace-400 ce2.7 insciption rom the Tempe of ‘ier at Pree, hed catury ee. ‘entues serif ana is care in elegant aha septs aq te regulary othe eerormsresite Hom toe (es and canes silane tan ‘mecharial option. The incr ube raters ond confit betwee he eople of Prine and tr ngs the region Mg repla shape ommarteates stern ‘of writing reflected the occasions and functions for which inscriptions were made, Scale, placement, visibility, and attention to workmanship all contributed to the way a visual communication was received. Formal inscriptions had appeated on temples and monuments throughout the ancient Near East, but in Classical culture, the types and locations of| inscriptions multiplied, Tombs, commemorative plaques, milestones, and ‘markers assume literacy, and from their remains we can deduce that it was widespread, Tablets and scrolls remained the basic portable media, while stone ‘carving indicated site-specific, oficial text. The invention ofthe bound book, enabled by the flexibility of parchment, was an economical and convenient innovation that appeared in the second to fourth centuries cx. But for hundreds of years, the scroll remained the preferted format for literary texts, whereas bound books were more likely to be used for notes. Booksellers employed copyists and effectively published texts. Literary and historical works, although copied by hand, circulated widely among the Classical Greek and Roman populations (Fig. 2.7) ‘We can artificially distinguish between the way writing looks and what it says, but specific lettering styles anel materials have their own rhetorical force, Stylistic inflection often reinforces unstated assumptions about the Graphic and material codes distinguished broad categories 2.8 Teraachma fom Kamae, s8cond ‘entry ee com bats he hae te poi gowsrr ans este. ‘te east ems of mas pode Syme ety They bath boy “alu and represent abstract) Comnage, langue, ca be od 1 eres cer ngs, bud ako 2 aun Bs ‘en re steve ne depends uo 2 Seca stom in which the terms of arounded in soci! corwenons, even ian the rae mara cf he coage Identification ofa cam’ sours Inks #3 ve ae ruler ad ty ae they se eromet the nage and power of Is acoptod as val 22 function of a text—who itis for and what itis meant to do, Graphic and material codes distinguished broad categories of written language from ‘each other inthe Classical period. When writing functioned asa form cof personal expression ina letter or graffiti, it usually took the form of a cursive script that was gestural and informal, Such letters were made with ‘pen or brush on papyrus, or scratched into a wal, wax tablet, or other readily available material support. Ostraca—bits of disearded pottery— often served as scratch paper. These materials may have simply been convenient, whereas others carried explicit symbolic value. Defixiones were magic spells written on small sheets of lead that were rolled up and buried to preserve their power. Inscriptions on publicly circulated coins carried the authority oftheir stated value, backed by their weight in a given metal (Fig. 2.8) Acts of communication in the C sical period ran the gamut from informal correspondences to more structured and elaborate lists of rules, laws, or contracts. Agreements between city-states or admonitions to citizens were carved with care into walls or tablets and meant to have a permanent presence and carry authority, When an inscription voiced the Classical Literacy2.9 Laps Niger, mi-sithcomury se (ne fe lst atin spon ours ‘os fund. But rou, as lis sanicance depended mee ‘emaned, Ofther script’ tery sie of written language from each other in the Classical period. omnipotence of the state or ruler, scripts measured character reinforced the sense that its text was law, A text that was closely tied to an official site could aspire to enduring significance but might also draw meaning from its geographical or architectural position. Milestones are an interesting instance of writing that defines and derives value from its place in the landscape. These markers also provide evidence ofthe spread of political power and cultural influence along roads used for commercial and military purposes. A traveler did not need to read Latin to feel the symbolic impact ‘of Roman authority embodied in such stones (Fig 2.9) Commemorative statements on funeral steles, tributes