FOUNDATIONS By Rajesh Kumar Professor Track 11.0 Historical backgroun Driving of bearing piles to support structures is one of the earliest examples of the art and science of the civil engineer. Timber pillars were used as early as in 200BC to 200AD. Timber because of its strength combined with lightness, durability and ease of cutting and handling, remained the only material used for piling until comparatively recent times. It was replaced by concrete and steel only because these newer materials could be fabricated into units that were capable of sustaining compressive, bending and tensile forces for beyond the capacity of a timber pile of like dimensions, Reinforced concrete, which was developed as a structural medium in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, largely replaced timber for high capacity piling for works on land. The partial replacement of driven precast concrete piles by numerous forms of cast-in- situ piles has been due more to the development of highly efficient machines for drilling pile bore holes of large diameter and great depth in a wide ranged soil and rock conditions, than to any deficiency in the performance of the precast concrete element. Steel has been used to an increasing extent for piling due to its ease of fabrication and handling and its ability to withstand hard driving problem of corrosion in marine structures have been overcome by the introduction of durable coatings and cathodic protection. 2.0 Establishment of need for a pile Need of a pile foundation can be justified in the following situations:- (2) Upper soil strata are too compressible or generally too weak to support heavy vertical reaction transmitted by the super structure. . In this instance piles serve as extensions of columns or piers to carry the loads to a deep, rigid stratum such as rock (Point bearings piles). * If such a rigid stratum does not exist with in a reasonable depth, the load must be gradually transferred, mainly by friction, along the pile shafts (friction piles)(b) Piles are also frequently required because of the relative inability of shallow footings to transmit inclined, horizontal, or uplift forces and overturning moments. Such situations are common in design of earth retaining structures (walls and bulk heads) and tall structures subjected to high wind and earthquake forces. * Piles resist upward forces by negative friction around their shafts (up lift piles). Ce) Fig.3: Uplift Piles (©) Horizontal forces are resisted either by vertical piles in bending or by groups of vertical and battered piles (Fig. 4 & 5) Fig.4 Figs(d) Pile foundations are often required when scour around footings could cause erosion inspite of the presence of strong, incompressible strata (such as sand or gravel) at shallow depths (Fig86). Fig.6 (e) _ In areas where expansive or collapsible soils extend to considerable depth below the soil surface, pile foundations may be needed to assure safety against undesirable seasonal movements of the foundations (fig.7).. Fig.73.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 Classification of piles: Piles can be classified in the following ways:- On the basis of Material: Timber Steel PCC RCC PSC Composite On the basis of Method of Construction:- * _ Driven/displacement precast piles * _ Driven/displacement cast in situ piles + Bored/replacement precast piles * Bored /replacement cast in situ piles On the Basis of Sectional Area:- + Circular . Square . Tubular * Octagonal . H-section On the Basis of Mode of Load Transfer:- * End bearing piles * Friction piles * Bearing cum friction piles On the Basis of Size of Piles:- * Micro (Mini) Piles (<150 mm) * Small diameter piles (>150 mm < 600mm) * Large diameter pile (>600 mm)3.6 On the Basis of Inclination of Pil + Vertical piles * Raker (batter piles) End Bearing Pile Friction Pilesee Driven Piles in-situ Coner: Gesbe Completed Auger Drill Sem Driven Cast in Situ4.0 Of Pile Material: Principal advantages and disadvantages of different pile materials. Material ‘Advantages Disadvantages Timber Easy to handle or cut off, Decay above water table, relatively inexpensive material. | especially in marine Readily available, naturally environment, Limited in size tapered, Light and very durable | and bearing capacity, Prone to below ground level damage by hard driving, Noisy to drive. Steel Easy to handle, cut off, extend, | Subject to corrosion, require Available in any length or size, | protection in marine can penetrate hard strata, environment. Flexible H-piles boulders, soft rock. Convenient | may deviate from axis of to combine with steel driving. Relatively expensive superstructure, ability to material than timber and withstand hard driving, capable | concrete. Noisy to drive, for heavy loads. Concrete: Durability in almost any Cumbersome to handle and Precast environment. Convenient to _| drive. Cumbersome to handle combine with concrete and drive. Difficult to cut off or superstructure. extend. Noisy to drive Cast-in-situ: | Allows inspection before Casting cannot be re-used. Thin Casting left in| concreting. Easy to cut off or | casing may be damaged by ground extend. impact or soil pressure. Casting with | No store space required. Can | In soft soils shaft may be drawing or no casting. be made before excavation. ‘Some types allow larger displacement in weaker soils. Some types have no driving operation, suitable where noise and vibration are prohibited (down town) squeezed by soil cave in. In case of heavy compaction of concrete previously completed piles may be damaged. If concrete is placed too fast there is danger of creation of a void. Availability of space Proximity to structures 5.0 54 following factors:- 1. 