YA L E S T U D I E S IN E N GLI SH

A L B E RT S . C O O K , E D IT O R

H
LX

T E M E D IE V A L A T T IT U D E
T O W A R D A ST R O L O GY

P A R T IC U L A R L Y IN E N GL A N D

H
BY

T E O D O R E O TT O W E DE L
I st
n ru cto r in E n gl i s h i n Y a l e U i r s i ty
n ve

A D i ss e rt at i o n p r e s e n t e d t o t h e F a cu l ty o f t h e Gra d u a t e S c h o o l
o f Y al e U n i v e r s i ty i n C a n d i d a cy f o r t h e D e g r e e o f

D o c t o r o f P hi l o s o phy

NEW HAVEN :
LOND O N : HH
YA L E U N I V E R S I T Y P R E S S

UM P
O X FO R D U N I V E R S ITY P R E S S
R EY M I LFO R D

M D C CC C X X
 P R E FA C E

M edi aeval astrology ha s long su ff ered a neglect which ,

j udged int r insically it deserves L ittle mo r e than a

,
.

romantic interest now attaches to a complex divinato ry a r t

that fo r centuries has been looked upon as one o f the
aberrations o f the human mind When viewed historically .
,

however a st r olo gy is seen to have occupied a place in art

,

and philoso p hy which many a later science might envy and ,

which consequently it is not well t o igno r e

, ,
A ncient .

ast r ology indeed has al r eady received in recent years close

, ,

and app r eciative study The poem o f M anilius has never

.

lost its appeal for the classicist ; a n d the prominence o f

ast r ological thought in ancient philosophy and ethics has
frequently aroused the cu r io sity o f scholars A hist ory o f .

medi aeval astrology on the other hand still remains to be

, ,

written .

Y et for the men o f the thirteenth century even more than ,

for t he poets and philoso phers o f Greece and R ome the ,

rule o f the s t ars over human destinies was an indisputab le

fact entering into t heir every conception o f the universe
, .

In that sudden revival o f A r istotelian and A rabian learning

which in the twel fth centu r y heralded t he scholastic age
, , ,

ast r ology was hailed as the chief o f the sciences A lthough .

a long war fare with theology had to precede its acceptance

by me d i aeval orthodoxy its nal triumph was complete , .

Theologians dared to credit the stars with a power second

only to that o f God himsel f When Chaucer in lines .
,

echoing D ante s I nfer n o exclaims

O i n u en c e s
S ot h i s t h a t
, ,
of hi s e h evenes hy e !
t
u nd e r Go d y e b e n o u r hi er d e s
, ,

he is expressin g the conviction o f the best medi aeval

thinkers A strology o ff ering as it did a reasoned explana
.
, , ,
iv M ed icevo l A tti tu d e t owa r d A s tr ol og y

tion o f an innite dive r sity o f p hysical p henomena and ,

including in its scop e psy c hology and ethics made p ossible ,

even in the M iddle A ges d r eams o f a unive r sal science .

I have endeavo r ed in this disse r tation to trace the devel

op m en t o f medi aeval thought concerning astrology f r om

A ugustine to the fteenth centu r y and to interp r et refer

,

e n ces to it in medi aeval E ngli s h litera tu r e The larger

-

p urpose w a s a direct outgrowth o f the second a summa r y
o f as t r ological p assages in Old and M iddle E nglish proving
barren without an inte r pretative backg r ound It will be .

easily recogni z ed that the t r eat m ent o f medi aeval ast r ology
as a whole is cu r so r y and incomp lete A eld so little .

explored as that o f A r abian and Je w ish science o ff ers

countless di fculties to the novice But the gene r al t r end
.

o f ast r ological opinion in the M iddle A ges seemed not

impossible o f discovery and called fo r at leas t a tentative
,

e xp lanation .

The recent investigations o f s everal scholars have

enc ouraged my inte r est in the p r esent wo r k Pro fessor .

T a t lo ck s studies on the astrology o f Chaucer w ere r e s p on

-

sible for my rst intelligent V iew o f the p roblem S ome .

twenty pages o f incidental exposition in his S cen e of the

F r a n kli n s Ta l e Vi s i t ed co nstitute the most sugg e stive

monograph of medi aeval astrology with which I am

acquainted The ea r lie r volumes o f D u hem s S ys teni e du
.

M on d e also aided me in matte r s bibliog r a p hical and in out ,

linin g the evolution o f scientic ideas f r om A r ist otle to

mode r n times A ltho ugh my int r oducto r y discussion o f
.

ancient astrology is based upon B ouch e L ecl er c q s A s tr ol -

og i e Gr ec q u e I have endeavored to inte r r et the early his

, p
to r y o f the science in the light o f its later development The .

principa l c ontr i bution o f the present study in fact will be , ,

found to consist in an attemp t t o exp lain the medi aeval

attitude towa r d astrology as the result o f a combat between
an ecclesiastical hostility inherited from the ancient Church
, ,

a nd the increasingly i nsistent demands o f A r abian science .

 P r efa ce

M y thanks are due to the o fcials o f the L ibra r y o f Y ale

U niversity who secured for me many o f the b ooks here

,

cited ; to Pro fessor J S P Tatlock o f L eland Stan f o r d

. . .
,

U nivers ity and Pro fesso r T F Crane o f Cornell U niver

,
. .
,

s it y for courteous replies to queries ; and to Pro fessor C C

, . .

Torrey and Pro fessor Williston Walker o f Y ale U nivers ity , ,

fo r aid in s o lving problems o f Oriental biblio graphy M y .

gratitu d e to Pro fessor A lbert S t a nbu r r ou g h Co ok under ,

whom this disserta t ion was wri t te n must be le ft largely ,

unexpressed Pro fessor Cook helpe d me everywhere

.
,

always un g rudging o f his time and always ready with ,

sympathetic counsel .

A portio n o f the exp ense o f printing this thesis ha s be en

borne by the M odern L angua g e Cl u b o f Yale U niversity ,

f rom funds plac ed at its disposal by the generosity o f the

late M r George E D imock a gra d uate o f Y ale in the
. .
,

Class o f 1 8 74 .

YA LE U N I VER S ITY,
N ovember ,
19 1 9 .
 C O NT E N T S
C H
APTER P A GE

I . A ncient A stro logy I

II . A strology in the E arly M edi aeval Centuries

III . As trology in Old E nglish L iterature

IV . A rabian A strology 49

V . The M edi aeval A cceptance of A strology

VI . A strologers in M edi aeval E ngland 9 0

VI I . A strology in the M edi aeval R omances I 00

VI I I . A strolo gy in M iddle E nglish L iteratu r e 1 13

IX . A strolo gy in G ower and Chauce r 1 32

B ibliography
I ndex 1 61
 CH A PT E R I

A N C I EN T A ST R OLO GY
I
L ittle
is denitely known o f the history o f astrolo gy
be f o re its advent in the Greek worl d at the time o f the
A lexandrian empi re A ri sing somewhere in the Chaldean .

E ast and spreading early over E gypt it won its rst foot
, ,

hold i n the West in a school o f astrologe r s founded by

B erosus on the i sland o f Cos A strological divinati on .

among the Babylonians seems to have been o f a primitive

sort conning itsel f to eclipses and to general propheci es
, ,

conce r ning kings and realms It was in the hands o f the .

Greeks that astrology developed into that intricate science

o f divination fortied by the best philosophical thought o f
,

the time which we encounter in the classic texts o f M anilius

,

and Ptolemy 1
.

Though astrology entered the Greek worl d late it found ,

a soil prepare d for its rece p tion Popular superstitions .

regarding lucky and unlucky days have been current among

all peoples ; Hesio d had sung o f them i n his W or ks a n d
D ays A strology fu r thermore won ready converts amon g
.
, ,

the philosophers Though the contempo raneous Stoic .

school was the rst openly to espouse its doctrines astrology ,

di scovered many points o f contact in the systems that had

preceded Pythagoreanism with its mystic numbers seemed
.
, ,

expressly made fo r the new science The four elements o f .

E mpedocles f ound here a new home A n d o f the utmost .

importance fo r its later history w ere the relations which

astrolo gy fo rmed with the philosophical systems o f Plato
1
The au t h o ri ta t i ve s tu dy
Gr eek a s t r ol ogy i s B ou ch Leclercq s
of -

L A s tr o log i e Gr e cq n e

Pari s 1 899 Ch al dea n a s t r o logy i s dis
, , .

c u ss e d o n pp 3 5 72 Th e b e s t s h o r t a ccou nt o f a n c i e nt a s t r ol o gy
.
-
.

i s the a r t i cle A s tr ol og i e by E R i e ss i n P a u ly W i s s o wa s R ea l .
,
-

e n cy c l opad i e d e r C lass i s ch en A l ter thu msw is s e ns chaf t ( S tu tt g a r t

1 896 ) 1 . 1 802 28 -
.
 M ediwval A t ti tu de tow ar d A s tr ology

and A r istotle With Platonism ast r ology experienced little

.
,

di fculty The Ti ni cen} became in late r times a ve r itable

.

breviary not only fo r astrologe r s but f or teache r s o f magic

, ,

o f all sorts The myth o f the D emiurge creating the wo r ld

.
,

as a living o rganis m eve r y part o f which was intimately ,

r elated to eve r y othe r p r ese n ted the very principle that with ,

the St o ics be c ame the c o rn e r ston e o f the ancient f a ith in -

divination M a n as a mic r ocosm the Stoics said merely

.
, , ,

reected the great w o rld about and above him M oreover .

,

the p icture in the Ti ni cens o f the soul descending f r om the

uppe r heave n s by way o f the p lanet a r y gods each endowi n g ,

it with its pr o p er gi fts was a d mi r ably tted for ast r ological ,

inte r p r etation at the hand o f the commentato r 1

To be sure .
,

when astrol o gy later allie d itsel f with ast r o nomy and took ,

on a more scientic as p ect Platonism with its myths was , , ,

found les s adaptable S o simple an astrol ogical doct r ine as .

that conc e rning the evil inuence o f the p lanet S atu r n

bafed the philoso p hers How could a ben e c ent plan etary .

god be the source o f evil ? The N eopl atonist Plotinus w

, ,

s o lve d such di fculties by s aying t ha? t he s t af s we r e not

k u

causes o f anything but signs o nly This easy explanation , .

became general among Platonists I t is found as late as .

the scholastic William o f A uvergne and the R enaissance

, ,

p hilosopher M a r silio Ficino ,

.

While astrology discovered a ready ally in Plato it found ,

H
T Totho se familiar with
w

only an i n di er ent one in A r i s fofle

-

1
Bo u ch L e cl e rc q ,
-
pp 9 2 5 T h e comm en t a ri e s o n t h e Ti in ceu s
.
-

by t h e N eop la t o n i s t s Po rphyry a n d P r o clu s con t a i n m u c h a s t r o

, ,

l og i cal m a tt e r B y w ay o f Ch al c id i u s a n d M a c r o bi u s ( s e e b el o w
.
,

p. t h e s e a s t r o l o g i cal exp l an at i o n s o f t h e T i n mns b ec a m e a c c e s

s i ble t o the ea r ly M i ddle A g es The m edi aeval p op u la ri ty o f the .

Ti m rou s i t s el f i s w e ll k n ow n T he Pl at o n i c myt h o f t h e d e s ce n t
.

o f the s ou l t og et h e r w i t h i t s a s t r ol og i cal i n t e rpr et a t i o n f ou n d i t s

, ,

w ay i n t h e t wel f t h c en t u ry i n t o t h e D e M a n d i Un iver s i ta te o f
, ,

B er n ar d S i lve s t r i s Ch au c er d r e w u p o n t hi s wo rk f o r a s tanz a
.

M an

i n t he o f L aw s Ta l e ( 99 S ee b el ow, p p} 3 3 5 ,.
-
1 46.
 A n ci en t A s tr olog y 3

m edi aeval astrology this seems strange indeed

,
I n the .

scholastic writers o f the thirteenth century the cosmolo gy ,

r i s t o t l e furnished the ve r y axioms o f the science ; it

~
.s the authority o f A ristotle
a more than anything else , ,

t hat caused its theoretical acceptance by the Church Thus .

A r istotle s theo r y o f the fth essence teaching that the

substance o f the stars was o f a nobler order than that o f

the sublunary sphere was found admirably tted to form ,

t he is o f a science ascribing to the stars the arbitrament

a human destinies This V iew also found support in .

A ristotle s physics o f motion A ll the trans formations

.

unde r gone by physical bodies here on earth it taught trace , ,

their origin to the local motion o f the imperishable beings

which constitute the xed stars I t is this motion received .
,

b y the heavens from the Prime M over himsel f and trans ,

m i tt ed to the lower spheres that causes all earthly growth ,

a n d change The earth says A ristotle
.
1
,

is bound up in ,

some necessary way with the local motions o f the heavens ,

that all powe r that resides in this w o r ld is gove r ned by

A n d in the l o cu s clas s i cu s for medi aeval

t hat above
(

t r o log ythe tenth chapter o f the second book o f the

.

D e Gen er a ti on e e t C or r u pti on eA ristotle develops this

t heory even further The motion o f the heavens to which
.
,

all change on ea r th is due is t w o fold and has a two fold , ,

e ff ect on sublunary matter The per fect diurnal motion .

o f the xed sta r s from east to west constitutes the principle

o f permanence and g r owth ; whereas the motion o f the
planets running their annual courses at irregular paces
,

f rom west to east athwart the diu r nal motion o f the xe d

,

sta r s constitutes the p r inciple o f earthly change When

, .

once inte r preted ast r ologically A ristotle s physics o f motion ,

was all that was needed to fasten upon the M iddle A ges
that exaggerated belie f in the impo r tance o f the stars which
l ay at the basis o f the faith in ast r ology .

1
M et eor o log i ca 1 . 2 .
4 M e di ceva l A t ti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr olog y

The r e are signs that even in the ancient world the pos
s ib i li t i es o f the A ristotelian cosmology as a fundamental

postulate fo r an astrological science had begun to be r ecog

n iz e d .The Peripatetics A lexander A phrodisias and ,

A d r astus based u p on it their faith in stella r inuence ;

,

and when Claudius Ptolemy in the second century o f our ,

era gave to astrology its nal denition as a science he

, ,

employed several A r istotelian doctrines It was A ristotl e

who had formulated the theory o f the four elementsthe
.

hot the cold the dry and the moistwhich constituted

, , ,

the basis o f Ptolemy s physics By placing thes e four .

qualities under the sway o f the various planets and con

s t ella t i on s Ptolemy could e xplain scientically the mani
,

f esta t i on s o f stella r inuence F r om the Peripatetics too .

, ,

Ptolemy borrowed his masterly solution o f the problem o f

scientic determinism which as we shall nd disarme d , , ,

many critics Ptolemy approaching astrology from th e

.
,

side o f astronomy and not from that o f mysticism and ,

religion could in general claim kinship with the spirit o f

,

A ristotelian science B ut one looks in vain in Ptolemy s

.

proo f o f the existence o f stellar i n u enc e for a mention

1

o f A ristotle s theory o f motion He speaks on the subj ect

.

with no such dogmatic sureness as did the scholasti c

writers twelve centuries lat er 2
.

Ptolemy however comes at the close not at the begin

, , ,

1
Te tr a bi blos I 2

sm
. .

2
s
A t r o l ogy an d ea r ly s
A ri t o t el i an i are d i s cu s s d
-

by B o l l, in
S tu di en il oer C lau di us P t o lenu i us , pp 1 5 6 1 62 ( I ahr bii cher f ur
' '

-
.

P hi lo log i e u n d P ci dag og i k, S u pp lem ent F o r P t ol emy d eb t t o s

'

the P
e rip at e t i c , s ee B o ll , p s
1 61 a n d B ou ch L e cl er cq , pp 26 7 .
,
-
.
-
.

s
B ou ch L ecl er cq t ak e B oll t o t a k f o r t h e t at e m e nt t h a t A ri
-
s s s
t ot e l i an i s m w a s i n i t el f f avo r abl e t o a s t r ol og y s P l a t o n i m, h e a y , . s s s
w a s mu c h m o r e s o F r om the p oi n t o f v i ew o f a n c i ent a t r ol ogy ,
. s
B ouc h Le cl e r c q
-
i s pr o b ab ly ri g h t B u t th e hi s to ry o f m ed i aeval .

a s t r ol ogy pr ov e s I t hi n k t h at t he all i a n ce o f a s t r o l ogy w i t h A ri s

, ,

t o t e l i a n i s m w a s t h e m o r e p e r m a n en t It d i s ca r de d t h e a s t r olog i cal .

my t h olog y o f P lat o an d s ub s t i t u t e d f o r i t a r at i o na l e xp l anat i o n

,

o f th e u n i v e r s e w hi c h cap t i va t e d th e b e s t s c i ent i c m i n d s d o wn t o
 A n ci en t A s tr olog y 5

ning o f the history o f Greek astrolo gy I n the earlier

,
.

centuries no necessity mani fested itsel f o f basing astrology

,

upon a scientic conception o f the universe A strology .

looked for its r st support not to science but to philosophy , ,

and to r eligion ; and the Chaldean diviner found his rst

friends not among the ast r onomers but the soothsayers
, ,

and oracle mongers Ptolemy was the rst astronomer o f

-

note to pay serious attention to astrology To the Sto ics .

the one philosophical school that became its staunch ally

ast r ology was merely a form o f divination accepted and ,

de fended along with augury and oracles I n that long !

.

controversy o f the schools on the subj ect o f divination

which is p r ese r ved in such writings as Cicero s D e D i vi na
ti on e little mention is made o f cosmological principles
,
.

The physical inuence o f the stars it is true played a part , ,

in the argument Cicero tried to deny the stars the power.

to inuence human li fe by sayin g that all celestial bo d ies

above the sun and moon were too distant 1
A strology made .

answer that the sun an d moon were distant too ; yet ,

their inuence was mani fest The power o f their rays .

di ff ered only in degree f rom that exerted by the other

heavenly bodies Ptolemy preserving for us the arguments
.
,

o f Posidonius the most important S toic de fen d er o f astrol

,

o gy points to the inuence of the moon upon the ocean

, ,

and that o f the sun upon the seasons and then leaves the ,

matter with the assertio n that the other heavenly bo d ies

act in a similar manner 2
S ome inuence o f the stars upon .

human li fe was usually taken for grante d and the war was ,

fought out on other issues The central principle wi th the .

Stoics was that o f the solidarity o f the universe the resem ,

the t i meK ep l e r a n d Tych o B r ah e T he i n u ence o f the A ri s

of .

t o te l i a n c o s m ol og y u p o n t he la t e r c e n t u ri e s i s cl e a r ly t r a ce d i n P .