celebrating victory, and inscriptions marking other civic occasions took on, considerable gravity when carved in the most elegant of majuscules. A variety of writing styles existed in Greek and Roman cultures, ranging from highly ordered Greek letters aligned with the regularity of soldiers {n formation to Roman majascules arranged in unbroken lines on a marble surface and carved large enough to be visible from across an open forum. Language at this sale claims public space, naming and marking it with a reference that places citizens in relation to the authority ofthe state. Scale2.0 Rustic brshwork, before 79 ce: This ute bres was ound on ‘twos bured nash when esis (upted.Thisngreus she auscule ‘eos td ade aaa even, Mares forsale and upcoming ects, Deombination of tbl, bibowd, a ‘er hs so of scion eammarcaes snes gent eicacy, Re messages ar ly nd epnemara and thes excuton fe sergtagals tbe fesse ote Inermaton. at ruste see proved medal for wig on papyrus ana ‘erpions mn male, whch preserved ‘he nent characte of ra om inscribes social hierarchy as well, distinguishing the relative importance of ‘events and persons within a shared environment. More ephemeral forms of ‘communication rarely formalized their script to so fine a degree (Fig. 2.10) ‘Writing in the Classical period could have the power of a command or decree, Such acts of writing remained a feature of civic life throughout the Middle Ages and into the Renaissance, Read aloud, a posted notice by a ruling oficial could enact a law or proibition. Vestiges of these acts remain today, Performative documents can prescribe behavior or set limits and terms of responsibilty in contractual matters, Performative uses of writing depend upon an assumption of explicit authority. Someone is “speaking” to someone else according to a power vested in their person or office Performativity can be materially enacted, asin the case of wax seals on vellum or parchment documents. The sea isa sign of security that performs a protective and evidential function, If itis broken, trust has been violated, even ifthe text inside remains unaltered. The ability 1 As the social character of written language came to be inscribed 2.1 Rust letters, 196 x. Rustico aren rattle toe 9 tlt ute {ote Raman EmparrSepimius Serr. Such praise const peromatve sa of ngage beause enacts he Caetraton of he emperor athe an ‘Simpy desrbg Ths stgion ‘emanates tot mods teres ‘ater han ist mate cosas, {o1em graph expression. Caring iters Instone win a chee! 9 mule sage process and vows conceptual foeteugit and design decors. Hore, the fest in isn formal mages a caso asso he “ingen eee” No, he wring wes othe message. The detiono Use oe mo late ostow respect and anther fo. Eampress he substance of he ite incest eee ehaces cary meaning Rest majscles and foal capt ae oh brusmesed nth esp and rahing aba thet shape srt ot eso of store carving Rather, tf aleterorma ste maksevie wae town of hs corn, show or record change is one of the ways in which the material context of a graphic text participates in its signification, Monumental claims for permanence are pethaps the most basic form ofthe material inscription of authority (Fig. 2.1. Graphic communication took shape in the Classical period in ways that directly connect to the present day. Basic design decisions about the way something looked as a function of what it communicated were everywhere apparent in the Classical world, and we still use the square majuscules of the Romans for commemorative inscriptions. No explicit manuals or rule books existed that set out the conditions for using one type of script or another, just as no such definitive typographic guide exists now. Rather, these conventions come to be understood and followed by consensus among a cultural community and the designers or scribes who work within its tact codes. Roman scribes were employed by the state and divided into clearly defined professional clases. In general, their role was to compose or copy a written text or to transcribe speech. They even used shorthand (invented by Tiro, the slave of Cicero, to record his master’s speeches in the Roman forum). Literary language and vernacular speech were distinct, and Classical Literacy2.12 Bath advertisement, ety x Fermaeterrg was chase 5 rare insenston acerbsnga Roman fat an 5 vus wales and Sree ‘eonmerei