2. 3. Reliability Factors Governing Choice Of Type Of Pile: The type of Pile shall be selected by considering broadly the The advantages and disadvantages of the various forms of pile affect the choice of pile for any particular foundation project and these are summarized as follows:-5.2 5.3 Driven Pre cast Piles - Advantages: Material forming pile can be inspected for quality and soundness before driving Not liable to ‘squeezing’ or ‘necking’ Construction operations not affected by ground water Projection above ground level advantageous to marine structures Can be driven in very long lengths Can be designed to withstand high bending and tensile stresses Disadvantages: Unjointed types cannot readily be varied in length to suit varying level of bearing stratum May break during driving necessitating replacement piles May suffer unseen damage which reduces carrying capacity Uneconomical if cross-section is governed by stresses due to handling and driving rather than by compressive, tensile, or bending stresses caused by working conditions Noise and vibration due to driving may be unacceptable Displacement of soil during driving may lift adjacent piles or damage adjacent structures End enlargements, if provided, destroy or reduce skin friction over shaft length Cannot be driven in conditions of low headroom Driven-and-cast-in-situ piles - Advantages . Length can easily be adjusted to suit varying level of bearing stratum Driving tube driven with closed end to exclude ground water Enlarged base possible Formation of enlarged base does not destroy or reduce shaft skin friction Material in pile not governed by handling or driving stresses Noise and vibration can be reduced in some types by driving with internal drop-hammer5.4 Disadvantages Concrete in shaft liable to be defective in soft squeezing soils or in conditions of artesian water flow where withdraw able-tube types are used Concrete cannot be inspected after installation Length of some types limited by capacity of piling rig to pull out driving tube Displacement may damage fresh concrete in adjacent piles, or lift these piles, or damage adjacent structure Noise and vibration due to driving may be unacceptable Cannot be used in river or marine structures without special adaptation Cannot be driven with very large diameters End enlargements are of limited size in dense or very stiff soils When light steel sleeves are used in conjunction with withdrawalable driving tube, skin friction on shaft will be destroyed or reduced. Bored and cast — cast in situ replacement Piles:- Advantages Length can readily be varied to suit variation in level of bearing stratum Soil or rock removed during boring can be inspected for comparison with site investigation data In-situ loading tests can be made in large diameter pile bore holes, or penetration tests made in small boreholes Very large (up to 7.3m diameter) bases can be formed in favourable ground Drilling tools can break up boulders or other obstructions which cannot be penetrated by any form of displacement pile Material forming pile is not governed by handling or driving stresses Can be installed in a very long lengths Can be installed without appreciable noise or vibration No ground heave Can be installed in conditions of low headroom Disadvantages Concrete in shaft liable to squeezing or necking in soft soils where conventional types are used. Special techniques needed for concreting in water-bearing soils Concrete cannot be inspected after installation Enlarged base cannot be formed in cohesionless soils Cannot be extended above ground level without special adaptation* Low end-bearing resistance in cohesionless soils due to loosening by conventional drilling operations * Drilling a number of piles in group can cause loss of ground and settlement of adjacent structures 6.0 Piling equipment and methods: Equipments for Installing precast driven piles Equipments for installing driven and cast in situ piles Equipments for installing bored and cast in situ piles 6.1. Equipment for installing pre cast driven piles: (i) Pilling frames:- has the function of guiding the piles at its correct alignment from the stage of first pitching in position to its final penetrations. It also carried the hammer and maintaining it in position co-axially with the pile. (it) Crane Supported (hanging) Leaders (iil) Trestle guides (iv) Piling hammers:- Selection depends on type and weight of the pile, characteristic of ground, volumed energy per blow, the striking rate and the fuel consumption. Single and double acting hammer are effective in all type of soils. AIR OR AIROR Exhaust STEAM PRESS oye ap STEAM PRESS te (OPTIONAL) Piston yn" inch Cylinder yinder Intake Static [etl [etal . om Weight Combustion > sammer jer) Srokesh Cuthon ome Anvil VI one Te Chen ‘Gosen vee iinet Hee oseiftor ham ile i pi, Pil japon isnue-acne OFFERENTIAL @ogseL (evierarory HAMMERS DRIVER a WMERS poURLE-ACTING HAMMERS Principle of operation of pile drivers