D uhem s L e S ys tem e du M ond e : H i s t oi r e d es D oc tr i nes C os molo

g i gu es d e P la t on a C op er n i c ( 5 vo ls P a ri s 1 9 1 3 s e e e s p ec i a lly
.
, ,

1 . 1 64 ; 2 . 2 77 , 300, 334, 3 68 ti , 3 89 ; 3 . 2 48, 3 42 , 3 5 1 .

1
D e D i vi n a ti o ne 2 .
43 .

2
T e tr a bi blos I . 2 .
6 M ediceval A tti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr olog y

blance o f the pa r t to the whole the unity o f microcosm an d ,

mac r ocosm With this p r inciple they could defend not only
.
,

astrology but likewise augu r y from the ight o f birds and

,

the ent r ails o f animals and the va r ious kinds o f omens ,

which p layed so large a p a r t in the supe r stitious beliefs

o f the ancients .

T he d e fense o f astrology by the Stoics there fore con , ,

cerned itsel f not so much with astrology the science as

, , ,

with ast r ology the art Th e ir chief o pp onent on t he sub

,
.

j c et o f divination ap p eared in the p erson o f Carneades

( 9
2 1 1 2-

6 B a membe r o f the
. N ew A cademy Car .

meades launched against astrology a series o f arguments

which remained standard for centuries These were .

repeated again and again by the S ceptics were taken over ,

almost bodily by the Chu r ch and reappea r unchanged in ,

Pet r arch and Pico della M i r andola The attack clever .

,

though it was can not be termed wholly success ful and the
, ,

followers o f Carneades w e re slo w to fashion new weapons .

A n able defende r o f ast r ology appeared with the Stoic ,

Posidonius ( 1 3 5 5 0 B C ) and w hen Ptolemy had nally -

. .

unde r taken its j ustication in the sane and mode r ate open
ing chap te r s o f the T e tr a bi bl os ve r y f ew o f the arguments ,

o f Ca r neades remained unanswered Philosophe r s and .

theologians o f the opposing school however content with , ,

the b r illiant dialectic o f Carneades remained oblivious o f ,

these new develop ments The work o f Carneades himsel f .

is no longer extant but his attack o n astrology has been ,

p rese r ved by many late r writers

i n the second book o f
Cice r o s D e D i vi na ti on e in the fth book o f A ugustine s

D e Ci vi ta t e D ei ( based upon a lost po r tion o f Cic e r o s

D e P a t o ) in the w r itings o f the late Sceptic p hiloso p he r

, ,

S extus E mp i r i cu s and in the ex c e r pts f r om the rheto r ician

,

F a v o r inu s found in the N oc t es A m br os i a naa o f A ulus

Gell iu s .
1

1
F o r t he at t i t u de of Sto i ci m t o s a s tr o log y s e e B ou ch Lecl er cq
,
-

pp . 29 -

3 4, 5 93 if . T h e S t o i c d e f en s e of d iv i n a t i on a s a w h ol e i s
, ,
 A n ci en t A s tr olog y

The opponents o f the Stoics were concerned above all

w ith combating ast r ological fatalism Their weapons were .

plain assertion and the dictates o f common sense They .

even went far in admitting a rule o f the stars over externals ,

so long as the inner cit adel o f man s free will remained
inviolate F a vo r i nu s decla r es it intolerable that any one
.

should dare to impute to the heavens the power to intervene

in the acts o f our own f ree choice and to t r ans form ,

man f rom a reasoning being into a ma r ionette Close ly .

allied to the argument that astrology was unethical was ,

the one that it was useless as well I f says S extus E mp ir i

,
.

cu s human events are r uled by three things necess ity
, ,

chance and free will i t is useless t o fo r esee what must

,

necessarily happen anyway and i mpossible to foresee what ,

is dep endent upon chance and the will o f man 1
B ut to .

assert the uselessness and the impiety o f astrology was not

to disc r edit it as a science The Stoics in fact faced astro .
, ,

logical fatalism without i n chi ng and dismissed in short ,

order the contention that astrology was useless A ccording .

to Posidoniuswhose argument is preserved in the third

chapter o f Ptolemy s T e tr a bi bl os prophecy is naturally

welcome when the thing foreseen is pleasurable ; when on ,

the other hand the thing fo r eseen is pain ful its predic
, ,

tion p repares the soul to bear mis fortune with equanimity .

2

s ss d
di cu e i n t he s
h o r s H is toi r e d e la D i vi na ti on ( I 5 9 ff )
a me aut

. .

A s t dyu o f t h e co n t r o ve r s y b e t w een t he S t o i c s a n d t h e N e w A c a d

e my o n t h e s u bj e c t o f d i vi n a t i o n h a s b e en m a d e by A S chm ek el i n .
,

D i e P hi los ophi e d er M i t t l er e n S t oa ( B e r l i n S ex tu s E mp i r i ,

c u s F a vo r i n u s a n d Ci ce r o a n d t h e ir j o i n t d ep e n d en ce o n C a r n ea de s
, , , ,

a r e d i s cu ss e d o n pp 32 1 3 P tol emy s d ep end ence o n t he S t o i c

.
-
.

s ch ool an d o n P o s i doni u s i n p a r t i cu la r ha s b een p r ove d by B o ll

, ,

( op ci t pp 1 3 1 if )
. .
,
. .

B ou ch L e cl er c q p 5 96 ; S chm ek e l pp 1 5 6 1 5 9
1
-
. .
, , ,
.

S ed p r aevi s i o f u t u r o r u m a n i m u m c o m p o n i t e t m o d e r a t u r m e d i t a
2

t i on e abs e n t iu m t a nq u a m p raes e n t iu m e t p r aep a r a t a d e xc ip i e n da

,

v en t u r a c u m t r a n q u ili t a t e et c o n s t a n t i a ( Te tr a bi blos I 3 : Cla udi i

.

P t o lemcei O mn i a q u ce ex ta n t O p er a B a s el 1 5 5 1 p , , , .
8 M edi ceval A t ti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr ol og y

Ptolemy himsel f adds another argument to the one j ust

quoted in which the utility o f astrology is even better
,

defended Only the movements o f the sta r s themselves

.
,

he says are unde r the r ule o f necessity Happenings on

,
.

the earth are variable and subj ect to other inuences in , ,

addition to those exe r ted by the heavens A great physical .

catast r ophe such as a ood o r an earthquake may upset

, ,

the predictions o f a thousand ho r osco p es Ptolemy draws a .

pa r allel between t he ast r ologer and the physician The .

latter may in ce r tain cases be assured that a disease is

incurable ; in others he may admit the possibility o f improve
ment i f medicines are a p plied in time The magnet fur
, .

nishes another illustration The law that a magnet always .

~

at t r acts iron is unive r sally accep ted ; but it is none the less
true that i f the magnet be rubbed with a p iece o f garlic ,

it will refuse to work Ptolemy argues to be sure that i f .

, ,

the science were p erfect and i f all factors involved in human ,

a ff ai r s we r e known a p redicted destiny would be ines ,

capable I n more general prophecies indeed such certainty

.
, ,

is already attainable N o one supposes that a prediction o f

.

the approach o f summer o r winter admits o f modication .

B ut this does not prevent men even at the coming o f cold ,

weathe r from preparing to mitigate its rigors A n d i f

,
.

such general predictions are so eminently useful why ,

should not minut e p r edictions be equally welcome ? D oes

the countryman or the sailor disdain to regulate his daily
tasks according to the p hases o f the moon ? 1

1
C la u dii P t o l emcei Op
pp 3 8 1 2 A s h o r t out l i n e o f the
er a , .
-
.

a s t r ol og i cal s y s t em o f Pt o l emy w i ll s e r v e a s a co nv en i en t k ey t o

t h e t ec h n i c a l t e r m s u s e d i n t he f o l lo w i ng p ag es A s t r ol ogy i s .

d i v i de d by P t ol em y i n t o t w o m a i n p a r t s : I T h a t whi c h deal s .

w i t h g en e r al pr e d i c t i on s x o x m ) r eg a r d i ng w a r p e s t i l enc e
a o u , ,

e a r t hq u ak e s o o ds s to r m s ho t an d c ol d weath e r an d f e r t il i ty ; 2
, , , ,
.

T h a t w hi ch d eal s w i t h pr e d i c t i on s r e g a r d i ng t he i nd i vi du al ( 6 7

y v ox x ym v) hi s p a r en t s b r o t h e r s l en g t h o f l i f e h ealt h ri ch e s
'
e e ta o , , , , , ,

pr o f ess i on ma rri ag e chi l d r en an d fri en d s F o r th e p u rp os e o f

, , , .
IO M e di aeval A tti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr olog y

it was not so success ful with respect to its p r actical details .

The i n herent absu r dity o f many o f its doctrines was in ,

fact only to o evide n t
, What says S e xtus E mp i r ic u s .
,

,

have the a r bitrary names given to the constellations o f the

z odiac to do with the actions and habits o f man ? What
p ossible connection can exist between the celestial L ion
a n d a war r ior s bravery o r bet w een the Vi r gin and a white

skin ? Can anything be more absu r d than to make o f the

Bull a feminine sign ? A strology had to admit that the

names o f the constellations we r e a r bit r ary The name .

,

a strology contended served as a metap ho r to indicate the ,

nature o f a constellation s i n u enc eand this in turn had

, ,

b een discove r ed in the course o f long expe r ience 1

Such .

an answe r ho w eve r stumbled against anothe r e mbarrassing

, ,

question : What about the vaunted age o f the s c ience ?

A st r ologe r s claimed for it centuries o f careful experiment ,

t h u s co mp o s ed o f t w elve s e c t i on s c alle d t he t welve cel es t i al h ou s es , ,

w hi ch f o r m e d t h e b a s i s o f ev e ry as t r o l og i c a l calcu l a t i o n T he .

a s t r ol o g e r i n r ea d i ng a h o r o s co p e r s t d e t e r m i ne d t h e p o s it i on o f
, ,

t he p la n e t s a n d co n s t ella t i o n s a t t h e e x a c t mo m en t o f b ir th w i t h
r e f er en c e t o t he s e t w elve c ele s t i a l h ou s e sa t a s k o f n o s l i gh t
,

d i f cu lty s i n ce a p la ne t s hi f t s fr o m o n e h o u s e t o t h e s u ccee d i ng o n e
,

i n the s p a c e o f tw o h o u r s E a c h h o u s e r u l e d o ve r a p a r t i cu l a r ph a s e
.

o f m an s l i f e ; o n e r ep r e s en t e d w e a l t h a n o t h e r s i ck n e ss a n o th er

, ,

m a rri ag e a n d s o o n , I f f o r i n s t a n c e a n e v i l p l a n e t ( S at u r n o r
.
, ,

M a r s ) s t o o d i n t h e h ou s e w hi c h r epr e s en t e d wea lt h t h e a s t r o log e r ,

w ou ld h ave t o pr e d i ct p ove r ty f o r hi s c l i ent o r a t l ea s t a dvi s e ,

t hrif t I f a b ene cent s t a r s u ch a s V enu s h app ene d t o s t an d i n the

.
, ,

h ou s e o f m a rri ag e h e m i g h t pr oph es y t ha t ri ch es w ou l d c o me by
,

w ay o f a d ow ry T h e com p l e x r el at i o n s w hi ch p l an e t s an d c o n
.

s t ellat i o ns w e r e s u pp o s ed t o h old t o wa r d o ne an oth e r a t a g iven

m o men t an d th e i n n i t e va ri ety o f i n t e rpr et at i o n s t o w hi c h a ny
,

h o r o s co p e c ou ld b e s u bj ec t e d s er ve d a dm ir ab ly f o r m a i n t a i n i ng ,

t h a t j u d i c i ou s va g u en e ss c h a r a c t eri s t i c o f a ll a s t r o l og i c a l p r e d i c
t i o n w hi c h p r eve n t e d i t fr o m b e i n g s u b mi t t e d t o a n a l pr ag m at i c
,
'

s
te t .

B ou ch Lecl e r cq pp 5 7 9 80
1 -
T o ri d i cu le t he n ame s g i ven t o the
, .
-
.

c o n s t el l a t i o n s b ec a m e t h e f a s hi on wi t h t h e Ch u r c h F a t h e r s S ee .

b el ow p 2 0 , . .
 A n ci en t A s tr ology 1 1

and named as its founders the gods themselves S ome .

p retend says Cice r o that t he Chaldean ast r ologe r s have
,

,

ve r ied the nativities o f children by calculations and exp e r i

ments over a pe r iod o f years This he maintains .
, ,

is clearly i mpossible Had they been in the habit o f doing
.

so they would never have given up the practice

,
B ut as .
,

a matte r o f fact no aut hor remains who knows o f such

,

a thing being do ne now or eve r having been done 1

Still
,
.

,

assertion could be met by assertion and the r e was no dearth ,

o f ast r ologers who we r e willing to cite texts o f any des i r ed

mythological age B e fore the tribunal o f an uncritical
.

public thei r wo r d was seldom questioned .

N owhere could the critics nd a more alluring opp o r

t u n it y t o attack the doctrines o f ast r ology than in connec
tion with j udicial astrology itsel f A n a r t founded upon
2
.

wrong axioms must o f necessity fail in the execution ;

hence ast r ology when practised commercially has always
, ,

tempted the satirist The opponents o f astrolo gy con

.

fronted the reader o f ho roscopes with the bold assertion

that his art was impossible How it was asked could the .
, ,

astrologer asce r tain with su fcient exactness the moment

o f birth o r the precise point o f the heavenly sphere appear
,

ing above the hori z on ? To determine both o f these to the

minutest fraction was surely necessary : how else explain
the unlike fates o f twins ? I f the heavens moved so swi ftly
that twins could be born unde r totally di ff erent horoscopes ,

was it not clearly impossible to cast any nativity whatso

eve r ? A n d i f the moment o f conception as the astrologer s ,

asserted had an importance only second to that o f birth

,

the quest ion o f twins became in itsel f pu zz ling 3

A gain .
,

1
Ci cer o ,
D e D i vi na ti on e 2 .
45 .

2
T he t e r m sy a pp li ed t o t he pr a ct i ca l a r t o f pr e d i c t i ng t he
u u a ll

f u tu r e fr om the c on g u r at i on o f th e s t a r s a t bir th .

3
S c hm eke l pp 1 5 6 1 5 9 ff ; B o u ch Lec l e r c q pp 5 88 if
, .
, .
-
Th e , . .

a r g u me n t co n ce r n i n
g t w i n s wa s ex cee d i ng ly p op u la r It i s f ou n d .
 1 2 M ed i ceval A tti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr ol og y

why limit predictions by the stars to the human race ? I f ,

says Cicero the aspect o f the stars inuences the birth o f
,

every human being it should by pa r ity o f reasoning deter , , ,

mine the fates o f beasts as well ; yet what can be more

absurd ? S extus E mp i r icu s pictures the d is co mt u r e o f

an astrologer faced by a man and an ass bot h born under ,

the same sign ; and F a vo r i nu s smiles at the consistent

ast r ologe r casting the ho r oscopes o f mice and i e s .
1

N one o f these obj ections however greatly embarrassed , ,

H
the defende r s o f ast r ology The di fculties o f observation .
,

n o one more willingly conceded than the astrologer him

sel f e was t hereby assu r ed an es c ape when his predic

.

tions failed and a double glo r y when he was success ful

,
.

Ptolemy frankly admitted that the practice o f j udicial

a strology was di fcult but contended too that the mistakes , , ,

o f Charlatans should not b e laid at the door o f the science .

The question o f twins furthe r more t r oubled only the , ,

theorists For the po p ula r mind it was enough that a

.

double birth deserved a double horoscope The attempt .

,

nally to ridicule astrology by demandi n g that it extend

,

its functions to include the animal kingdom was only a ,

p r oo f o f the critic s igno r ance A strology i n

time extended .

its sway not only over the animal kingdom but over the
, ,

vegetable and mine r al as well 2

.

One criticism directed against j udicial astrology by

Carneades and his followers remains to be considered It .

occupied an imp ortant place in the argument and was a fter ,

wards employed e ff ectively by the Church It asked o f .

a strology this question : I f the destinies o f all men are

determined by the sta r s how explain the similar fates o f ,

large groups o f individuals born in the most various cir

in Ci c er o ( D i vi n 2 i n F avo r i n u s ( A u l u s Gelli us I 4 1
. . . .

. a n d i n S ex t u s E mp i r i cu s W e s h all n d i t ag a i n i n A ug u s t i ne
.

( Ci v D ei 5. who p op u l a ri z e d i t f o r t h e M i d dle A g e s
. .

B ou c h L ec l e r c q pp 5 85 6 ; Ci ce r o D i vi n 2 46
1
- -

.
, , . . .

B o u c h Le cl er cq pp 5 86 5 9 1
2 -

, .
, .
 A n ci en t A s tr olog y 1 3

cu Were all those who perished at the battle o f
m st a n c es ?

Cann ae demands Cicero
,

born under the same star ? ,

Were all the barbarians killed at M arathon asks S extus

,

E mp i r i c u s born under the arrow o f S agittarius and all
, ,

the heroes d r owned at S alamis under the sign o f the ,

Water carrier -
A gain i f the constellation Virgo bestows ,

upon those born under its domain a whit e skin must one ,

conclude that no E thiop ian is born in the month o f A ugust ?

These questions were perp lexingastrology did not answer
some o f them success fully until it had embodied in it s
doctrine a system o f astrological ethnology such as is ,

f ound in the second book o f Ptolemy s Te tr a bi bl os We

.

have already s een that in his int r oducto r y de fense o f ,

astrology Ptolemy claimed for gene r al catastrophes an

,

unequivocal precedence over all individual destinies A n d .

in the second book a solution is o ff ered o f the geographic

,

problem as well Ptolemy placed the various divisions o f

.

the globe under the dominion o f separate planets and con

s t ella t i o n s and these geographic inuences he p r onounced
,

o f greate r potency than the horoscopes o f the individual .

I n favor o f his system Ptolemy cited precisely the black ,

skin o f the E thiopian and the white skin o f the Teuton and ,

the Gaul 1
.

L ike Hy d ra or Proteus astrology remained a fter each ,

assault stronger than ever I n truth its foundations had .

,

been ha r dly shaken B elie f in astrology could be destroyed

only by an attack on its sourceeither by p roving that an
.

inuence o f the stars on human li f e did not exist or by ,

demonstrating that such an inuence was unknowable The .

opponents o f astrology by expending their energies in ,

assaults on the outposts and failing to attack the citadel , ,

only strengthened the belie f that the latter was u nco n

q u e r a bl e .

B o u ch Lec le r c q , pp p Ci c e r o D ivi n
1
-

.
5 8 1 ff ; . S c hm ek el , . 15 7 ; , .