purpose shaped his work, ‘nd ioeries inthe ondring of each leer wer ale than ey torard the freed hrm fhe whole ach ine etures dare see ar vaying ‘roporns but ey af boro he Seve srt amy Creatig eansistoncy wit vary isa ese caller, and {hes wih whch ths nscstons ‘rater resend the space corel of he etring deransvaes mast ofthe Carers at lege of dpay avers the ‘ua bi for ate in hs 2.000 ye ‘carmel dese formal composition was governed by strict rules. But writing tasks were further specialized according to the media they involved, Stone carvers had the task of designing appropriate styles foreach inscription, and their work took distance, sight lines, and scale into account. Preliminary designs were often sketched by an ordinator who provided the outlines the carver would follow. Such specialization suggests a well-developed professional culture. Urban environments were particularly important sites for the management of communication and the formation of social values (Fig. 2.12). ‘As the social character of written language came to be inscribed in its design, conventions were communicated and understood by example, (Classical readers could register the graphic difference between a formal script and an informal script, then the visual distinction could be siven a value that was understood as part ofits message. Graphic codes ‘operated within a social context as wel a a physical one. Inthe stratified, in its design, conventions were communicated by example. 2.13 Funeral stone wth image ota tem-yearold git rst century ee, Roman cure was hy wert, Sets rere ile wth signage of al ns For he rst ephernralaovertomerts ‘monument! septs. Wax bts re wos fo odes yung sch, and ain men andwamen were quent Sopiced reading them. Tombstones ard Sarcaphag fn partayea he deceased witha ax able rai of wae abies Pinger ot sures, The pub if of nguoge was cd aid hnierarchical societies of Greece and Rome, propertied and nonpropertied, patrician and plebian classes were delineated. This social organization found formal expression in the physical structure of urban space and the ‘orders of architecture, Funeral monuments carved in stone marked the _graves of persons of status. Literary works circulated in scrolls and tablets before books gained favor. Daily business exchanges depended on ink, on clay scraps or bits of papyrus, and on wax-covered or painted wood tablets. Writing was abundant, but scarce materials, such as precious metals, had intrinsic as well as symbolic value. All ofthese features of production, placement, and format were legible within a Classical society. The legacy ofthis design literacy is very much with us. It guides our reading and writing of visual forms, and our perception and use oftheir material contexts (Fig. 2.13) Models of writing: gestural and constructed ‘Tie use of models for letering was essential tothe development ofa culture of Jiteracy: Without them, shared signs and conventions for their use could not have become stale Scribes relied upon models they could copy, as "700 ace-400 ce 25OPSIDIONG-TA MON N: CORPORA: MOENIBUS:A NIT CASTRAQUEPROMMURI-ATOUCARMA POD ES TRIAPONUNT- HOLINTERCOCTUS: ALISQUE-ADBELLAPARATUS: NIERAQYESOLLEMMISITERUM- REVO CAUERATORBES- CONISIUIS NOX-APTADVCUM:LYX-APTIORARMAIS- 2.14 Cursive seit eariy ce ato) they trained their hands to render shapes. Such knowledge quickly became ThesusvescietanMszapris or somatic (bodily), and gestural patters of production became habitual. Two tir vote rat mms he esa fundamentally distinct approaches tothe design of letters developed in the Ieerngcl ror fem | __Classcal period, and they may be defined as gestural, cursive forms and sesinmecy naw yet intellectually constructed forms (Fig. 2.14 Eceween lacey the, west CCrsives are rapidly produced, handwritten versions ofthe alphabet oc! seienass-norunel that are gestural in nature, Often produced under time constraints or for repeal tras ephemeral purposes, cursives ae written immediatly and reflect the ‘mood and skill oftheir author. Although cursives are based on convention, 2:15 Roman curse, 16 c (6aew!. they ae executed ina series of physical movements that ae as corporeal Ie esa eiceney Onscan nasi a dance steps. Cursive scripts were rarely used for any monumental or setemomnaritte strat ofcal documents, and their design often had the idiosyncratic quality of