2 44 ; C la u di i P t o le mcei
. Op er a , pp .
3 92 ff . On Pt o l emy , s ee al o s
B ol l, pp 1 8 1 ff . .
1 4 M edi wva l A tti tu de t ow ar d A s tr o l og y

D uringthe rst centu r ies o f ou r e r a while Christianity s ,

attack u p on it was still i n p r epa r ation ast r ology spread '

,

everywhe r e th r ough the R oman wo r ld 1

E mpe r o r s from .

A ugustus to A lexander S everus consulted the Chaldeans ,

and among the common people its vogue was universal .

N one o f the an c ient a r ts o f divination remained f r ee from

its taint Po ets f r om Juvenal to A mmianus M arcellinus
.

sati r i z ed the ext r avagant wo r ship paid to it by the fashion

able public A strologi c al ideas we r e in the ai r Cicero
. .
,

who as p hilosophe r fulminated against astrology as ,

rheto r ician subsc r ibed to its p r inciples When in the .

,

S o mni u i n S ci pi oni s he calls Ju p ite r a star that b r ings
,

health and p r os p e r ity to the race o f men and M ars a ,

planet red and feared on earth he accepts the ve r y axioms

, ,

o f the science 2
S eneca being a Stoic is natu r ally a r m , ,

believer in astrology ; Tacitus though he satiri z es the ,

astrologe r s o f the court is only hal f convinced that astrol ,

ogy itsel f is a deception 3

A n d when in the second centu r y.
, ,

it won as a convert the g r eatest astronomer o f the ancient

world little was left for it to conquer ; with Ptolemy ancient
,

astrology found its last and most famous spokesman The .

late p r ose writer Firmicus M at e r n u s though he has left

, ,

in his M a thes is the longest ancient treatise on ast r ology

and cont r ibutesespecially in the rst and eighth books
,

to our knowledge o f the philosophical defense o f the science ,

really o ff ers nothing new .

With the almost unive r sal theo r etical acceptance o f

astrology was j om e d howeve r a general distrust o f the , ,

astrologer himsel f The commercial p r actitioner stood low

.

in the social scale and was o ften a me r e cha r latan A st r ol

, .

ogy in p r actice f u r the r mo r e was seldom dissociated from

, ,

nec r omancy and vulgar magic and the astrologer in time ,

B ou ch L ecl er cq , pp
1
-
. 1 46 -
80 .

2
S omn S eip ,
. c h ap .
4 .

8
A nna les 6 . 22 .
 A n ci en t A s tr ol og y 1 5

became a public nuisance A s early as A ugustus laws were .

,

enacted against the C ha ldcei and the ma thema ti ci and suc ,

c ee d i ng rulers issued decrees o f increasing severity An .

emp e r or might himsel f w ish to make use o f the ast r ologer ,

but feared him when in the emplo y o f new candidates for

the throne A t times a distinction was made between the
practice and the sciencepr of es s i on ent e or u rn n on n o ti tia rn
.

l
, ,

es s e pr o hi bi tu rn reads one e n a c t m e n t ,
but a fter t he clos e
o f the third centu r y the absolute inte r diction o f astrology ,

formulated by D iocletian and embodied in the Theodosian ,

code remained permanently on the statute books

,
?
I n the -

eyes o f the public o f course pers ecution o f the astrolo g er

, ,

only enhanced t he value o f his a r t and in itsel f implied ,

belie f in its e fcacy The strange inconsistency o f the .

ancient attitudes toward astrologe r s is best p r eserved per ,

haps in the famous sentence o f Tacitus in which he calls

, ,

them dangerous to princes and a fallacious reliance to
ambitious subj ectsa race o f men which in our state will
,

ever be both s hunned and retained 3
.

II

S o it was that when Christianity at the clos e o f the ,

second century began to assume a position o f p r ominence

,

in the social and intellectual li f e o f the R oman E mpire it ,

found astrology every w here battening on the supe r stitions ,

both o f populace and kings The Church attacked astrolo gy .

with all available weapons The reasons fo r its hostility .

are fairly obvious A s a part o f paganism the practice .

,

o f all divinatory a r ts was fo r bidden the Ch r istian ; and in ,

the writings o f the earlier apologists astrology is hardl y ,

B o u ch L e c l e r c q , p
1
5 66
-

. .

2
I bid .

8
Ta c i t u s Hi, s t . I . 22 : G en u s

ho m i nu m p o t e n t ibu s in d u m , s p e ra n
t ibu s f a lla x q u o d , in i i ta t e n o s
c v s
t r a e t ve t a b i t u r e m p e r e t r e t i u e b i t u r

.
 1 6 M edi ceval A t ti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr olog y

diff erentiated from soothsaying oracles and magic I n its , , .

philosop hical dress astrology was even less acceptable The

,
.

fatalism imp lied in the belief that the stars are arbiters o f
human destinies n ever found more unyielding opponents
than the Church Fathe r s The methods o f attack varied .

somewhat through the centuries and the conclusions arrived ,

at by the Western Church di ff ered considerably from those

reached by the write r s o f the more scientic E ast The .

Christian apologists moreover seldom satised the demands , ,

o f strict logic itsel f ; the reade r is o ften surp r ised to nd

astrology readmitted into orthodox doctrine by some
unguarded concession B ut the war though o ften waged .
,

with nai ve and unscientic arguments was always per ,

sistent ; and its success was such that a fte r A ugustine in ,

his trenchant condemnation o f astrological divination had ,

nally formulated the doctrine o f the Western Church ,

I ast r ology V irtually disap p eared f r om the social and intel

lectual li fe o f western E urope for eight centu r ies 1
.

The Christians maintained in general that all divinatory , ,

a r ts and above all astrology were inventions o f the devil

, , , , ,

and could be carried on only by the aid o f demons This .

theory aros e early and remained throughout the M iddle ,

A ges the argument o f last resort A belief in the power .

and prevalence o f demons was universal in primitive Chris

t i a ni t y Paul identies the fallen angels ( I Cor 2 0
. .

with the heathen gods ; the Old Testament stories o f Saul

and the witch and o f the E gyptian magicians were cited as
, ,

proo f that they were conce r ned in occult arts It was an .

easy saving o f argument therefo r e to admit at the outset , ,

the possibility o f astrological prediction and at the same , ,

1
The nal p ag e s o f B ou ch Lecl er cq s L A s tr olog i e Gr ecqu e ( pp -

.

609 27 ) cont a i n a c o n c i s e d i s cu ss i o n o f t h e c ombat o f t h e ea r ly

-

Ch u r c h w i th a s t r o lo gy On th e a tt i tu de o f Chri s t i an i ty t owa r d
.

an c i ent d i v i n a t i o n a s a w h o l e cf B ou c h Le cle r cq H i s t oi r e d e la
, .
-

D i vi na ti on 1 .
9 2 1 04
-
.

2
C f Lev . . I7 .
7 ; D ent 3 2 . . 17 ; 2 Chr on . 11 . 15 .
 1 8 M e d i ceval A tti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr ol og y

Te r tullian did not deny that it went far to w a r d sanction

,

ing ast r ology A ccording to their theory all divinato ry.

,

a r ts had been pe r mitted by God until the coming o f Christ ,

when an end was put to the r ule o f demons over the world .

I n the pe r sons o f the M agi the r e fo r e astrology had come , ,

to abdicate at the c r adle o f the R edeemer ; the return o f

the M agi to t h e i r home by a di ff e r ent route indicated that
hence fo r th its employment was fo r bidden 1
.

But the o r thodo xy o f T er t u llia n s nai ve admission became

sus p ect in the late r centu r ies and more uncompromising ,

a r guments w e r e deemed necessa r y I n the Church o f

the E astes p ecially in the w r itings o f B asil and Chrys o s
.

toma new exegesis was p u t forth in whi c h it was asserted ,

H
that the sta r o f the M agi was no ordinary star at all nor ,

even a planet o r comet Ch r ysost o m cleverly tu r ns against .

the astrologers their o w F oEt r i nES It is the task o f .

ast r ology to p redict the destinies o f the child a fte r it is

born not to p r ophesy the bi r th itsel f The a pp earance o f
, .

t he sta r he says was a miracle and outside the no r mal

, , ,

cou r s e o f events Proo f that it was no common star con .

s isted in the fact that it moved not from east to west but

, ,

f r om no r th to south the way Palestine lies with regard

to Pe r sia ?

1
Ign t i sa u ,
E pis t . ad E ph es . 19 ; T e r t u ll i a n , D e I d o la tr ia , c h ap .
9 :

S e d m ag i et a s tr o l og i ab O ri en t e v en e r u n t . S c imu s m ag i ae et
a s t r o lo g iae inte r se s oc i e t a t e m . P ri m i i g i t u r s t el l a r u m i n t e rpr e t e s
n a tu m Ch r i s tu m a n n u n t i av e r u n t ,i p ri m i m u n er aver u nt
Q d t u rn ? . u

I d eo nu n c et m athemat ic i s p at r o cinabitu r illo r u m m ag o r u m r el i g i o ?

'

D e Chri s to s c i l i c e t es t m at h e s i s h o d i e ; s t e lla s Chri s t i n o n S a tu r n i ,

e t M a r t i s e t c u ju s q u e ex eo d e m o r d i n e m o r t u o r u m o b s e r va t e t
'

p r aed i ca t A t en i m s c i e n t i a i s t a u s q u e a d E vang el i u m f u i t co n c e ss a
.
,
a
ut , Chri s t o e d i t o n emo ex in de n at ivi t a t em a li cuju s de c aelo i nte r
,
-

p r et a r e t u r ( M i g n e P a t r L o t 1 T he la s t s e n t en c e o f t hi s

.
, . .

q u o t at i on con s t i tut e s a p or t i o n o f Is i do r e s d e n i t i o n o f a s t ro logy

H
It w a s r ep eat e d ma ny t i me s t hr ou g h t h e M i d d le

H
( E ty m o l 8 9 . . .

A g es . Cf b elo w pp 2 7 8 3 0 2
.
, .
-

,
-

Bas il Chry s o s t om
2
om, 25 ; . om i n M a t th 6 F o r ot h e r , . . .

c i t a t i on s s ee B o u ch L ec l e r c
q p 61 3 n o t e I
-

, , .
, .
 A n ci en t A s tr ol og y I 9

The E astern Church in gene r al formulated a mo r e , ,

scientic doct r ine concerning astrology than that cu r r ent in

the West Origen togethe r w ith the Gnostics even eff ected
.
, ,

a compromise between astrology and Ch r istianity so that , ,

when p urged o f fatalistic doct r ines it was allowed to exist ,

without inter ference Origen s one conce r n was to disprove.

a deterministic inuence o f the stars ; even divine fo r e

knowledge he maintained did not abrogate f r ee w ill That
, ,
.

the sta r s cann ot be the cause o f human destinies Origen ,

p r oved by an ingenious a r gument It is the cha r acte r istic .

o f eve r y cause that it p r ecedes its e ff ect N ow inasmuch .

,

as the conguration o f the stars does not precede but is ,

at best concomitant with the bi r th ove r which it p r es ides , ,

how can the stars be the cause o f the child s fortunes ?

Origen accep ts with no remonstrance how eve r the N eo , ,

platonic doct r ine that the stars though not causing human ,

events const itute the signs by which they can be fo r etold

, .

This th eory developed fully by Plotinus goes back through

, ,

Philo to an astrological interpretation o f the fourteenth

ve r se o f the opening chapter o f Genesis O ri g en to be .
,

sure like the N eoplatonists was wise enough not to attempt

, ,

its p roo f 1
.

O rigen and the Gnostics did not yield to a compromise

with astrology be fore they had exhausted the ancient store
o f arguments against it We meet again the dispute con .

cerning twins the argument that ast r ological observation

,

is impossible and the contention that the j udicial ast r ologer

,

takes no account o f geographic and racial conside r ations .

The last argument even received a clever enlargement

perhaps the one contribution o f Christian write r s to the

1
T hef u lle s t s ta tem ent o f O ri g en s a tt i tu de t o w a r d a s t r o logy i s

f o u nd i n E u s ebi u s P r a pa r a ti o E va ng e li ca 6 1 1 ( M i g n e P a tr Gr


.
, . .

2 1 47 8
. P lo t i n u s co mpr o m i s e w i t h a s t r olog y ( B ou c h Lecler cq

-

p 600 ; Z elle r P hil der G r i echen 3 5 67 ) t emp te d ma ny Ch u r ch

.
, . .

w ri t e r s S e e b e l ow pp 2 2 3 8 5 7
.
, .
, , .
20 M edi e val A tti tu de t ow ar d A s tr olog y

discussion A strology had exp lained similarities o f race

.

by means o f a system o f ast r ological geography placin g ,

each country unde r the sway o f separate planets and stars .

B ut said the Christian writers are racial characteristics

, ,

really dependent upon geography ? The Jews circumcise

on the eighth day in R ome as in Palestine ; have they
ca r ried the Jud aean stars with them or have they been ,

freed f r om thei r inuence ? A n d the Christians are they ,

not scattered over all the globe and yet su ff er the same for ,

tunes ? It is not worth while to ask how astrology might

have r ep lied to these new questions Inasmuch as Origen .

and the Gnostics ended by virtually accepting astrology a ,

re futation was perhaps deeme d unnecessary ,

?
,

I n the Weste r n Chu r ch the one g r eat o p ponent o f astrol ,

ogy was A ugustine Coming in contact with astrologers

m
.

early in li e tells us in his C onfes s i on s he was at ,

r st attracted to them p r efe r r ing them to the soothsayers , ,

be c ause they invoked no spi r its E ven the warning o f a .

p hysician who told him

,
that ast r ology was a f r aud passe d ,

unheeded Only a fte r a friend had set him to ponderin g

.

ove r the astrological problem conce r ning twins did A ugus

tine too decide that astrological divination was a mere
, ,

matter o f chance ?
Hencef o r th astrology had in him a '

sworn enemy A gain and again he attacked it in his writ

.

ings repeating the dialectic o f Carneades and adding the

,
3
,

1
The d i s ss i cu r o log y by th e Gno s t i c B ar d es anes ( Eu se
on of a st

b i u s P r e p E v 6 1 0 : M i g n e P a tr Gr 2 1 467 ff ) p a r allel s t h at
, . . .
, . . . .

of O rig en a lmo s t t hrou g h o u t It i s B a r des anes who a s k s the .

q u es t i on conce r n i ng the J ew s ( M ig ne P a tr Gr 2 1 A t hir d, . . .

s eri e s o f s i m i la r a r g u ment s i s f ou n d i n the R ecog ni ti ones o f C lement

( 9 12 1 0
.
-

. Cf B ou c h L ecler cq pp 5 3 4 5 61 5 6
.
-

, .
-

,
-

2
C o nf es s i ons 4 3 a n d 7 6 .
, . .

A u g u s t i ne p o i n t s t o t h e ab s u r d i t y o f p u t t i ng f a i t h i n t he a rbi t r a ry
3

n a me s g i v en t o t he con s t el l a t i on s
H
( D e D oc t r C hr i s t 2 2 1 ) an . . .

HH
a r g u men t f o u n d i n o t h e r Chri s t i a n w ri t e r s
; c f T a t i a n O r a ti o a d .
,

Gr e c os ch a p 9 ; Hipp oly tu s R ef u ta ti o O mni u m

, .
e r es i u m 4 24 ;
, .

B as i l om i n
, ex. 6 6 A ug u s t i n e a l s o q u es t i on s t he ri g h t o f
. . .
 A n ci en t A s tr olog y 21

vehemence o f his own rhetoric E specially did he never .

ti r e o f illustrating the problem o f twins ; one is compelled

to smile at the seriousness with which b e employed this
mediocre argument He con fronts the astrologer with the .

historic case o f Jacob and E sau and asks him how the ,

heavens can be held to account for the enormous di ff erence

in the destinies alloted to two children born so nearly at
the same time He ridicules the theory that the movement
.

o f the spheres is swi ft enough to make o f the one a desert

wanderer and o f the other the father o f a mighty people
,
.

Twins again are sick at the same time

, ,
The fact is .

e xp lained by the physician Hippocrates as due to a simi , ,

la r i ty o f temperaments and by the Stoic Posidonius as , , ,

due to an identity o f ho r oscopes A ugustine sees here an .

o pportunity to confute the astrologer w ith his own doctrine .

Why he asks were they both sick o f the same disease
,

, ,

and at the same time and not the one a fter the other in ,

the or d er o f their birth inasmuch as they could not have ,

been born s imultaneously ? O r i f the fact o f their having ,

been born at diff erent times does not necessarily imply that
they must be sick at diff erent times why do the astrologers ,

c ontend that the di ff e r ence in the time o f their births was

the cause o f their di ff erence in other things I t is not

necessa r y to examine the score o f ways in which astrolo gy
m ight have answered A ugustine s questions

I n general .
,

it probably re fused to quarrel over such minuti ae and mi ght ,

have considered it a su fcient answer to ask A ugustine in ,

H
turn whence i f not from the stars themselves could come
, , ,

a s tr o l og e rs
y h o r o s cop es t o a n i mal s ( Ci v D e i 5
t o d en e h as . .

s o methi ng t o s ay o n the s ta r o f t he M ag i in A d F au s tu m ( 2 .

Ci v D ei 5 4 5 ( M i g n e P a tr L a t 4 1 D e G e n es i a d
1
cf
-

. . .
, . . .

L i t t er a m 2 1 7 ( M i g n e P a tr L a t 3 4
.
, A S chm ekel ( D ie
. . . .

P hilos ophi e d er M i ttler en S t oa pp 1 62 ff ) has p r oved t h at the , . .

r e f ut a t i on o f a s t r ology f o u nd i n t he r s t c h ap te r s o f A u gu s ti n e s '

D e Ci vi ta t e D e i i s b a s ed o n a lo s t p o r t i o n o f Ci c e r o s D e F o to whi ch

, ,

i n t u r n l ik e t h e D e D ivi na t i on e g o e s back t o C a r n ea d e s ; s ee
, ,

a b ove p 6 , . .
 22 M edi e val A tti t u d e tow ar d A s tr ol og y

that general s imilarity o f temp era m ent w hich in t he ,

alternative theory o f the physician he himsel f acce p ted , .

What end one may ask did A ugustine have in view i n

, ,

his st r uggle against astrology ? Was it the same as that

o f the p agan Scep tics and O r igen to defend the freedo m
o f the human w ill ? It may ap p ea r so at r st A ugustine .
,

too maintains that the actions o f man a r e free f r om t he

,

arbit r ary r ule o f the sta r s and p raises the pagan p hi lo s o ,

p h e r s fo r de fending t he ethical responsibility o f man ?

B ut
it soon becomes clear that his purpose is only that o f r ep la c
ing astrological fatalism by an even more stringent deter

m in i s t i c doct r ine the theo r y o f p r edestination and divin e
forekno w ledge Those who like Cicero deny p r ediction o f
.
, ,

the future altogether receive at the hands o f A ugustine ,

a more violent condemnation than the ast r ologe r s them

selves ?
S o occupied i n truth is A ugustine with combating
, ,

fatalism that he is almost ready to acce p t astrology when

, ,

in the N eoplatonic fo r m it r ids its el f o f this noxious doc ,

t r ine He obj ects to the theo r y o f Plotinus however on

.
, ,

the sco r e that n o astrologer actually accepts the sta r s as .

mere indicato r s o f events and that it too does not , , ,

obviate the p r actical di fculties involved in the matter o f

twins ?

In sp ite o f his denunciation o f astrology as a fatalisti c

science and his contention that it is impossible in practice
, ,

A ugustine neve r se r iously de fends the scepticism onc e

exp r essed in the C onf ess i ons A fter exhausting his dia .

l ec t ic powers l n destroying astrology as a legitimate a rt ,

2
A d F au s tu m 5 ; D e G en es i a d L i t ter a m 2 I 7 ; Ci v D ei 5 I
s
2 .

A u g u t i n e ( Ci v D ei 5 9 ) m en t i o n Ci c e r o by n a m e
hi m eve n m o r e t h a n t he S t o i c ,
.
. . e d et e t ed

i mp ly b ecau e, i n denyi ng th e s s
s
.

s
. H
. .

s
.

p o ss ibi l i ty of d i v i n a t i o n , h e d en i e d t h e M ult o e xi s t enc e of Go d :

s u nt au t em t oler abil io r es q u i vel s i d er a f at a con stit u u nt qua m i st e , ,

q u i t o ll i t p raesc i e n t i a m f u t u r o r u m N am et c o n t er i e ss e D eu m
.
,

et n eg a r e p r aesc iu m f u t u r o r u m a p e r t i ss i m a i n s an i a es t ( M i g n e P a tr

'

, ,

La t 41. .

C i v D ei 5 . . I ( M i g n e P a tr La t
, . .
41 .
 A n ci en t A s tr o log y 2
3

he ends by accepting the p ossibility o f ast r ological predic

tions i f made by the help o f demons A ll thes e things

.

c onsidered s o A ugustine closes the discussion

w e have
good reason to believe that w hen the astrologers give ve r y ,

many wonder ful answers it is to be attributed to the occult ,

inspiration o f spirits not o f the best kind whos e care it is , ,

to c r eep into the minds o f men and to conrm in them false ,

a n d noxious opinions concerning the fatal inuence o f the

stars and that it is not due to their marking and inspecting

,

o f horoscopes acco r ding to a kind o f art which in reality

,

has no existence 1
With A ugustine in fact the discussion
.

, ,

o f ast r ology in the early Church r e turned to its point o f

d e p a r ture For A ugustine as fo r Tertullian and Lactan
.
,

tius astrology was merely one o f many nefarious practices

,

w ith which the hosts o f fallen angels tried to cheat mankind .

I n a special t r eatise the D e D i vi n a ti on e D e m on u m
A ugustine crystalli z ed the doct r ine o f the early Church
regarding the p owe r s o f demons and laid the foundation ,

for those medi aeval superstitions which bore malignant fruit

in the magic and witchcra ft o f the fteenth centu r y .

A st r ology refused the name o f a science was forced to

, ,

live under its ignominious stigma until in the thirteenth ,

century it forced a revision o f the Chu r ch s verdict

,
?

A n observant eye however might have discovered even , ,

in the D e Ci vi ta te D ei the ge r ms o f that new comp r omise

between Ch r istianity and astrology which was to nd
expression in the S u mma The ol og i e o f Thomas A quinas
and the D i vi na C o mmedi a o f D ante I n his preoccupation .

H
2
C i v D e i 5 7 ( M i g ne ,
. a tr L a t 4 1
. I 47 ) P . . . .

B o u c h L ec le r cq L A s t r o l og i e Gr e c q u e p 62 3 ; B o u c h Lecl e r cq
2
-
-

, , .
,

is t oi r e d e la D ivi na ti on I 99 ff T h e D e D i v i n a t i on e D e m o n u m
. .

P
( M i g n e, a tr L a t 40 5 8 1 ) exp la i n ho w t he de m on obt a i n k n o wl
. . s s
(
e dg e of f u t u r e by r e a s o n o f t h e ir s u p e ri o r s p iri t u al p o we r s
t he ,

a n d by p e r m i ss i o n o f Go d hi m se l f O n t he i mp o r t a nce f o r l a t e r .

wi t c h c r a f t o f t he Ch u r c h doct ri ne c o n c e r n i ng d emon s s ee J H a n s en
-

, .
,

Z a u berw a hn I n q u i s i ti on u nd H exe npr oz es s i m M i t t e la lt er ( M u n i ch

, ,

a n d L e ip z i g ,
24 M edi e val A tti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr ol og y

with the practical details o f astrology as a divinatory art ,

A ugustine failed to note his own unconscious concessions

to it as a physical science concessions which could be made
the basis for an almost complete r ehabilitation Into the .

midst o f his discussion o f the astrological dilemma con

cerning twins he ins e r ts this passage : It is not altogether
,

absurd to say that certain s idereal inuences have some

power to cause di ff erences in bodies alone We see for .
,

instance that the seasons o f the year vary as the sun

,

approaches and recedes and that certain things are increased

,

or diminished in si z e by the waxings and wanings o f the

moon such as sea urchins oysters and the wonde r ful ocean
,
-

, ,

tides But it does not follow that the wills o f men are
.

subj ect to the congu r ation o f the stars 1

Though in the .

form o f a negative statement this passage contains in ,

embryo the solution o f the astro logical problem as it was

formulated by the theologians o f the thirteenth century .

( M i g n e P a tr i ss i on t h at t he
a dm
1
Ci v D ei 5 6
. .
,
L a t 41
. . . An
s ta r s i n u ence t he atmo s co n s e q u e n t ly
ph e r e, an d m ay pr o du c e
m o d i ca t i on s i n t he phy s i c al c on s t it ut i on a n d h ab i t s o f m an i s ma d e ,

a l s o by S ex tu s E mp i r i cu s ( B ou c h Lecl e r cq -
p 5 95 n o t e I ) O n
, .
, .

the b a s i s o f s u c h a con cess i on a c le ve r p s y ch olog i s t coul d r e s t o r e

,

a lmo s t t h e e n t ir e s c i en c e .
26 M edi e val A tti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr ol og y

sta r o f the M agi or a se r mo n on fatalism even though the ,

write r s might entertain for astrology itsel f merely an aca

demic interest It is thus in a homily on the E pi p hany that .

Gregory nds occasion to discuss astrology He directs .

his attack p articula r ly against the P r iscillianists a Gnostic

1
,

sect o f Spain accused o f magic He r epeats the classic .

a r gument o f twins using A ugustine s illust r ation o f Jacob ,

and E sau and p oints again to the imp ossibility o f squaring

,

j udicial ast r ology with ethnological inuen c es Y et one ?

feels at once that with G r e go r y ast r ology is no longer a

living issue E ven P r iscillianism dated back to the time o f
.

A ugustine and A mb r ose A strology had fallen on evil days .

,

and it w a s mentioned only by way o f literary reminiscenc e .

Cassiodo r us sp eaks o f it briey in two passages calling it ,

a slip p ery er r o r and citing A ugustine and Basi l as proo f ,

that its d o ct r ines lead to he r esy ?

B o e thius i n whose C on ,

s o la ti on of P hi l os op h one m ight ex e t to nd a full dis

y p c

c u s si o n o f astrological f a talism hono r s it w ith one slight ,

allusion 4
A n d M acrobius exhibits ve r itable emba r r assmen t
.

when he is called u p on to explain the p assage o f the

S omni u m S ci pi oni s whe r e C icero describes the ast r ological
cha r acte r istics o f the planets 5
He is able to discuss t he .

1
S ee p 17
a b ov e , . .

Gr eg o ry H omi li a XX : In D i e E pipha ni a ( M i g ne P a tr L a t
2
, , . .

76 . In i llu s t r at i ng hi s s e co n d a r g u m en t Gr eg o ry a s k s t he ,

a st r o l o g e r s why i f A qu a ri u s p r o du ce s s h e r m en no chi ld r en a r e
, ,

bo r n u n d e r t h a t s ig n in G et u l i a a n i nl an d c ou nt ry a n d why , ,

t h e r e a r e m a ny p e op l e s w i t h ou t ba nk e r s i f L ibr a i s the c on s t e llat i o n ,

o f th e mo n e y c h a ng e r s -
.

C a ss i o d o r u s E xp os i ti o i n Ps a l ter i u m CX L V I I I ( M i gn e P a tr

3
.
, ,

La t .
70 . D e A r ti bu s ac D i s cip li ni s L i ber a li u m L i t t er ar i um,
c h ap .
7 P a tr L a t 7 0
( Mi gne , . . .

B o et hi u s C o n s P hi l 4 6
2
.
, . . .

M a c r obi u s S o mn S eip I 1 9 2 0 ( ed J a n u s L eip z i g 1 848

H
5
, . . . . .
, , ,

p . M a c r ob i u s b e cam e in t h e elev en t h c en t u ry an i mp o r t ant

a u t h o ri t y o n a s t r o n o m i c a l q u e s t i o n s ( s e e be l ow p e an d , .

C halc i diu s w h o s e c omm en t a ry o n t he Ti me u s w as ba s ed o n on e

,

by P o s i d on i u s ev en p r e s e r v e d t h e A ri s t ot el i an do ct ri n e t h at t he
,
 A s tr ology i n t he E ar ly M edi e val C en tu r i es 2 7

p hilosophical as p ect o f astrology at some length and even ,

gives an outline o f the Platonic myth o f the creation o f man

by the planeta r y gods ; but when he t r ies to expound the

H
ast r ological facts themselves he is clea r ly pu zz led H e con ,
.

f esses that t he only t r eatise he has ever read on the subj ect
is Ptolemy s a r m o ni a and he p r oce e ds accordingly to

, , ,

explain the evil inuence o f S aturn and the benevolent

character o f Ju p iter by means o f a complicated system o f
numbers .

N o writer did so much to fasten upon the M iddle A ges

t he patristi c condemnation o f astrology as the e nc yc l o

p ae d i s t o f the seventh centu r y I sidore o f S eville ; and the ,

s everal p assages o f the E tymo log i e and the D e N a tu r a

R er u m that bear on astrology deserve careful sc r utiny .

I mportant rst o f all is his denition o f astrology itsel f

, , .

A strology he says is partly n a tu r a lis and p artly s u p er

, , ,

s ti ti os a . N atu r al astrology is only anothe r name for

astronomy S u p er s t i t i o n s astrology on the othe r hand
.
, ,

is that science which is practised by the ma the ma ti ci who ,

r ead prophecies in the heavens and who p lace the twelve ,

constellations as rulers over the membe r s o f man s bo dy
a n d soul and who p r edict the nativities and dispositions o f
,

men by the courses o f the sta r s The ma thema ti ci and .

1

g e n e t h li a ci rea p p ea r in a later cha p ter o f the E ty m ol og i e

in company with many o the r representatives o f magic .

Here again I sido r e r e fe r s to their art as supe r stitious

and identies t hem with the M agi o f the Gosp el cuius
,

a r tis scientia usque ad E vangelium fuit concessa u t Christo , ,

e dito , nemo ex i nd e n a t ivi ta t em a licu iu s de caclo i n t e r p r e

t a r et u r . The last sentence o f this denitio n I s ido r e quoted

d o u b l e m o ve m e n t of t he h eaven s c au e s s g en e r at i on a n d c o rru p t i o n
on ea r t h ( C o m i n en ta r i u s in Ti me u m ,
c h ap .
75 : ed M u l la c h
.
,

F r ag m en t a P hi lo s oph o r u m , P a ri s , 1 88 1 , 2 . cf S w i t a l s ki D es
.
,

C ha lci di u s C o m m e n to r eu P la t os Ti me us, M un s t e r 1 902 pp 2 8 if

, , . .

( in B au mke r

B ei tr ag e 3
'

s .

E ty m ol 3 ( M i g n e P a tr
1
. . 27 , . L a t 82 . .
28 M edi e val A tti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr ol og y

from Tertullian t hough with little understanding o f its ,

context It r emained thro ughout the M iddle A ges an

.

integral pa r t o f the stock denition o f ast r ologers ?

B ut
Is idore s logic is hardly equal to his lea r ning

S everal .

curious bits o f astrological lore smuggled themselves into

his writings and became the common property o f the suc ,

cee d ing centuries A strological medicine for example .

, ,

which I sido r e condemns in his denition o f superstitious

astrology he accepts in part at least in a later chapte r
,
?
, ,

The good physician he says will study ast r onomy as well , ,

as his own art inasmuch as it is well known that our bodie s ,

change with the varying state o f the weather and the sta r s .

In the D e N a tu r a R er u m I sidore ascribes to the moon an ,

inuence over fruits ove r the b r ains o f animals and over , ,

oysters and sea urchins He even re fers to it in a phras e -

.
,

o f unmistakable astrological colo r ing as the du x hu men ti u m ,

s u bs ta n ti ar u m The dog star is said to be a cause o f sick

3 -

ness 4
A s fo r comets Isidore accepts them without reserve
.
,

as the p r ognosticators o f revolution war and pestilence ?

, ,

Isidore and the elder Pliny a r e the principal sources f or

the scientic wo r ks o f B ede and are seve r ally responsibl e ,

for two o f the slight astrological references discoverable in

his w r itings It is upon Pliny that B ede draws for a chapter
.

on the planets in the D e N a tu r a R er u m Probably with no .

E ty m o l 8 9 2 3 ( M i g n e, P a tr L a t 82 Cf b ove p
1
. . . . . . . a , . 18 .

E ty mo l 4 I 3 4 ( M i gn e 82
2
. . . .

D e N a t B e r 1 8 6 ; 1 9 2 ( M i g n e , P a tr s id r
3
. . . . . L a t 83 . . I o e

b o rr o w e d t he p a ss ag e fr om A mbr o s s H
e

exa e mer o n (4 7 . . 29 -

30 :

M ign e , P a tr . La t . I4 .

4
D e N at . R er . 16 . 14 ( M i gne ,
P a tr . La t . 83 .

5
H aec cu r eg n i mu t at i on em f er t u r o s t en der e au t
m n a s ci t u r ,

au t ,

b ella au t p e st i lent i as s u rg er e ( D e N a t R er 26 1 3 : M i g ne P a tr
,

. . .
, .

L a t 83 . Th e a s t r olog i c al s i g n i canc e o f co m et s s eem s to

.

H
h ave been a ccep t e d g en er ally i n the ea r ly Ch u r ch ; c f B ou ch .

L ecl er c q p 623 ; J H R obi n s on The Gr ea t Comet of I 680 : A

, . . .
,

S tu dy i n the i s t or y of R a ti on a li s m ( No r th el d M i nn , .
,

pp 5 6
.
-
.
 A s tr ology i n the E ar ly M edi e va l C en tu r i es 2
9

consciousness that he is trespassing upon the domain o f

astrology he follows his author in characteri z ing Saturn
,

as cold Ju p ite r as temperate and M ars as glowing I t

, ,
.

is curious to note howeve r that he stops here and omits , , ,

Pliny s astrological description o f Venus as the planet which

nourishes all things on ea r th ?

I sido r e in turn is r e sp on , ,

H
sible fo r B ede s chapter on comets There is in fact evi
.
, ,

dence in s everal o f his wo r ks that he was a rm believer

in their prophetic vi r tue In the E cc les ia s ti ca l i s t or y for .
,

instance the comets o f 72 9 are connected with the inroad

,

o f the Sa r acens into Gaul and with the d eaths o f king Osric ,

and the holy E gbe r t ?

One condemnation o f astrology p r oper is found in B e d e s
works Its source I have not discovered It occurs in a
. .

passage o f the D e Temp or u m R a ti on e which comments on ,

the division o f t ime into hours minutes and seconds The , ,

.

,
ma thema ti ci says B ede continue the division to still smaller
, ,

units S ince however their science is vain an d contrar y

.
, , ,

to the Christian faith he will re f r ain from using their ,

termino logy ?

Isidore is again a source for the encyclop aedist o f the

ninth century R aba nu s M aurus B ishop o f Fulda The
m
, ,
.

latter s chief s a e D e Uni ver s o contains a ,

chapter on magic which is a lite r al transcript o f that in

I sidore s E tym olog i e
A s tr ol og i and ma the ma ti ci a r e .

classed as in the latter among necromancers and augurs ;

, ,

and R aban u s subscribes to the Tertullianist doctrine that

B ed e D e N a t R e r hap ( M i g n e P a tr
1
, . .
, c . I3 , . La t .
90 . cf .

Pli y n , Nat . H is t . 2 . 6 .

2
B ed e r ep ea t s Is i d o r e s d e s c ri p t i o n o f c o met s w o r d f or w or d ( D e

N a t R e r c h a p 2 4 : M i g n e P a tr L a t 9 0
. .
, . C o m e t s a r e s p ok e n , . . .

o f i n t h e H is t or i a E cc l es i as ti ca 4 1 2 a n d 5 2 3 2 4 ( e d P l u mme r .
, .
, .
,

O xf o r d 1 896 1 1 1 8 349
, , .
, ,

B e d e D e T e mp R a t c h a p 3 ( M i g n e P a tr L a t 90 Cf
3
. .
, .
, .
, . .

t he m i l d r eb u k e o f a s t r o log y w hi c h i s f ou n d i n a l e t t e r o f A l dh e l m

( B i s h o p o f S h erb o r n e 640 q u o te d by W i lli a m o f M a lmes bu ry

,

( A ng li a S a cr a 2 .
3 o M ed i e va l A tti tu de t ow ar d A s tr olog y

ast r ology though permitted till the birth o f Christ was

, ,

thenceforth a forbidden science ?
I sido r e s chapter o n
magic was cop ied in another work o f R aba nu s the D e ,

M ag i cis A r ti bu s the longest t r eatise on divination which

,

had appeared since A ugustine ?

R a ba nu s p resents the gen
e r al views o f the Chu r ch Fathe r s on the subj ect o f demons ,

and the r ole they w e r e supposed to play in divination This .

treatise in fact was destined to exe r t an important inuence

, ,

on the growing body o f Chu r ch law on the subj ect o f

sorc e r y and mag ic Christia n ity f r om the time o f its
?
,

int r oduction among the barbarian peoples o f the N orth ,

had p roceeded to combat pagan magic and witchcra ft The .

ea r ly Penitentials are replete with references to occult

p r actices It was probably in answer to a demand for a
.

syst e mati z ed doctrine on t he subj ect that such treatises

as that o f R a ba nu s we r e written A n d when the great .

canonists o f the succeeding centu r ies came to deal with the

subj ects o f so r ce r y and magic they follo w ed the lead o f ,

R aba nu s M au r us also basing thei r utterances on the doc

,

t r ine o f demonology formulated by the ea r ly Chu r c h The .