Shem ctsiche, Amoughheseite"* handwriting, Th purpose ofcursives was to produce texts that were legible au nls on ims ct ees and eficient, rather than to creat aesthetic forms (Fig. 2.15). Ine oraenconsstn mcr ‘Constructed letters followed a more labored sequence of design stages vith drawirg or carung move elaborate prison and sought to achieve formal beauty through principles of proportion and harmony. Constructed leters could be made in any material, but, in ‘monumental inscriptions, they had the effect of conferring gravity upon a text, Preparation for such designs involved laying out the inscription or document as a whole and paying careful attention to the form of each letter. Because its production involved multiple steps, a carved leterform ‘might have its origins in the shapes made by a brush used to sketch it ‘on a marble surface, even if the ultimate use of a chisel somewhat modified the design. Constructed leters may have been based on a system of proportion that was calculated asa division of a grid. But as they were carved their makers took liberties, softening the precise forms through the touch of the hand and a corrective eye. The grace and liveliness of the ‘greatest of Classical leterforms belie any strict adherence to a mathematical design. Instead, they show the sophistication of designers who subtly transformed the idealized images of letters that served as theit models (Figs. 2.16a and 2.168), 26 Classical Literacy1700 ace-400 ceWhether constructed or cursive letter designs are always based on internalized models and shaped by the training their designers receive ‘Samples of writing in the Classical age existed in public places, but, in the gymnasium, students were also given examples to copy. Only one visual ‘model existed foreach letter: the one we call the majuscule, or capital. The shape ofthe leterforms was basically the same in cursives and constructed forms, but the production methods and aesthetic goals were different. The development ofthe fist variants of majuscules, known as uncial and half ‘uncial scripts, came later—in the third and fourth centuries cE—and were ‘much more common in book formats than in monumental inscriptions The development ofthese graphic variations of writing would signal a major cultural change asthe Classical period came to an end (Fig, 2.17) 28 Classical Literacy2.18 Chistian inscription, fourth entry ee tov The etenng on ts Ireerpton fom Oita aac asa Getncte asthe but lace he sents. Apassonae ere salable tu isis mothe wok of sil ‘igre ofeare: Votan inthe enh ‘fines, otters, ard shape of hos accom ha oe ou teminones of Christians wo were the ruling eas of Roman socey-a ae! terpoaistytewery kf Insc 2.19 Flecalus, fourth century ce (ade rat. Thirst scree {thrown callapha Fecal, San Catsto ln Remo, He was a Ciston whose nd and he were recognize, Shee etre atte him ahi invention. The oa ‘nity ofthe sr ob roundness “ntti Cook hands. Bot such elacorate {Church repaced the Roms Emore Tha bo ela iw rh oy chargos nately ne for bul aso inthe locaton of sets, Boks, rot utes, would prose the man st ot tingin he net centres. The sack Rome cance wth here of he ‘aden the amar bore om of he beokand us marked 3 turang pot from Csial to Messe acy wth Bit the consequences or sgh at ths torsion enti WChOY OSC Nein TLNDE ACH Writing at the end of the Classical age ‘the sack of Rome in 410 ce by northern invaders marked the end of the Classical period. By then, the identification of Greek and Latin letterforms with the Eastern and Western branches of the Holy Roman Empire had begun to charge their use with a new political meaning. One form of the A was so strongly associated with the Eastern Church that its mere appearance seemed to flaunt a claim for the power of Byzantium, During the frst centuries ofthe ‘Common Era, Classica literacy became increasingly absorbed into Church institutions and practices. Early Christians had been marginal in Roman society, and their inscriptions demonstrated a lower level of literacy than those of the dominant culture. But the Church would soon change this situation dramatically. By the fourth century, monastic orders became the ‘main institutions for the production and preservation of knowledge in Western culture (Fig 2.18). Conclusion tn Classical antiquity, writing was conspicuous in public spaces and was used for many personal and commercial purposes. Rome inthe early centuries ofthe Common Era had a lively culture of graphic signage. Bu sites and contexts were about to change. The development of graphic conventions inthe Medieval period had more to do with pages and inked script styles than monumental inscriptions. Direct lines of transmission connected Classical ltterforms and visual codes with “Medieval and modern usage. But scripts andthe instruments of their circulation and use were soon tobe altered by the cultural ascendancy of a recently arrived format the bound book Fig. 2.19)Classical Literacy 700 sc-400 ce {800-700 se Eighteen eter Phcencin sphabet inteduces Yo Greece and aly “776 acc Fist Oiympic Games 753 se Rome founded 750 et Homer composes Oayssey 700 er Narsiiana tala’ seript with Phocician roots in Etruscan lands 700-800 se aie sphbel consolidated in Syria {600 se Li lphatiet emerges tom Grek oot Praeeste ila’ eaty Latin inscription, "Marius made me for Numasis" 586 ae Temple in Jerusalem destroyed {544 oe First public ir founded in Athens 536 ax Second Terple begun in Jerssiem '522ee Confucius edits sacred Chinese books 518 nt Second Temple in Jerusalem finshed 09sec Roman republic founded 08sec Begining of Athenian democracy ‘18st Esther becomes queen of Persia “474et Etruscan conauered at Cumse 442 et Parthenon built 440 ne Demcritus proposes enstence ofthe atom 1431-404 vr Peloponnesian War wih Sparta 427-347 tet Lite of Pato, Grech philosopher 406 ae Soir in Rome tst paid 400 ae Catapult invented Manadharata, Indian legends, composed Panis wammar ot Sorset written 309 ae Greek phiosopherSoeats inks hemlock 308-330 ac Life of rattles, Grock realist sculptor ‘204-322 er Lie of iste, rook pilospher 2356 sx Birth of Alexander the Grst 382 x Alerander conquers East, Hellenistic period begins in Greece Eyptiancorotcsrpt used fr Grock language (ater makes Rosetta stone deipherable) 320-275 we Lie of veld, Grek mathematician '312 wax Aqua Appia, fst Roman aqueduct; Va Appa, 350-mile-ong read 900-280 es Money fist coined in Rome 26 ge Lisa Alesana founded, eventually contains ovr 500,000 velumes :273-292 wx Asoka rules goat Mauryn empire in India 270 Mechanical water clocks in Rome 250 ct (str G made by “beading” a C ‘chimades makes a mechanical globe 221 sx Great Wal of China begun (eventually 1,200 miles long) 219 nt Chin Tain Shihuanti, Emperor of China, orders al Doks Sesto 200 se Ox powered iigmon 196 ee Roses sone inserbed 174 ace Paved sets in Rome 106 ee Birt of Cicero, Raman orator ‘70 et Bit of Vil, Reman poet 183 et Tro, Cicer’ slave, invents shorts ‘51 er Cleopatra becomes Queen of Eayet '50 sr Glas Blowing wih metal pipes in Rome ‘46 xr Julius Caesar killed 27 wx Augustus Caesar and Golden Age of Rome 20 ne Vitruvius’ On Architscture‘ee ovis Metamorphasis 1 Werié population 25 milion Strabo's Geasraphy composed 25 e Claudius writes How to Win at Dice est gambling theory txt 32 ec John the Baptist beheaded 37 ex Civistnas clebrated for rst time ‘48. Census: 7 millon etzens in Rome, more than 20 milion in Emple 152-96 ce New Testament witen 54-68 cc New, tyrannical and decadent emparr, rules Rome 61 x Roman legions defeat Queen Boadicea in Britain hex Jerusalem destroyed by Roman army ed by Thus ‘TWex Eruption of Vesuvius destroys Pomel 14 ce Britain recognized akan island after Romans circumnavigate 100-600 eCity of Tetinsacan flourishes in Mescamerica 105 ex Per originates in Crine 178 ee Chrtian missonais in Beitain 200scz Parchment mented ‘it Rete brings trade fom Chinato Reme 008 er Coes Augustus: ery appearance of bound book Fist paragraing and punctuation Tools of the Trade 1320-650 c Goldon Age in India, Gupta Empire Powdered parents '324c Emperor Constantine untes Europe, declares himself Cristian Inktem gum 387 e« Rome sacked by Gaus Turertine 1400 ce Sain Jerome ets and translates Gospels Dae te age ‘10 x Rome sacked by Viigo ‘ut prs om eaters Sor persia ails Met are bone ses Ponca str Srageages Protacrs ora caoee ‘reeds (1008) sera ngs nts th ther hee Cade es (100 50023. Medieval Letterforms and Book Formats 400-1450 3.1 Jean Milt, monk working, 1456 eh can te gate rom ts erage ‘a mankat werk ona ge ranusct appears boa barat booking rian pant oo, impies 2 Meh Gevelopad ca Weis gota sense ot ‘he ese of these bows The double lured te the