D e cr e tu m o f Bu r cha r d B ishop o f Wo r ms in the rst quar

,

ter o f the eleventh century qu o tes freely f r o m the works

,

A

o f ugustine and I sido r e pa r ti c ularly f r om the fo r mer s
D e D i vi n a ti on e D e m on u m A st r ology is found again in .

the list o f magic p r actices bo r r owed f r om Isid o re 4

,

Bu r cha r d s D ecr e tu m as is well known was embodied with

, ,

little change in the collections o f Church law o f Ivo o f

Chartres and G r atian On the subj ect o f astrology all
.
,

th r ee a r e in virtual ag r eement G r at ian it is true adds an .

, ,

excerpt f r om A ugustine s D e D oc tr i na Chr is ti a na and

,

quotes a Chu r ch law against observing the stars for the

purp os e o f p lanting seed or contracting a mar r ia ge B ut .

4 ( M g n e , P a tr L a t 1 1 1
i
1
D e Un i ver s o 15 . . . .

D e M a g i ci s A r tibu s ( M g n e , P a tr L o t 1 1 0
i
2
. . .

2
s
H a n en, Z a u ber wa hn i m M i t t ela lt er ,
p 38 . .

1

B u r c h a r d, D ecr e tu m 10 .
43 ( M i gne ,
P a tr L o t . . 1 40 .
 A s tr olog y i n t he E ar ly M edi e va l C en tur i es 3 1

I sidore s chapter on magic with its denitions o f the ma the

,

ma ti ci and g en e thlia ci still constitutes the longest r eference,

to astrology ?

It is very doubt ful whether a ny medi aeval writer thus

far cit ed had anything more than a literary acquaintance
with astrology The haruspices augurs and astrologe r s
.
, , ,

so faith fully dened in eve r y t r eatis e on sorcery and magic

f r om I sidore to Gratian we r e p r obably as foreign to the ,

actual li fe o f the tenth and eleventh centuries as the religion

o f pagan R ome itsel f B ut citations f r om the Fathers that .

might apply to the simple so r cery o f the no r the r n peoples

were hard to nd and the canonists contented themselves
,

with what lay ready to hand The fact that the canon law .

classed astrology among the diabolic arts or even discussed ,

the subj ect at all was p r obably in the rst instance an

, , ,

accident It became a matter o f cons equence only when

.

the Church in the course o f the t w el fth century was again

, ,

called upon to deal with astrologe r s in the esh .

E ven before the sudden a r rival o f A rabian science in

the schools o f Italy and France had brought the Church
once more face to face with astrology the latter had begun ,

to nd channels o f literary transmission less na r r ow than

those leading down through I sidore The eleventh and .

twel fth centu r ies witnessed in F r ance a general renaissance

o f Latin literat ure and many a gleaning o f scientic fact
,

was made in the course o f a p r omiscuous r eading that did

no t have to wait fo r the r ediscove r y o f A r istotle This
?

newly awakened humanism found its best rep r esentatives

Ch a rt r es D ecr e tu m ( M i g ne P a tr
1
Ivo of , 10 . 68 , . L a t 1 61 . .

Gr a t i an D e cr e tu m 2 26 3 5 ( M i g n e P a tr L o t 1 87 1 3 42
, . .
-

T he, . . .

l i s t o f th e m e d i aeva l w r i t e r s w ho r ep ea t e d Is i d o r e s d e n i t i o n o f

a s t r o lo g y i s o f c ou r s e n o t e xh a u s t e d It i s f o u nd i n t he D e
, , .

D ivi nis O i ci i s a s c rib e d t o A l cu i n ( M i g n e P a t r L a t 1 0 1

, , . . .

a n d a g a i n i n a t w e l f t h c en t u ry t r e a t i s e o n c o s m o l o y a s ri be d t o
g c
-

B e de ( M i g n e P a tr L a t 90
, . . .

T ay lo r Th e M e d i e va l M i n d ( Lo n d o n 1 9 1 4 ) 2 1 44
2
, , . .
3 2 M edie val A t ti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr ol og y

in the famous school o f Chartres F r om the time o f Ful ?

bert to that o f John o f Salisbury the Chartres school was a ,

leade r in liberal and scientic studies and even astrology ,

was not omitted f rom the range o f its interests The .

curiosity o f the medi aeval classicist must have been aroused

by many an astrological allusion in Lucan Persius or the , ,

writings o f the Fath e rs John o f Salisbury in repeating .

,

I sidore s traditional denition o f astrology ? takes evident
pleasu r e in illust r ating it w ith choice bits quoted from the
L atin sati r ists In addition to such indirect info r mation on
.

ast r ological matters as they found in the L atin classics the ,

w r iters o f the tw e l fth centu r y had in their hands two direct

sou r ces for ancient astrology the M a thes i s o f Fi rmicus , ,

and the rep ositories o f astrological Platonism C ha lc i d iu s ,

and M a c r obius A dd to this the fact that the Chartres .

s c hool in the ea r ly hal f o f the centu r y was already in

, ,

p ossession o f t he rst scientic treatises to reach northern

E urope from M oha m medan Spain and it is not surprising ,

that ast r ological discussions became f r equent

A s early as the yea r I oooif the chronicles are to be
.

b e ev e d
l i Pop e Sylvester I I had studied Fi r micus in Spain
l
.

A hundred yea r s later the r e a r e indubitable t r aces o f his

presence in E ngland A n d at the opening o f the twel fth .
,

century Fi r micus M a t e r u s is cited by name in a poem by

,

M a r bo d
I

op o f R ennes was connected indi ,

r ec t ly with the school o f Chartres I n the poetic discussion .

o f astrology which constitutes a portion o f his L i ber D ecem

C api tu l or u m M a r bo du s attacks Firmicus M a t er nu s vigor
,

o u s ly repeating some o f the stock arguments o f the Fathers

, ,

and asse r ting particularly that his fatalistic doctrines destroy

all ethics and all social order ?
The inuence o f Firmicu s
1
Cler va l , C har tr es a n M oy en A g e ( Ch a r t r e s
L es E c o les d e ,

P o li cr a ti cu s 1 1 2 ( e d W ebb O xf o r d 1 9 09 1
2
. . .
, , ,

3
Hi g den P o ly chr oni c o n ( ed Lu mby R o ll s S er ) 7 68 ; W i ll i am
, .
, . .

of M a lme s b u ry D e C es tis R eg u m A ng lor u m 2 1 67 ( M i g ne P a tr

, .
, .

L ot . 1 79 .

M a r bodu s ,
L i ber D ecem Capi tu l or u m h ap
, c . 6: De F a to et

G enes i ( M ig ne P a tr , . Lo t . 171 . Cu ri ou s ly en oug h , M arbodu s

34 M e di e val A tti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr o log y

The last lines o f this quotation lead the reader to suspect

that for B e r na r d S i lves t r i s Firmicus was not only a source
, ,

o f in formation on matters o f astrology but a seducer as ,

well A reading o f the whole o f the D e M u n di Univers i ta te

.

conrms this suspicion In the pe r son o f B ernard S ilves.

tris in fact astrology could boast one o f its rst medi aeval
, ,

champions Y et it is not the scientic astrology o f Ptolemy

.

and the A r abians that nds expression in his work I t i s .

rathe r the philoso p hical ast r ology o f the N eoplatonic com

men t a t or s C halc i diu s and M acrobius The second hal f o f
, .

the D e M u ndi Uni vers i ta te is little more than a version o f

the Ti maean myth o f the c r eation o f man The goddess .

U rania conducts the human soul down to earth by way o f

the planets and discou r ses to her comp anion
,
goddesses on
the benign inuences o f some and the evil powers o f others , .

With a complete abandonment o f the orthodox views on t he

subj ect B e r nard breaks out into a panegyric o f the won
,

der f u l science o f the stars :

P r aejac et i n s t elli s s ri s q
e e u am l on g i o r aet a s
E xp l i ce t , c t sp a t i i s r do s u i s
t e mp o r i s o
S c ep t r a P ho r o ne i fr at ru m d i s co r d i a Thebi s
, ,

H
Fl amm a P ha et ont i s D euc ali on i s a q uae , ,

In s t elli s Co d r i p au p er t a s c opi a Croes i , ,

H
In ce st u s P a r i di s ipp oly t iq u e p u do r .

In s t elli s P ri am i s p e c i es a u da c i a T u rn i , ,

S en s u s U li x eu s e r cul eu sq u e v i g o r
,
.

In s t elli s p u g i l est P ollu x et n ay it a Typ hi s ,

E t Ci c e r o rh et o r et g e omet r a T h al es
, .

In st ell i s l epi du s d i ct a t M a r c M i lo g u r a t , ,

F u lg u r a t i n L at i a n obi l i t at e N e r o .

A s t ra n o tat P e r s i s ZE gy p tu s p a r tu r i t a rt e s
, ,

Gr aecia doct a l eg i t p r ael i a R oma g e ri t

, .

E x e m p la r sp eci m enq u e D ei vi rg u nc u la Chr i s tu m

P a r tu r i t e t ve r u m s aecu la nu m en habent
1
.
,

B ernard S ilve st r i s is a unique gu r e in the M iddle A g es

.

Though his work was very popular the passa g e j ust quote d
1
The B en ed i ct i n e ed it or s of the Hi s t . L i t t d e la F r an ce, who
. q uot e
 A s tr ol ogy i n t he E ar ly M edi e va l C en tu r i es 35

is the source o f a stan z a in Chaucer s M a n of L aw s

l
Ta le it in no wise represents the orthodox thought o f
his century The D e M u ndi Uni vers i ta te is almost purely
.

pagan and might have been written by a humanist o f the

,

s ixteenth century Possibly its glorication o f astrolo gy

.

already shows the inuence o f the science o f the M oors ?

B ernard is interesting as the principal representative o f

N eoplatonic astrology in the M iddle A ges E xcept for .

t h e us e ma d e o f it by po ets like D ante N eoplatonic astrolo gy ,

was to have no future .

For an expression o f the orthodox attitu d e o f the twel fth

century toward astrology one must look to men like A b e ,

l ard Hugh o f S t V ictor and best o f all to John o f Salis

, .
, , ,

bu r y A belard the g r eat innovator in medi aeval thought

.
, ,

has only a philosophic interest in the science H e discusses .

it at some length in his A na lyti cs i n connection with the ,

p roblem o f free will his purpose bein g to disprove the,

existence o f absolute necessity B elief in fatalism he calls .

i mpossible in the face o f actual experience and common

sense E ven N atu r e hersel f could not pre d ict future hap
.

p e n i n g contingent upon chance

s Hence it is surprisin g .

that any one should claim for a science like that o f astrolo gy
t he power o f p r ophecy ?
Hugh o f St V ictor s short .

notice o f ast r ology in the D i das ca li c on repeats the passage

thi s s tanz a ( 1 2 g r ee t th e i mpi ety o f t h e l a s t l i n es w i th a c ry

.

o f h o rr o r ; s e e a l s o t he e d i t i o n o f t he D e M u nd i Un i ver s i t a t e by

B a r a c h a n d W r o b e l ( I nn s br u c k p 16 , . .

M a n of L aw s Ta le 99 1 0 5 ; c f S k ea t s not e ( O xf o r d e d 5
1 '


-
. . .

C f t h e s en t i men t o f t he a b ov e st an z a w i t h the p a ss ag e q uo t ed
2
.

b el ow ( p 5 0 ) fr o m A d e la r d o f B a t h
. .

A n a ly ti ca P r i or a I II : M i r u m e s t q u o d d i cu nt p e r a s t r o n o mi a m
8

q u os da m h o r u m q u o q u e f u t u r o r u m p r aesc i o s e ss e Q uo d eni m .

n a t u r ae i n 0p i na t u m e s t at q u e i ncog n it u m q u o m o do p e r a r t ern ,

n at u r a l em co g n os ci p o s s i t au t q uo m o d o ex a l iq ua r e i n at u r a ce r ti
,

e ss e p o ss imu s d e e 0 q u o d n a t u r a e q uo q u e i n co g n i tu m es t ? ( C ou s i n

,

O u vr ag es I n e di ts d A be la r d P a ri s 1 83 6 p A b e la r d h o w

.
, , , ,

e ver , s eems t o h ave a ss ente d t o the m edi aeval v i ew o f mag i c as

3 6 M edi e va l A tti tu de t ow ar d A s tr ol og y

o f Isido r e s E tymol og ie which distinguishes between astron

o my and astrology Hugh o f St V ictor introduces how

. .
,

eve r a modication in the phraseology o f I sidore which

,

will bear close scrutiny inasmuch as it is prophetic o f that ,

new attitude which was beginning to seek expression I si .

dore in making a distinction between natural and su p er

,

s t i t i o u s ast r ology had given to the fo r mer a denition

,

p ractically identical with that o f astronomy reserving fo r ,

t he latter the accusation that it was a diabolic art In Hugh .

o f St V ict o r though superstitious astrology stands con

.
,

dem n ed as in Isido r e the denition o f natural astrology,

reads as follows : N atural astrology deals with the inuence
o f the stars upon our bodily complexions which vary ,

according to the state o f the celestial sphere as in health ,

and sickness good and bad weathe r fertility and drought
,
1
,
.

To admit the inuence o f the sta r s over s ickness an d health

was a concession o f great importance A lthough implied in .

certain statements o f Is idore a n d A ugustine it had rarely ,

been s o clearly acknowledged I n t r uth i f this modication .

,

is owing to Hugh o f St V ictor himsel f it marks him as a .

,

pioneer in the development o f the scholastic doctrine con

cerning scientic astrology .

Fo r the maturest express ion o f the orthodox attitude

toward astrology in the twel fth century one must look t o ,

John o f Salisbury A n E nglishman by birth educated in

.
,

H
p o ss ib le wh en rri e d on by the a i d o f demon s A n d w i th ch a r
ca .

a ct e r i s t i c p e r v e r s i ty h e even d e f en d s t h e s tu dy o f n ec r o m a ncy a n d

ma g i c . e i n s e r t s a p l e a f o r it i nt o hi s d e f en s e o f d i al e ct i c
-

K n ow l .

e dg e even o f ev i l s e r v e s s om e g o o d ; o nly t h e p r a ct i c e i s t o b e

co n d em n e d Go d hi m s el f k n o w s wh at t he devi l i s ab out ( A na ly ti ca
.

P os ter i or a I : Cou s i n p , .

( M i g n e P a tr L o t 1 7 6 A st r o
1
D i d as ca li c on 2 11
.
, . . .

log i a au t em q u ae a s t r a con s i d era t s ecun dum n at ivi t at i s et m o r t i s et ,

q u o r u ml ibet al i o r u m ev e n t uu m obs e r vat i on em q u ae p a r t i m n atu r al i s ,

e st ,p a r t i m sup er s t i t io s a N at u r al i s i n c omp lex ibu s c orp o ru m qu ae

.
,

s ecu ndu m s up eri o ru m contemp er ant iam var iantu r u t sanitas aeg r i , ,

t u do, t em p e s t as , s e r en it a s , f e r t il it a s,

et st e r i l i t a s .
 A s tr ology i n the E ar ly M edi e va l C en tur i es 37

France an d living in Paris Canterbury and Chartres John

, , , ,

o f Salisbury is the best representative o f that incipient

humanism which had grown up in the school o f Chart r es ,

and which was soon to give way be fo r e an age o f science

and theology The philosophical problems connected with
.

astrology and fatalism had for John o f Salisbury a peculia r

fascination and he discusses them at great length in the
,

P o li cr a ti cu s written about 1 1 5 9 A lthough John o f Salis

,
.

bury was unusually sane an d enlightened in the matter o f

medi aeval superstitions ? he subsc r ibed fully to the pat r istic
doct r ine o f demonology The Church Fathers he says
rightly denounced all forms o f magics p eci es ma the
.
, ,

ma ti ce inasmuch as all o f these pesti ferous arts spring

from an illicit pact with the devil ?
The various kinds o f
divination he denes a s does I sidore reserving the usual ,

place for the as tr ol og i and ma thema ti ci ?

B ut the kinship between astrology and the diabolic arts

o f divination is little emphasi z ed when John o f Salisbury ,

in the second book o f the P oli cr a ti cu s d eals with astrology ,

in its philosophical and scientic aspects H e admits at .

the outset that some power may reside in celestial bodies ,

s ince God has created nothing without its p r oper use ?

A stronomy indeed is a glorious science ; only when i t

, ,

bursts its proper bounds does it become impious A dis .

tinction is to be made between the le g itimate science

ma thes is and the illegitimate divinato r y art ma thes is 5
.

1
See p a r t i cu la r ly hi s ch a p te r s on om en s ( P ol . 2 . I ff .
) and on

d r ea m s (2 . H a ns en Z a u berw a hn p 1 28
14 ff .
) cf .
, , . .

E 0 q u o d !P a t r e s ! o m n i a h aec a r t i c i a vel p o t i n s
2
P ol 1 9 :. .

ma le c i a ex p e s t if e r a q u a dam f a m il i a r it a t e daem o n u m e t h o m i nu m
( e d W ebb 1

n ove ri nt p r o u x i s s e

. .

P ol 2 1 2 ( ibi d I
. . J o h n o f S al i s b u ry i nclu de s T e r t ul lian s
. .

s tatement t h at a s t r ol ogy w a s a p e r m i tt ed s c i enc e u nt i l the t i me wh en

t h e M a g i w o r s hi p p e d a t B e t h l eh e m ; s e e a bo ve p 1 8 , . .

J h
P ol
o
.

n
2 .

of
19 ( i bi d
s
. 1 .

S a l i bu ry pr o b a b ly f o u n d t hi d i t i n c t i o n i n H u g h o fs s
St . V i ct o r ( D i d a s c 2 4 : M i g n e , P a tr L o t 1 7 6
. It o c c u r
. . . s
3 8 M ed i e val A tti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr olog y

The latter in attempting to foretell the future usurps t he

, ,

prerogatives o f the C r eato r o f t he stars himsel f ?