ope caer on {arnt ndeats 3 religous work fcr the et tye ste tot ck, Gedo ata mature Sago of dowopmen. In the Middle Ages, letterforms emerged that ae still in use and whose designs contain information about their history and diffusion, The format of the codex book, along with many ofits now familiar graphic features, developed as a result of changes in the uses of texts, ‘These graphic features combined aesthetic and functional qualities, which served to distinguish dtferent types of documents and to encode their cultural value. Iiustrations and schematic images, such as maps, charts, and diagrams, began to be used to configure and disseminate certain kinds of knowledge, although power over intellectual life remained centered in the Church, Publishing became an industry, serving specialized needs in medicine, aw, ‘and theology, and a popular intrest in literature, while drawing lines of ‘exclusion and inclusion around literate communities. In the long period known in Europe as the Middle Ages, critical developments affected the means and scope of graphic design. These included the invention of the codex book’ familiar features, the emergence ‘of basic letterforms and styles, an increasing engagement with images as ‘embodiments of knowledge, and the rise of a publishing industry that served a lay public as wel as religious institutions, These developments ‘of graphic media were linked to broad historical changes that resulted from the decline of the Roman Empire as a unifying force, the rise ofthe ‘Catholic Church, and other rearrangements of the political and social landscape. Literacy was rare in the ealy part of tis period, and the production of knowledge was wielded as an instrument of cultural and politcal power by the institutions that controlled it. Trade routes served as lines of exchange for graphic forms along with other goods and ideas—so did paths of invasion and migration. Increasing political stability fostered. centers of business and learning in France, Italy, and, to some extent, Germany; Flanders, and southern England. By the thirteenth century, a secular culture, including literate guilds and professions, had emerged and with ia publishing industry. Publication was done by hand, but ‘works were produced in multiple copies, especially in uni ‘The graphic features ofthese works embodied knowledge, shaping and structuring its communication, By the end ofthe Middle Ages, the form and function of many varieties of books, handwriting, and images had. become conventionalized in intellectual, political, and religious spheres. ‘The ideology of textual production became encoded in graphic forms that actively participated inthe control and use of knowledge (Fig. 3.12) exsity Lovins, Medieval culture and graphic communication One thowsand years separate the decline of the Roman Empire and the invention of printing 33Hencscopyng by Modi! monks ved ‘2.ucal in preserng the os at tec he coe of Westar knowledge Inthe early Me Ages, before te ise Stunversies and caper ested bande pbtehing incu, masts ware praceal the sole producers backs. Tis German mage rom the erty eth cntry shows srs a work preparing animal shins x vel wing, erecting and uriesing manus in Western Europe. Although often referred to by the blanket term Middle Ages, this period was far from monolithic or homogeneous. In this respect, the many changes that occurred in graphic communication ducing these centuries are emblematic. A literate public had existed in the Classical Medieval lettering was linked to specific geographical locations. 34 period, but, in the largely decentralized culture ofthe early Midalle Ages, almost all formal education took place within religious orders. Control over knowledge production and dissemination was centered in the Church, and, at times, the tensions between science and the charge of heresy brought this power into sharp relief. The codex was developed in the third and. fourth centuries and, by 400, had mostly replaced other formats. In the fifth through the eighth centuries, monasteries became the institutions ‘most concerned with producing texts. The era of the codex book (made ‘with vellum from animal skins) succeeded that of wall inscriptions, wood and wax tablets, and papyrus and vellum scrolls. The earlier public face ‘of language took refuge in the contemplative and