John

o f S alisbury proceeds to make mild fun o f the astrologers
doctrines ?
D ep arting from the ways o f true science he ,

says they divide the signs o f the z odiac into masculine an d

,

feminine and would probably have the constellations con

,

tract marriages i n the sky were they not too far separate d ,

in space Saturn the astrologers characteri z e as cold an d

.

wicked ; he spares from harm scarcely the astrologers

themselves ?
John o f Salisbury howeve r quite forgets his , ,

sarcasm in the portion o f his exposition where he describes

the ast r ological pow e r s o f the sun I f astrology l n fact .
, ,

were only content w ith moderate claims and occupied itsel f ,

with sober predictions o f the weather all would be well , .

B ut when the ast r ologers make b r oad thei r p hi lact e r i es and ,

enla r ge the bo r de r s o f their garments in asc r ibing every

thing to the stars they do inj u r y to God s sovereignty ?
,

They even teach that feats o f magic can be pe r fo r med by

the aid o f the stars and that a human image can be b r ought ,

to li fe gifted with the power o f prophecy With such

, .

ne fari o us arts the Christian can have nothing to do 5

The .

doct r ine o f Plotinus to be sure which holds that the stars , ,

are used by God himsel f t o give to men s ig n s o f futu r e

events is fairly plausible A r e not birds and other things
, .

the inst r uments t h r ough which God transmits to men knowl

edge o f w hat is to come ? 6
Still unde r the honey o f such ,

al o s i n R o g e r B aco n ( O pus M ajus 4 . 16 : ed . B ri dg e s , L ondon,

1 900, 1 .

( ed W ebb
1
P ol . 2 . 19 . 1 .

2
I bi d Hi s i n f o r mat i on s e em s t o c om e fr o m F ir m i cu s M at e r n u s
. .

O mn i bu s e r g o i n i mi cu s v ix s u i s et i am s c ol as t i c i s p ar c i t ( i bi d
2
.

1 .

4
P ol . 2 . 19 ( i bi d . 1 .

5
I bi d .

1 bi d i t o r o f t h e P o li cr a ti cu s i s p u zz le d a s t o w h er e J o h n
. T he ed

of S al i s bu ry g o t hi s i n f o r m at i on ab ou t P lo t i nu s I f one p u t s .

t og et h e r a p a ss ag e o f M a c r o bi u s ( S omn S cip 1 1 9 8 ) a n d o n e fr om . . . .

A u g u s t i n e ( Ci v D ei 5 I t hi n k t h e r e i s n o n ee d t o l ook f u r th e r
. . .
 A s tr ology i n t he E ar ly M edi e va l C en tu r i es 39

a theory poison lurks For under pretext o f showing .

,

reverence to Go d the philosophers impose a fatalistic rule ,

upon the course o f human events A n d fatalism other than .

,

that implied in the doctrine o f God s foreknowle dge is as ,

hateful to John o f Salisbury as it was to A u gustine He .

expounds at g r eat length the Church doctrine conce r ning -

p r edestination and free w ill ; and when he again returns

l

to astrology it is only to attack it more ercel y than ever

,

with theological arguments Taking his cue f r om A bela r d . .

he denies that man can gain any knowledge o f the future

whatsoever Has t he astrologer obtained access to the
.

secret counsels o f God himsel f ? D o es not the story o f

2

king He z ekiah prove that God can alter even his own
p rophecies ? John o f S alisbury does not deny that God
3

may at times indicate future events by the sun an d moon ;

but he is persuaded on the authority o f reason and the ,

concu r rent opinions o f many other philosophers that a ,

science foretelling the future either does not exist or is ,

unknown to men 4
.

Clearly John o f Salisbury s attitu d e toward astrolo gy is
,

that o f the Church Fathers in medi aeval dress L iving .

at a time when A rabian science was alrea d y ltering into

western E urope by way o f L atin translations he was still ,

oblivious o f its presence His own countryman A delagd .

,

o f B ath had already made a j ourney o f exp lo r a t idninto

.
,

Saracen lands ; and in his own school o f Chartres traces ,

o f A rabian astrolo gy can be found in the cosmological

writings o f William o f Conches who died ve years be fore ,

the P o li cr a ti cu s was written ?

B ut there are no p r oo f s
that John o f Salisbury knew A delard o f B ath ; an d his
1
P ol . 2 . 2 0 24 -

( i bi d . 1 . 1 13
2
P ol . 2 . 24 ( i bi d . 1 .

1
1 bi d ; . cf . 2 Ki ng s 20 . 1 .

P ol 2 . . 25 ( i bi d . 1 .

5
A de l a r d of B at h and W i l li a m of C onc h e s w i l l be d i s ss
cu ed in a

la t e r c h ap t e r ( se e b el ow pp , .
49 , T he l a t t e r d i e d i n t h e y ea r
1 1 54 ; the P o li cr a ti cu s wa s w ri t ten 1 1 59 -
60 .
40 M ed i e va l A tti tu de t ow ar d A s tr ol og y

interest in the scientic studies for which the Chartres

school o f the early hal f o f the centu r y was famous seems ,

to have been o f the slightest ?

John o f Salisbury in e ff ect , ,

saw in astrology little more than a dangerous philosop hical

doctrine He is distinctly at a l oss in dealing with it as a
.
-

science ?
He would probably have been unable to d ene
exactly where he drew the line between a legitimate science
o f astrology use ful in p r edicting the weather and that
, ,

impious ma thes is which he condemns with rhetoric as force

'

ful as tha t used by A ugustine His concessions to astrology .

as a physical science are hardly in advance o f those found

in the D e Ci vi ta te D e i ?

John o f Salisbu r y stands at the close o f the rst period

in the history o f medi aeval ast r ology F r om the time o f .

Is ido r e to the middle o f the twel fth century astrology it , ,

may be said lived only in the fo r m o f an academic dis

,

c u s s io n E ven astrological texts

. other than Fi r micus ,

M a t e r n u s w e r e unknown to the Latin world

, John o f .

Salisbu r y p robably had little more acquaintance with actual

astrologe r s than did Burchard o f Worms or R aba nu s ,

M au r us ?
A centu r y and a hal f was still to elap se befo r e

1
T hi s p i nt i s o by S chaa r s chm i dt ( J ohann es S ar es ber i ens is
m ade -

L e ip z i g 1 862 p
, ,
C l er val ( L es E co les d e C har tr es p 3 1 7 )
. ,
.

f u r n i s h es p r oo f o f t he f a c t t h at qu a d ri vi al s t u d i e s in t h e Ch a r t r es
s ch o ol n o long e r o ccu pi e d i n t h e la tt e r h al f o f the tw el f t h c entu ry
t h e p o s i t i o n o f pr o m i n e n c e w hi c h t h ey h a d h eld i n th e r s t .

It i s p e rh ap s s i g n i ca n t t h a t J o h n o f S al i s b u ry t h ou g h he b a s e s
2
,

hi s s tat ement s l a r g ely u p on A u g u s t i n e does n ot on c e mak e u s e o f ,

H
th e a n c i e n t a r g u m en t s o f C a r n ea d e s .

S o m e l i g h t i s s h e d u p on J oh n o f S a l i s b u ry s at t i t u de t ow a r d
2

a s t r o l o g y by hi s v i e w s r eg a r d i n g s i g n s in g en er al e b el i ev e s .

r m ly t h at Go d m ak e s u s e o f s i g n s t o f or eca s t i mp o r t a nt event s
( P ol

s ig s th
n
. 2

d e s t en e r a
. 1

In d el i t a s
ei s de m r o bo r a t u r

pr ece ded t h e f all o f J er u s al em ( i bi d 2 4

at
.

H
n a m q u e s ig n o r u m a r g u m e nt i s

e g i ves
an d do es
a l on g d e
. .
s rip t i
c
e r ig i tu r ,

on o f
et

th e

n o t d ou b t t h e pr oph et i c v ir t u e o f c o m et s ( i bi d 2 . .

It i s p e rh a p s g o i n g t oo f a r t o s ay t h a t J o h n o f S a l i s b u ry h a d n o
1

ac qu a i n t a nce w i t h a s t r ol o g e r s p a r t i cu la r ly i n v i ew o f hi s o wn s t at e
,
 CH A PT E R I I I

A ST R OLO GY I N OLD EN GL I S HER LIT A T U RE

A strological
learning as we have seen was almost , ,

extinct in E u r ope du r ing the D a r k A ges ; hence we need

not expect to discove r more than o ccasional signs o f its
existence in northe r n vernacular literature A ll astrological .

science among the Teutonic peoples indeed must be termed

, ,

.
a foreign importation even the p opular astrology o f the
a lmanac goes back to Greece and R ome Certain p r imitive .

superstitions among the Teutons and Gauls it is true , ,

off e r ed points o f contact for simple astrological notions .

C aesar desc r ibing the religion o f the Germans says that

, ,

they worshipped as gods only those whose power they

could easily recogni z e namely the Sun V ulcan an d the , , ,

M oon 1
Tacitus in the Ger ma ni a informs us that the
Teutonic tribes held their assemblies on stated days either
.
, ,

at the new or the full moon which they account the most ,

auspicious season for beginning any enterprise 2

I n the .

E nglish laws o f Cnut a statute is included which forbids ,

all heath e nish pr a ctices and incidentally the worship o f , , ,

sun or moon ?
The Penitential o f the E nglish archbishop ,

Theodore o f Canterbury ( died furthermore conta ins ,

slight r ef erences to su p erstitions rega r ding the moon 4

An .

Caes a r D e B ello G a lli c o 6 2 1 S tu den t s o f my th ology a r e p u zz l ed

1
, . .

o ve r t hi s r e f er e n c e ; cf R M M ey e r A l tg er man is ch e R elig i ons

. . .
,
!

H
g es chi ch t e ( L eip z i g p 1 05
, . .

T a c i t u s G er ma nia c h ap 1 1
2
. .
, ,

Cn u t s l aw r ea d s :

ael en s c i p e by iS baet ma n i d o la w e o r iSi g e
2

a ,

b aet i s bae t m a n w e o r ti i g e h aeo en e g o d a s

a n d s u n n a n o fStSe m o n a n
,
f yr ,

o iSE Se od . S e e L ie b e r m a n n D i e G es e tz e d er A ng els a chen ,

( H a ll e ,
1 9 3)
0 I 3 1 2 ; o
. r T h o rp e A n ci e n t L a w s a n d I ns,
ti tu t es of
E ng la n d ( L on don ,
p 1 62 S im i la r t o t hi s law o f Cn u t i s a
. .

p ass ag e i n ZE l f r i c s H omi li es ( ed Th o rp e 1

. .

T h eo d o r e Li ber P e ni t en ti a li s c h a p 2 7 ( T h o rp e A n c L aw s
, , .
, .
,

p 292 )
.
 A s tr o log y i n O ld E ng li s h Li t er a tur e 43

entire chapte r in this work is d evoted to magic an d sorcery

a n interesting commentary on the popular belie fs o f the

time A ugury from the ight o f bir d s is found in the list

.

o f malpractices as are also nec r omancy a n d the consul t

1
, ,

ing o f witches ?
Observance o f N ew Y ea r s D ay according
to heathen customs is fo r bidden ?
L ast o f all the arch ,

bishop warns against the attempt to stop an eclipse by

means o f enchantment and p r escribes a year s penance for ,

any one qui in honore lun ae p r o a l iqu a sanitate j eju n a t .

The observance o f lucky and unlucky days seems to be

the nearest approach to astrology in the sup erstitions o f
the ancient Celts S everal accounts a r e on record o f D r uids .

who p redicted a child s future according to the day on which
it was born ?
There also existed among the D r uids a fo r m
o f cloud divination and the corresponding Celtic word
-

, ,

n e la dor a ch t is at times applie d to astrology and divination

,

in general ?
Certain pu zz ling ref e r ences t o astrology p r oper
which appear in the Christian literature o f Ireland one
passage for example relates how a diviner scans the
, ,

heavens and tells the foster father o f S t C o lu mki lle that -

the time is propitious for his son to begin his lessonsare

.
,

hardly su fcient to prove the existence o f an indigenous

astrological science 7
.

The pagan worship o f sun and moon and the observ ance ,

o f lucky and unlucky days though they cannot yet be calle d ,

1
L i ber P e n . 27 .
7 .

2
I bi d . 27 . 13, 20 .

2
1 bi d . 27 . 24 .

I bi d

J y o c e,
. 27 .

S oci a l
25 , 26 .

H i s t or y o f A n ci e n t I r e la nd ( 2 vol s ., L o n d on , 1 9 03 )
1 . 23 3 .

N e la d r a ch t g l o ss se py r o ma n t i a ( d i vi n at i on by r e ) i n an o ld

s h t r t i s n L t i n d l n s i n ( ibi d 1
I ri ea e o a ec e o . .

I bi d
1
30 A m r l b r t pr
. 1 . f f th f
2 . o e e a o a e oo o e ac t t hat t he i
a nc en t

D r i ds w r i g
u r t f s t r l g y i s g i v by L
e e n o an o a o o en a V i lle d e M i r m o n t ,

i n L A s tr o l og i e

c h ea l es G a ll o R o ma i ns pp
-

, .
7 -
20 ( B ibl i o t hcq u e

d es
Univer s i ts d u M i di V ol , .
 44 M edi e val A t ti tu d e t owa r d A s tr ol og y

astrology constitute a foundation upon which it can build

,
.

A ccordingly we nd in Old E nglish a series o f treatises

, ,

translated f r om Latin or G r eek originals which a p p ealed ,

to such p r imitive beliefs

S ome o f thes e t r eatises a .

number o f them have been printed by Cockayne in his col

1
lection o f Old E nglish L ee chd oms belong to the realm o f
medicine and indicate the days in each month which are
,

favorable or un favorable for the letting o f blood A nother

?

consists o f meteorological prognostications according to ,

the day o f the week on which Christmas falls I f the mass .

day o f midwinter is a Sunday one p rophecy reads then , ,

there shall be a good winter and a windy spring and a dry , ,

s umme r and good vineyards ; and sheep shall thrive and

, ,

honey shall be su fcient and peace shall be kept well ,

e nough
3
S till another contains miscellaneous predictions

for each day o f the lunar month For the thirteenth the .
,

treatise pro p hesies : The thi r teenth day is p erilous for
b eginning things D ispute not this day w ith thy frien d s . .

The fugitive will quic kly be discovered A child born .

1
C o ck a y n e

,
L e echd oms , W or t cu nni ng , a nd S tar cr af t f E ar ly
o

E ng la n d ( R o ll s S er .
) 3 . 1 5 0 22 9
-
.

2
I bi d 3
. . 1 5 2 , 1 82 .

I bi d 3
. . 1 62 ff . An a r t i cl e by M ax F or s t e r D i e K lei n li t er a tu r d es
,

A ber g lau bens i m A l te ng li s che n ( A r chiv 1 10 .

3 46 i n d i scuss ing
t h e s e a s t r ol og i cal t ext s p r ove s th at th ey b elong t o t h e le a rn ed n ot
, ,

t h e p o p u la r l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e t i me For s t e r i s a b l e t o c i t e the .

Gr eek or t he Lat i n s ou r ces f o r m o s t o f t h em S ever al Lat i n .

p a r all el s a r e f ou n d i n M ig n e s P a tr olog i a L a ti na ( 90 9 5 1

.
.

a s c ri b e d t o B e de T he P r og n os ti ca T emp or u m ( M i g n e p 9 5 1 )
.
,
.

c o rr e s p o n d s t o t h e t r ea t i s e j u s t r e f e rr e d t o i n C o ck ay ne The .

D e M i n u ti on e S a n g u i ni s ( M i g n e p 9 5 9 ) f u r n i s h e s t h e s ou r ce f o r , .

p a r t o f an O l d E ngl i s h m edi cal t ext ( C ockayn e 3 The D e .

D i vi na ti on e M or tis e t Vi te ( M i g n e p 963 ) i s a La t i n vu lg a ri z at i on , .

o f a f a m o u s Gr e e k t r e a t i s e o n d i v i n a t i o n da t i ng fr om t h e A l ex an ,

d ri a n p e ri o d cu rr e nt u n de r the n am e o f N e chep s o a n d P et o s i r i s In
, .

i t s m e d i aeval f o r m i t s t i ll p r e s e r ves m u ch o f th e Gr e ek t e r m i n olo gy

, .

Cf Su dh o ff I a tr oma thema ti ker vor n ehmli ch i m I 5 u n d 1 6 J ahr

.
, , . .

h u n d er t ( A bhan dl au r Ges ch d M edie i n . pp 6 7 . .

, .
-
.
 A s tr olog y i n Old E ng li s h L i ter a tur e 45

this day will be plucky having a mark about his eyes bol d , , ,

rapacious , arro g ant sel f pleasing an d will not live long ,

-

,
.

A maiden will have a mark on the back o f her neck or on

the thigh ; she will be saucy spirited daring o f her bo dy , ,

with many men : she will die s oon A man fallen sick on .

this moon will quickly recover o r be long ill A dream will ,

.

be fullled within nine days From the s ixth hour it is a .

good time for blood letting 1 -

I t is only by courtesy o f cou r se that compilations like , ,

these are allowed to claim kinship w ith the science o f

Ptolemy and M anilius Primitive as they are they belong .
,

to the learned literatu r e o f the day and trace their origin ,

to foreign not to native sources I n the cours e o f cen

, , .

t u r i es this learned superstition became the common property

,

o f the uncultured and the stock in trade o f the maker o f ,

almanacs A popular song foun d in a manuscript o f the

.
,

fteenth century predictin g the weather for the year i f

,

Christmas falls on a Sunday exhibits an exact counte r part ,

o f one o f the texts printe d by Cockayne ?

The homilies o f ZE l f r i c furnish evidence that even the

belief in lucky and unlucky days met with the hostility o f

the E nglish Church The observance o f so called E gyptian .
-

days had been forbidden as ea r ly a s A ugustine ? and
ZE l f r i c was there fore on orthodox ground when he attacked
such popular superstitions in a s ermon for N ew Y ear s
.

A fter exhorting against divination in general he rebukes ,

those in particular who regulate their j ourneys by the
moon and their acts accordin g to days and who will not
, ,

"
undertake anythin g o n M ondays 1
.

1
C ock ayn e 3 1 90 . .

D e nh am A C o lle c ti on of P r over bs a n d P opu lar S ay i ng s ( P e r cy

2
,

S oc i ety , p 69 ; c f C ock ayn e 3 1 62

. . . .

S upe r E pi s t a d Ga la t os c h a p 4 T hi s p a ss a g e w a s t ak en u p i nt o
3
.
, . .

H
the Ch u r c h l aw ; c f Ivo o f Ch a r t r e s D e cr e tu m 9 1 5 ( M i g n e P a t r
.
, .
, .

La t . 1 61 .

T h o rpe , o mi li es o f AElf r i c ( 2 vo l s .
, L o n d on ,
1 844 ) 1 . 1 00 . A
s i mi l r a d enu n c i a t i on of t he b el i e f in u n l u ck y d ay s ,
as of a ugu ry
46 M edi e val A tti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr ol og y

Probably the only extended reference in Old E nglish to

astrology p roper is to be found in f E l f r ic s homily on the

E piphany zE l f r i c.follo w ing the lead o f Gregory connects

, ,

with the sto r y o f the M agi a discussion o f destiny and

1

free will We a r e also to know ZE lf r ic says that there
.
,

,

were some he r etics who said that every man is born acco r d
ing to the p osition o f the stars and that by their course his
'

destiny be falls him The manner in which ZE l f r i c thus .

int r oduces the subj ect shows clea r ly how fo r eign it must
have been to his E nglish hearers ; the mere use o f the p ast
tense is signicant A n d when he continues with an .

elaboration o f the ancient argument o f twins utili z ing ,

A ugustine s illustration o f Jacob and E sau his words can

have aroused in his hearers little more than a historical

interest ?

A lthough E ngland like the rest o f E urope had to con , ,

tent itsel f during the early medi aeval period with the mere
an d w i tc h c ra f t i n g en e ra l ,
i s f ou n d i n ZE lf r i c

s p oet i c L i ves o f
S a i n ts ( N o 1 7 : B E TS 82
. hi m s el f w as n ot al t og eth e r
. . ZE l f r ic
fr ee fr o m the a s t r ol og i c al s up e r s t i t i on s o f the t i m e In h i s ve r na c .

u l a r v e r s i on o f B e d e s D e T emp or i bu s ( it s a u t h en t i c i ty i s n o l ong e r

d o u b t e d ; c f C L W hi t e Ai lf r i c B o s t o n 1 898 p
. . .
, he s u b , , , .

s c ribes t o the b el i e f in the m o on s i n u ence ove r g r ow i ng thi ng s

,

a n d i n co m e t s ( C o ck a yn e 3 2 69 2 7 3 ; c f T h o rp e H omili es 1 .
, .
, .

O ne m ay n o t e h ow ev e r t h at ZE l f r i c s ve r s i on o f A l cu in s In ter

, ,

r og a ti o n es S i g eu l i n w hi ch B e de i s t h e s o u r c e f o r a d e s c rip t i o n
,

o f t h e p l a n et s o m i t s B e d e s r e f e r en c e s t o t h e co l dn e ss

o f S atu r n

,

a n d t h e h eat o f M a r s ( A ng li a 7

14 .

ZE lf r i c t r a n s l a t e s th e L a t i n mag i w i t h the O l d E ng l i s h tu ng o l
1

wi ti g a n ( T h o rp e I .

A F i s c h e r ( A ber g la u be u n t er d en A ng e l S a chs en M e i n i ng en
2
-
.
, ,

1 89 1 ,
p 22 ) i s s u r ely w r ong wh en he t ak e s thi s h om i ly a s w ell as
.
,

th e t e x t s pri n t e d by C o ck ay n e a s pr o o f t h a t a s t r o l o g y w a s s t i ll

,

cu rr en t a m o ng t h e E ng l i s h in t h e t e n t h cen t u ry In r e al i ty ZE lf r i c s

.
,

r e f e r en c e i s n othi ng m o r e th an a l i t er a ry allu s i on In app lyi ng i t .

t o t h e b el i e f i n F a t e h e ha d hi s h ea r e r s o f cou r s e d ir ect ly i n m i n d
, , , .

Cf F i s ch er ( p 2 1 ) f o r r e f er ence s i n O ld E ng l i s h t o W yr d S ee
. . .

e s p ec i al ly A l fr e d s B o et hi u s 3 9 8 ( e d S e dg e eld O xf o r d 1 899

. .
, , ,

p .
 A s tr ol og y i n O ld E ng li s h L i ter a tu r e 47

rudiments o f an astrological science it was d estine d to ,

play an important r ole in the scientic movement o f the

later centuries E ven before the days o f the new science
.
,

the r e can be found in E nglan d t r aces o f that revived inter

est i n astrology which culminated in the D e M u n di Uni
ver s i ta t e o f B ernard S i lves t r i s and the philosophical writ ,

ings o f John o f Salisbu r y A curious story is told by .

William o f M almesbu r y which shows that Firmicus ,

M a t e r nu s discovered o n the continent d u r ing the eleventh

,

century must have traveled to E ngland shortly a fter the

,

N orman Conquest The chronicle r elates how Ge r a r d

.
,

A rchbishop o f Y ork from 1 1 00 to 1 1 0 8 who was repute d ,

to have meddled with magic was refused burial by his ,

canons because a copy o f Firmicus was found under his

pillow at his death I n the rst qua r te r o f the t w el fth
?

H
century we also meet with a re ference to astrology in
,

Geo ff rey o f M onmouth A t the clos e o f the s eventh book .

o f the is t or ia R eg u m B r i ta nnie and as a part o f the ,

famous prophecies o f M erlin there occur a series o f obscure ,

z
astrological a llu s i on s a p assage which p u zz led Geo ff r ey s

followers and di d not nd an interpreter until the fteenth

,

century when the French chronicler Wa n r in expla ined it

,

as refer r ing to the day o f j udgment ?

A lthough the
prophecy is probably little more than a j umble o f class ical

reminiscences one o f its sources apparent ly was Lu ca n s

4
, ,

P hars a lia i t indicates that astrological ideas we r e alrea d y

( e d H am i lt on R o ll s S e r
1
G es taP on ticu m A ng l or u m 3 . 18 .
, .
,
pp .

H
259 s
The t o ry i t ol d a l o by s s Hi g den in hi s P oly chr oni con ( ed .

L u mby , s
R o l l S er , 7 . .

2
i s t or i a R eg u m B r i tta n i e ( e d S ch u lz , . H a lle ,
pp I OO I O I
.
-

1
W a nri n, A C o llec ti o n of t he Chr o ni c les a nd A n ci e n t H i s t or i es of
Gr ea t B r i tai n 2 5 7 ( e d H a r dy R o ll s S er 1 2 5 0
. .
, .
, .

V ik t o r Ry d b er g A s tr ol og i e n o ch M er li n S t ockh o lm 1 88 1
, M os t , , .

o f G eo ff r ey s a l lu s i on s a r e only va u el y a s t r ol o i c al
S u ch phr a s e s

g g .

as t e a m b e r o f M e r c u ry
h a nd

S t ilbon o f A r ca dy m ay m ea n

a ny t hi ng o r n o t hi n
g ( S t ilbo n t h e Gr e ek n a m e f o r M e r c u ry i s
, ,

f ou nd in M a r t i anu s C ap ella ) T he mo s t d e n i t e a s t r o log i ca l a llu

.
48 M edi e val A t ti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr olog y

in the air A delar d o f B ath indeed was Geoff rey s own

.
, ,

contemporary With the second quarter o f the century in

.
,

e ff ect we are on the threshold o f that new age o f me d i aeval

,

science which was to honor astrology as the chief o f the

seven arts and to make o f astrologe r s the con dant s o f
,

po p es and kings .

s i ns
o occu r hi s r e f er ences t o the mal i gn i ty o f S atu rn an d the
in

h s s
ou e o f t h e p l a n et s T w o o t h e r s l i g h t r e f e r en c e s t o a s t r ol ogy
.

o c cu r in G e o ff r ey s H is t or i a In the r s t ( 9 i t i s s tat e d t h at

. .

many a s t r o n omer s l i ve d at A r t h u r s c ou r t
-

The s econ d p a ss ag e
.

( 1 2 4 ) r elat es a t g r eat e r l eng th ho w i n the r e i g n o f k i ng E dw i n

.
, ,

a S p a n i a r d P el le t u s
, c am e t o t h e E ng l i s h co u r t a n d emp l oy e d th e
, ,

a rt s o f a s t r ol ogy an d a u g u ry t o gu a r d t he r eal m fr o m f o re i g n i nva

s i on s B oth W a ce and Layamon f ollow G eoff r ey i n th e s e two

.

n ot i ce s .
5 0 M edie val A t ti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr ol og y

their orbits the position o f the signs ; she traces parallels

,

and colures and measu r es with su r e hand the twelve divi

,

sions o f the z odiac ; she is ignorant neither o f t he magni

tude o f the sta r s nor o f the position o f the poles nor o f , ,

the extension o f the axes I f a man acquire this science .

o f ast r onomy he will obtain knowledge not only o f the , ,

r esent condition o f the world but o f the past and future

p ,

as well For the beings o f the supe r ior world endowe d

.
,

w ith d ivi n e s ou ls are the principle and cause o f the inferior

. ,

1
w o r ld he r e bel ow Such was to be the nai ve faith o f the .

new age in the science o f the stars ! A strology and astron

o my ,
so carefully conned to separate compartments by
I sidore o f S eville we r e again united For several cen ,
.

t u r i es the latte r was destined to be the mere servant o f the

,

former .

The D e E od em e t D i vers o gives evidence that A d elar d

o f Bath was connected in some way with the school o f
C ha r t r e s ; it was among its students that A d ela r d s voyage
z

o f discovery into the Orient found its rst imitators Peter .

the V enerable A bbot o f Cluny while traveling in Spain in , ,

1 1 41 met Herman o f D almatia a pupil o f Thierry o f

, ,

Chart res and R obe r t o f R etines an E nglishman both

, , ,

engage d in the study o f ast r onomy ( ast rology ) ?

Peter
the Vene r able persuaded them to turn aside for a time
from their main pursuit and to make a L atin version o f ,

the Ko r an But in 1 1 43 they were again occup ie d with their

.

astrological translations A mong the several fruits o f their .

labors not the least in imp ortance was the version made by
,

Herman o f the I n tr odu c t or i u m i n A s tr on omia m o f A lbu

masar 4
N 0 othe r ast r ological text book as we shall see did
.
-

, ,

1
D es A d e lar d v on B a th D e E od e m et D i ver s o . Z um e r s t en M a le
h er a u s g eg e ben u nd hi s t or i s ch kr i ti s c h
-
u n t er s u c h t v on Dr . H a ns
Wi llner M un s t e r ( in B au mk er

B ei tr ci g e 4
'

, ,
1 903 s . 1 .
31
S ee D u h e m L e S y s t em e d u M on d e 3 1 69
2
, . .

1
Cler va l L es E c o les d e Char tr es
, ,
p . 1 89 .

D u h em 3 . 1 74 .
 A r a bi an A s tr ology 5 I

more to make astrology acceptable to the Church o f the

succeeding century .

A t about the same time that Herman o f D almatia and his

friend R obert were devoting themselves t o the translation
o f ast r ological texts in Spain others were engaged in the ,

same task By the middle o f the twel fth centu r y in fact

.
, ,

most o f the important works on astrology had foun d thei r

way into L atin In 1 1 38 Plato o f Tivoli translated .

Ptolemy s Te tr a bi bl os ( hence forth to be known by its Latin

H
name as the Q u a dr ipar ti tu m ) ?
N ot much late r appeared a
version by John o f S eville ( also known as J oha nnu s
i s p a nu s or Lu n en s i s ) o f the famous C en ti loqu iu ma
,

series o f one hundred astrological aphorisms falsely att r ib

u t e d to Ptolemy To John o f S eville are also due ve r sions .

o f A lbu ma sa r s L i ber C onju n c ti onu m S i d er u m and F l or es

A s tr olog ie as well as astrological texts o f the A rabian

, ,

A lcha b i t i u s and the Jew M e s sa ha la ?

, The p r i n ce o f t r ans ,

lators appeared nally in the person o f Gerar d o f Cremona

( 1 1 14 to whom some s eventy translations from the
A rabic can be ascribed A mong these were the famous .

versions o f Ptolemy s A lmag es t and o f two hitherto

unknown works o f A ristotle which play an important r ole ,

in the history o f astrology the M e t e or olog i ca and the D e

Gen er a ti on e et C or r u p ti o n e ?

What it may be asked was the nature o f this new astrol

, ,

ogy which like the new A ristotle had been made accessible
, , ,

to L atin readers in the space o f a few decades ? To answe r

this question it is necessa r y to glance at the histo r y o f
,

A rabian astrology in generala history which it is d if

cult to trace A st r ology had been introduced into the .

M ohammedan wo r ld in the eighth centu r y at the time when ,

Caliph A l M ansur calling to his aid the lea r ned Jew Jacob
-

, ,

1
W ii s t en f el d p , .
40 .

2
I bi d .
, pp 2 5 . ff .

1
1bi d .
,
p 67 . .
5 2 M edi e val A t ti tu d e towar d A s tr ol og y

ben Tarik founded at Bagdad a school for the mathematical

,

sciences It was in this school that in the ninth century

.
, ,

the greatest o f A rabian astrologers A lbu ma sa r receive d

d u a * n u ' m - m
,
m o
- w m
,

From its int r oduction down to the time when

J -

11 18 t r a i ning
w


w - v r " P
r

.
,

the West became acquainted with it in the Saracen schools

o f Toledo and Cordova astrology won the allegiance o f a ,

host o f A r abic an d Jewish scientists A mong the note d .

astronomers whose names appear in the Latin literature o f

the M iddle A ges were M e s s aha la A lbategnius A lpetragius , , , ,

A lc hab i t i us and A b enr a g el 1

,
.

A rabo Jud aean astrology was a j umble o f systems an d

-

doctrines The Jewish scholars who introduced it into the

.

M oorish schools were versed not only in the pure astrology ,

o f Ptolemy but also in that o f other Greek masters such as

, ,

V ett i u s Valens D o r o t heu s S i don eu s Teucer and A ntiochus , , , ,

who themselves had amalgamated the most diverse theories ?

This Greek astrology furthermore had been contaminate d , ,

with the demonology and magic o f the Ta lmu d and the ,

mysticism o f the Ca ba la ?
Throughout the M iddle A ges ,

1
J ewis h E n cy clope di a 2 . 2 44 ; Ca tho li c E ncy clope di a 2 . 21 .

2
E n cy c l ope d i a o f I s la m I .
4 9 5 ( a r t i c l e A s tr o l og y ,
by C . A .

N a llin o ) .

f E n och ( R H Ch a rle s an d W R M or ll The B ook

2
The B oo k o . . . .
,

o f t he S ecr e ts of E n o c h t r fr o m t he S lavon i c O xf o r d , .
, ,

a pp ea ri ng a b ou t the t i me o f th e Chri s t i an era i s t he b es t evi dence ,

t h at a s t ro log i cal d oc t ri n e s ha d ea r ly f ou n d t h e ir way i n t o J ew i s h

c ir cl e s E ven S t P au l s r e f e r en c e ( 1 Co r 1 2 2 4 ) t o hi s b ei ng

-
. . . .

c a rri e d t o t h e s event h h e aven i s a r em i ni s cence o f t hi s wo r k

( B ou ch L ecle r cq p -
F r om th e t i m e o f t h e B o ok of E n och
, .

t o t h e a pp e a r an ce i n the t hir t e ent h centu ry o f th e g r ea t C a ba l i s t i c

, ,

t ex t t h e Z ohar t h e i n u en ce o f a s t r o log y u p on J ew i s h my s t i c i s m
, ,

wa s o n t h e i n c r ea s e ( see J ew E n c 3 45 6 ; 2 2 44 Pi ck The . . . . .
,

Ca ba la Chi cag o , The m ag i c o f C o r n el i u s A g ripp a an d

, ,

o f th e J ew s o f t h e la t e r c ent u ri e s c an b e c onven i en t ly s t u d i e d i n ,

th e G e r m a n t r a n s la t i o n p ub l i s h e d a t S t u t tg a r t i n 1 85 5 ( H e i n ri ch
C o rn el i u s A g ripp a M ag i s che Wer ke 5 Th e J e wi s h t r eat i s e
, ,

of A r ba t el ( 5 9 5 ff ) i s ch a r ac t e ri s t i c T h e s even p lane t s a r e
i dent i e d w i t h s even ma s t e r
. . .

s piri t s a n d dir ect i ons ar e g iven f or ,

 A r a bi an A s tr olog y 53

astrology constitute d an integral part o f the necromancy

and divination o f Jews an d M oors alike a relationship
which prove d embarrassin g when astrology trie d to win
converts in Christian lan d s where inte r course with demons ,

was not tolerated ?

Fortunately this contaminate d astrol ,

o gy was left largely to the practitioners o f necromancy an d

magic proper The standar d astrological text books written

.
-

usually by astronomers remaine d free from it ,

.

B ut the scientic treatises o f A lbu ma sa r Ab enra g el an d , ,

A lchabi t i u s present a marked contrast to the classic astrol

ogy which we have alrea dy encountered The Tetra bi bl os .

o f Ptolemy had conned itsel f almost exclusively to j u d icial

astrology the prediction o f the future accor d in g to the
conguration o f the stars at birth In the astrological texts .

o f the A rabians j udicial astrology occup ied a position o f

,

d istinctly minor importance Its place was taken by two .

other systems current at the time o f Ptolemy which he ha d

, ,

deliberately ignored the s o calle d i n ter r og a ti on es and elec -

ti ones The system o f i n ter r og a ti on es as its name implies

.
, ,

cons isted o f a series o f rules by means o f which the astrol

the ut i l i z a t i on of th eir p owe r s ( 5 1 1 1 1f ) A r bat el d i s t i ngu i s h e s

. .

b etw een g oo d an d evi l s p iri t s a n d m a i nt a i n s t hr ou g h ou t a n o r t h o d o x

,

t on e. Cf a b o ve
. 17 , .

1
B el i e f i n the p owe r of f o rbi d den by I s lam ( E ncy
ji nns w as n ot

c lope d i a of R e li g i on a n d E thi cs 4 T hi s a ccou n t s f o r th e

.

f a ct th a t the b lack a r t s ou ri s h e d in M o s lem cou nt ri es a s much

a s d i d p u r e a s t r o l o gy Th e t wo w e r e t au g h t s i de by s i d e i n t he
.

f am ou s s ch o ol s o f T ol edo a n d C o r dova ( J W B r own L if e a nd . .

,

L eg e nd of M i cha el S co t E d i nb u r g h 1 89 7 p
, F ew t ex t b ook s
, , .
-

o f A r a bi a n m a g i c a n d n ec r o ma nc y h ave b e en p r e s e r ve d s i nce the ,

e ccle s i a st i ca l cen s o r s hip o f t he M i ddl e A g e s d ea l t w i t h t h em mu ch

mo r e s eve r ely t h an w i th a s t r olog i cal t r ea t i s es T he E n cy c l ope d ia .

of R eli g i o n a n d E thi cs ( 4 8 1 7 ) g i ve s a n a cc ou n t o f o n e t r ea t i s e
.

o n m ag i c t he f a mou s G oa l of th e S ag e o f t h e e l eve n t h c e n t u ry
, ,

a n d B r o wn s L i f e a nd L eg en d of M i c ha el S co t ( pp

1 83 ff ) di s . .

c u ss e s i n s o m e d e t a i l t he m a g i c o f m e d i e va l S p a i n N o te s o n many .

bo ok s con c e r n i ng m ag i c n o w l o s t a r e f o u n d i n t he S pecu l u m A s t r o
n omie , a s c rib e d t o A l b e r t t h e Gr ea t ( e d J a m my 1 7 5 1 5 65 6 .
, , .
54 M edi e va l A tti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr o l og y

oger answered questions regarding the discovery o f a thie f ,

a lost treasure the trustwo r thiness o f a friend or the wealth

, ,

o f a prospective bride ?
The system o f elec ti ones on the ,

other hand determined the p r opitious moment for under

,

taking any act o f daily li fe The rules o f this system too .