devotional occupations ofthe cloister, and literacy remained almost exclusively associated with religious training for several hundred years. When scholaely study joined prayer and contemplation as a use for codex volumes, books acquired chapter headers and other navigational devices. These features of page formatting remain an integral part of graphic templates (Fig. 3.1b). ‘Alongside the continuing use of letterforms that had developed in antiquity, new styles and forms emerged. Had printing arrived at the end Medieval Letterforms and Book Formats53.2 Contrast of Madea! book hans. Ths compar far tetome inthe Me Aas, akon fn Wom Mason’ & History of Wray an vlna the mine, Bat proces by whe srt were aed ‘rs ss sagan. Wonasti copa from the examples hey had at hare, Charges in srt came Bou sow ‘tater accidents, an he ved il loves finda expt eteor: ‘abe out 36 spe tobe Copied, asm te ase the Reman ‘roranertal explo ne | Bu ay Also be concave ofa sere fore frase cantar hand monemens curse ete’ of tie Vital uy aed Stcsnty produce roms. The unca lets ines 1 ond al somentere# etme. Tey requ caret ateen ‘armada bu ere prodced 952 ses ‘aoe her an dawn ad fied in Contrctd terms, sch as te vita compass or svagtedge, sn, erred oon an ect from the ctor ote sed flrs te sce and fas aby 0 Faget varying goes of ses na ne, The tomianty and any of eters tthe one consis tat ey were made ‘more than 1,000 years apo. Te ters Inte OX show the “breaking” of cure fas io several stokes a the efecto fangs an shes on sake wee These ers oe vans on he sre fers, tapos to specie nods ‘erent eaten and stations » ABCDEFGHILMNOPORS TVXY » AABCDEF GHILMNOPQRS TVXY » ABCDEFGHILMNO?QASTVXY » apcdefg by LwnopqR stax » aBcoEeFGb]LMNOpqRstTuaxy wabedefghilmnopqrfraxy « abcddef s ht Lmnno p gpp spt ux wm abedefgbilmnopgrfcaxy saabeddep shilmnopgpsfcuxy ‘of the Classical period, without the graphic developments that took place in the Middle Ages, contemporary written communication would look very different. The letterforms of antiquity were limited to afew cursive styles, formal inscriptions, majuscules, and, later, uncials. These Roman, letterforms provided models for new forms of handwriting. Medieval lettering was linked to specific geographical locations and institutional sites, the first of which were monasteries. The inventory of Medieval scripts is ‘extensive, and each variation carries indications of the place and time of its origin. A local script might derive its style from a particular monastery, but it might also share traits with the scripts of monasteries in the vicinity, since monks learned to write from each other. By the eighth century, some local manuscript hands had become regional and were associated with the administration of kingdoms and territories, rather than simply practiced within monastery walls (Fig. 3.2). Graphic forms helped forge the complex cultural identities that emerged in the Middle Ages. European populations and setlements were sill very ‘much in flux between the fifth and eighth centuries. Germanic and Slavic tribes invaded from the North and East, along coastlines and over land, continually introducing changes and threats to stability. Modern European nations did not exist although kingdoms and principalities with distinct identities arose from the remains of the Roman Empire. Between periods of relative calm, waves of Scandinavian and Arab invasion continued to change the European and Mediterranean world until the tenth century. The (Church was the main cultural institution to survive in Furope throughout this period, and its doctrines et an agenda for scientific inguiry that aligned with religious belief. Between the ninth and eleventh centuries, knowledge of Greek declined in Western Europe, which was sparsely populated by contrast with the great cultural center of Constantinople, [Arab scholarship made advances in the natural sciences and served to preserve texts from antiquity. These texts passed into European hands ater the Crusades began in the eleventh century. Important works of Greek and Latin scholarship were recovered in Arabic translations, while decorative styles of calligraphy and imagery exerted their own influence. Patterns of cultural exchange can be traced in decoration and illumination, as well as in the content of texts and images. Illuminated manuscripts created