, ,

were elaborated in great detail even to the extent o f ,

naming the proper time for the cutting o f ng er nails the -

writing o f a letter o r the boa r ding o f a shi p ?

The system ,

o f elec ti on es was particularly favorable to the develo p ment

o f medical ast r ology and was in general merely a scientic ,

elabo r ation o f the common belief in lucky and unlucky

1
An x cellent ex amp l e o f t h e s y s t em o f i n t er r og a ti on es i s f u r
e

n i sh e d by th e a s t r o l o g i ca l w o rk o f A b en r ag el t he m o s t comp l et e ,

o f t h e A r ab i c t e x t s w hi c h w e r e t r a n s l a t e d i n t o L a t i n ( t h e c op y
i n the Y a le L ibr a ry i s en t i t l e d : P r e c lar is s i mus L i ber C o mple tu s

i n J u di ci i s A s tr or u m q u em e d i ti t A lb ohaz en H a ly F i li u s A ben r a g el
, ,

V en i c e ,
T h e r s t h al f o f t hi s w o r k con s i s t in g i n a ll o f ,

e i g h t b oo k s a n d n u mb e ri ng s o m e t hr ee h u n d r e d p ag e s i n t h e L at i n
,

t r an s la t i on i s d evot ed t o a n s w e ri ng s u c h m i nu t e que s t i on s as t h o s e
,

e n u m e r a t e d a b o ve ( s ee f o s A b en r a g el l i ve d fr o m
h 2 b h
l 1 4 8 ss ) .
, , .

1 1 16 5 2 -
a n d t h e r e f o r e c o m e s a t a p e ri o d w h en A r ab i an a s t r o lo g y
,

h a d b ee n f u lly d evelop e d Hi s wo rk wa s n ot t r an s la t e d u n t i l 1 2 5 6
.

( c f Su t e r p
. a n d d i d n o t i n u en ce W e s t e r n w ri t e rs a s d i d t he
, .

t r ea t i s e s o f A l bu m a s a r Hi s t ex t h ow eve r f u r n i s h e s bett e r op p o r
.
, ,

t u n i t i e s f o r s t u dy t h a n t h e m u c h s h o rt e r I n tr o du c t or i u m o f A l b u
m a s a r ( N ew Y o rk Pu bl i c L i br a ry ) o r t h e I s ag og e o f A lchabi t i u s
( C olu mb i a U n i ve r s i ty L i b r a ry ) .

A b en r a g e l f o l s 1 1 3 M a n y A r ab i a n a s t r o l o g e r s a d o p t e d
2 a
, .
, ,

as p a r t o f t h e e l ec ti o n es t h e I n d i an s y s t em o f t w en ty e i g h t lu n a r
,
-

m a n s i o n s whi c h a ff o r d e d a n opp o rt u n i t y f o r m o r e m i nu t e calcu l a

,

t i o n s t h a n t h a t o f t h e t w e lve h ou s e s ( A b e n r a g el f o l s 1 2 6 ff ; c f , .
?
. .

E n c of Is la m 1
. T hi s s y s t em o f lu n a r m an s i on s cou l d e a s i ly
.

s e rve f o r m ag i cal p u rp o s e s a n d s eem s t o h ave been i n bad o do r ,

w i t h Ch u r c h w ri t e r s In th e S p ecu lu m A s tr on omi e
. a s c rib e d t o ,

A lb e r t t he Gr ea t th e t w en t y e ig ht lu n a r ma n s i o n s a r e expr e ss ly
,
-

co n n ec t e d w i t h d i a b o l i c a r t s ( A lber ti M ag ni O p er a e d J am my , .
,

Th e c le rk o f Ch a u ce r s F r an kli n s Ta l e emp loy s

1 75 1 5, .

t h e s e lu n a r m an s i on s S e e T a t lock s a r t i cl e i n K i t tr edg e A nn i

.

ver s ar y P ap er s B o s t o n 1 9 1 3 p 348 , , , . .
 A r a bi an A s tr ol og y 55

days ? I n truth the system o f e le cti ones enj oye d a distinct

,

supe r iority over the rival doctrines o f j udicial astrology .

C o n n i ng itsel f to a denition o f favorable or unfavorable

conditions and not attempting to predict the future itsel f
,
,

it avoided the fatalism which was an inevitable element

in the astrology o f Ptolemy A s a part o f me d ical astrol .

ogy it had l ittle di fculty in nding a welcome at the han d s

,

o f the Christian scientists o f the thirteenth century .

On its philosophical no less than on its practical s i d e , ,

ast r ology received modications at the hands o f the

A rabians which facilitated its acceptance by Christian
theologians Concomitant with the introduction o f Ptolemy
.

into the M ohammedan worl d had been that o f the scientic

works o f A ristotle ; and the cosmology o f the M e t e or olog
i ca and D e Ge n er a ti on e e t C or r u pti on e had in cou r se o f ,

time formed an inseparable part o f astrolo g ical theo ry

,
.

When A ristotle there fore became for the L atin scholars

, ,

the master o f thos e that know it was inevitable that ,

astrology should likewise meet with a friendly reception .

One o f the rst astrological treatises to be carrie d north

f rom Spain as we have seen was the translation o f A lbu
, ,

m asa r s In tr odu c t or i u m i n A s tr on omi a m made by Herman

o f D almatia N o work was better suited to bring to the

.

knowledge o f the Christian schools the philosophical prin

!

c ip le s o f A rabian astrology .

A lbu ma sa r a fter divi d ing the science o f the stars into

,

its two main divisions undertakes in the s econd chapter , , ,

a de fens e o f astrology He begins by enunciating the .

A ristotelian doctrine o f the fth essence : The substance

o f the astral bodies does not cons ist o f one o f the four
elements o f this world nor o f a combination o f these ele ,

ments I f it were formed o f the elements o f this world

.
,

it would su ff er growth and decay dissolution and the other , ,

1
B o u c h Le c l e r c q ,
-

pp .
45 8 ff T he . y t em s s of e le c t i o n e s wa s
l o g i ca lly i nc o mp at ib le w i t h j u d i c i a l a t r o l ogy s . Pt ole my a cc o r d i ng ly
ma de no p l a c e f o r i t i n h i s s y s t em .
5 6 M edi e val A tti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr o log y

changes to which ea r thly things are subj ect S ince all this .

is foreign to the celestial world one must conclude that ,

the substance o f the sta r s consists o f a certain fth essence .

The sta r s a r e spherical bodies transparent and endowed , ,

with a pe r p etual motion This motion o f the stars is .

circular the one motion which is perfect an d eternal

,
?

Ci r cular motion is found also in the sublunary sphere I t .

is circular motion that is seen in the processes o f growth

and decayi n the concomitant generation o f one substance
and the destruction o f another substance N ow this process .

o f growth and decay is a cyclic motion which decomposes ,

one substance and transmutes it into ano ther substance

, ,

changing the latter in turn back into the former Its , , .

cause is none other than the eternal circular motion o f the

stars The motion o f the upper sphere acts upon the world
.

below and b r ings about that mingling o f element with ele

,

ment which is necessary for all generation and corruption .

Hence the Philosopher declared that the inferior world

?

was in some necessary way bound up with the superio r

world so that the sphere o f the stars in revolving with a
, ,

natural motion carried with it the world below,

But .

generation and corruption are at the foundation o f all

motion and change on earth One may conclude therefore .
, ,

that the celestial essence exerts an inuence on everything

that takes place on the mundane sphere ?

A ristotle in a frming the dependence o f the lower upon

,

the upper spheres had drawn a distinction between the

,

uni form motion o f the xed stars and the irregular motion
o f the pla nets and had made o f the rst the principle o f
,

I n tr od u c t or i u m A s tr on omi a m A lbu m as ar i s
1
in A ba la chi , oc t o

C on ti n ens Li br os P a r ti a les A u g b u r g , 1 489 , s ( c op y i n N ew Y o r k

P u b l i c L ibr a ry ) , u np a g e d , b k 1 , c h a p 2 : s ig . . . a sh .

2
M et . 1 . 2 ( s ee ab ove , p .

3
I nt r o d u c t or i u m, sig . a6 a
.
5 8 M e di e va l A t ti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr olog y

worth while to listen with care to A lbu ma sa r s solution o f

the p r oblem The In tr odu c t or i u m i n A s tr on omia m already

.

points the way to that compromise between Christianity and

ast r ology which we shall soon meet in the writings o f A lbert
and Thomas A quinas .

S ome there a r e s ays A lbu m asar who s olve the problem

, ,

o f ast r ological fatalism by denying the existence o f con

tingent actions alt ogether admitting only the necessary and ,

the impossible B ut so complete a denial o f freedom runs

.

counter to the evidence o f experience Co ntingent things .

.

can be proved to exist The statement o f a necessary fact .

holds good for the future as for the past or the present .

We kno w that re burns that it has burned and that it , ,

will burn ; that re is not cold that it never was cold that , ,

it never will be cold Contingent facts admit o f no such

.

prediction We know that a man is writing or has written

.
,

but we do not know whether he will or will not write in

the future The contingent can be proved to exist mo re
.
,

over by t he fact that we deliberat e about it N o delibera

, .

tion ever takes place concerning the necessary or the

impossible ?

A disproo f o f fatalism however does not involve a denial , ,

o f stellar inuence over contingent thin g s A lbu ma sa r pro .

cee d s to show that the power o f the stars is seen in the

realms both o f the necessary and o f the contingent .

The process by which the elements and the bodies which ,

they compose resolve one into the other the growth an d

, ,

diminution which even human bodies unde r go come under ,

the rule o f the necessary S ince it is certain that the stars .

govern the alterations o f sublunary bodies it is seen that ,

all necessary things are dominated by the celestial sphere .

N ow man is composed o f a reasoning soul an d an ele

mental body The reasoning soul exercises its powers in
.

d eliberat ion and choice ; it rules o ver the body and t he ,

1
Cf . s
A ri t ot le

s D e I n t er pr e ta ti on e, c h ap . 1 .
 A r a bi an A s tr olog y 59

latter serves to carry out the soul s comman d s The stars .

have also according to the teachings o f the Philosopher

, ,

a reasoning soul and a natural motion an d consequently ,

possess the po wer to modi fy the harmony existing between

man s body an d his soul Hence the power o f the stars .

directs contingent acts as well as those which fall within the,

realm o f the necessary ?

The theory o f A lbu ma sa r at this point is not easy to

understand and is at best not clea r The leanin g towar d
,
.

a deterministic science indee d noticeable throughout the , ,

t r eatise was as little to the liking o f the Church as the

,

fatalist ic philoso phy o f the A rabs in general ?

B ut the
linking up o f astrological theory with A ristotelian cos
molog y an d the specious reasonings on the subj ect o f
,

contingent actions could not fail to p r ove alluring to Chris

,

tian scientists The I n tr odu c t or i u m a d A s tr on omia m serve d

.

as one o f the agents o f compromise between the Church an d

the new astrology o f the M oors .

1
In tr o du ct or iu m ,
s ig . a8b ff . The L a t i n i n t hi s p ort i on of th e
tr eat i s e i s very d iffi cu lt I h ave b e en g u i de d by the p a r aphr a s e
.

g i ven by D u h e m ( 2 3 7 5 .

It i s doc t ri n e s s u ch a s t h o s e o f Albu ma s a r con ce r n i ng th e s t ella r

2

s ou l s t h at a r e r ep eat edly i nve ig h e d a g a i n s t in the e di ct ag ai ns t

h er es y p u b l i s h ed by t he U n i ver s i ty o f P a ri s i n 1 277 S ee D eni e .

Ch at ela i n Char tu lar i u m Univers i ta tis P a r is i ens is ( P a ri s 1 889 )

, ,

1 .
5 43 ff T h e s t ella r s o u l s a r e r e f e rr e d t o i n t he p a ss ag e q u ot ed
.

a b o ve ( p 5 0 ) fr o m A d e la r d o f B a t h
. .
 CH A PT E R V
T HE E M D IE V A L A C CE P TA N C E OF A ST R OLO GY
By the middle o f the twel fth century practically the entire ,

range o f Greek and A rabian science had been thrown open

to the Latin world The appropriation o f this treasure was
.

a slow process The Christian scholars o f the twel fth cen

.

tury were too much occupie d with the quarrel between

realism and nominalism to interest t hemselves in problems
o f A r istotelian cosmology ?
We have seen that John o f
Salisbu r y was quite oblivious o f the new learning which
had al r eady c r ossed the borders o f Spain N ot until the .

thirteenth century did the science o f A r istotle acquire that

position o f prominence which it was destined to maintain
throughout the remainder o f t he medi e val era .

The rst s igns o f the new interest in A rabian astrology

may be found in the school o f Cha r t r es that cent r e o f lea r n ,

ing with which A dela r d o f Bath had fo r med conne c tion ,

and which had sent out the rst explorers into M oham
medan S p ain E vidence for this fact is found in a list
2
.

given by Cle r val o f the astronomical books in p ossession

o f the Cha r tres school a fter Herman o f D almatia an d his
fellow adventu r ers had returned
-
A mong the numbe r .

ap p ear seve r al works o f A delar d o f B ath and a treatise on ,

j udicial astrology by A lcha bit i u s translated by John o f ,

S eville T r a c es o f A r abian astrology can also be found

.

in the w r itings o f William o f Conches a membe r o f the

3
,

school o f Cha r tres in the middle o f the century .

I n the volume o f M ig u e s P a tr ol og ia L a ti na d evoted to

the writings o f Hono r i us o f A utun app ea r two treatises

on medi e val cosmology o f neither o f which Hono r ius o f ,

A utun is the author The rst entitled D e P hilos op hi a

.
,

1
J ou r d a i n ,
R echer ch es , pp . 22 7 -
8 .

2
L es E col es d e Char tr es p , . 2 39 .

2
S ee a b o ve , pp .
33 , 39 .
 The M e di e va l A ccep t an ce o f A s tr o logy 61

M u n di is a work o f William o f Conches ; the second

, ,

entitle d D e I mag i n e M u n di that o f an obscure Honorius ,

I nclusus who lived about the year 1 1 00

,
?
The D e I ma g i n e
M u ndi is a typical encyclop e d ia o f the early me d i e val cen
t u r i es like those o f B ede and R a b a n u s M au r us co n taining
, ,

nai ve descriptions o f the plan ets and the constellations ,

with no mention o f their astrological signicance It a ff or d s .

an excellent contrast to the later work o f William o f

Conches in which traces o f the new science are plenti ful
,
.

Satu r n is he r e described as cold and Jupiter as tem ,

perate ; M a r s is n o ci va and the indicator o f war and ,

blo odshed ?
V enus is the goddess o f lu xu r y quia c on f ert ,

c a lo r e m e t hu mo r em e t in c a l i d i s et hu m i di s v ig et luxuria

.
,

In William o f Conches we even nd a curious inversion o f

the Isidorean d enition o f astronomy a n d astrologya n
inversion which reappears in R oger B acon and which cer ,

f ainly can be t raced to a n A rabian sou r ce A s ty p ical

?

representatives o f what he calls as tr on omi a the science

which according t o his inverted denition d eals with stella r
i n u enc esWilliam o f Conches names Firmicus M a t er nu s
, ,

and Ptolemy 4
.

One o f the rst me d i e val L atin writers to mention an

1
M i g ne P a tr L o t 1 72 42 1 02 1 22 88 T he D e Imag i ne M u n d i
, . . .
-

,
-
.

i s t h e p ri nc ip al s ou r ce f o r th e ve r n acu la r L I mag e du M o n d e o f

G au t i e r o f M e t z ( ca . o n e o f t h e m o s t p op u l a r e n cy c l o p e d i a s

o f th e la t e r m e d i e va l c en t u ri e s O n H o no ri u s I n clu s u s s ee D uh em
.
,

3 2 4 ff ; o n W i l l i a m o f Co n ch e s D u h em 3 87 ff
. .
, . .

M i g n e P a tr L o t 1 72 63 :

In p r oeli i s d i c i t u r d o m i n a r i q u i a
2
, . . .
,

ca lo r em c o n f e r t e t s i cc i ta t em ex q u ib u s es t a n i mo s i t as
, C a l i d i en i m .

et s i cc i a n i mo s i s u nt

.

V i n cent o f B e a u va i s ( S pe cu lu m D oc tr i na le 1 7 a f t er q u ot i ng
1
.

the d e n i t i on s o f a s t r on omy a n d a s t r ology a c c o r d i ng t o I s i do r e

al s o g i ve s t h em i nve r s ely
t h at i s d e n i ng a s tr o log i a a s a s t r on o my
,

a s t r o l og y
, ,

an d as tr o n o mi a a s q uo t i ng a s s ou r c e f o r the la tt e r
d e n i t i on the A r a bi an A lp ho r abi us ,
C f Rog er B aco n O pus M ai ns
. .
,

( ed B ri d g e s 1 LVIII )
. . .

M i g n e P a tr L a t 1 7 2 5 9
, . . . .
 62 M edi e val A t ti tu d e t owar d A s tr olog y

A rabian astrologer by name was A lanu s de In sulis I n a .

description o f the seven liberal arts which constitutes a ,

I !
portion o f that curio u s poetical compendium o f knowle d ge
entitled the A n ti cla u di a nus astronomy is no longer di ff er e n ,

t i a t e d from astrology A la n u s names A lbu ma sa r as one.

o f the r ep r esentatives o f the double s c i enc e z

l

Ill i c a st r p a, o lo s , coelum , sep t e mq u e p lan eta s

C on sulit A lbu mas ar , te r r i s qu e r ep o r t at c o ru m

s
Co n i l i um, t e rr a a r ma n , r mansq u es s c aduca

C ont r a c cel est es ir a s , s up e r u mq u e f u r o r em .

A la nu s de In su li s the medi e val D oc t or Uni versa lis

, ,

belongs to the cl o se o f the twel fth century One o f his con .

temporaries was the E nglishman A lexander Necka m the ,

W
,

r'
author o f a prose t r eatise the D e N a tur is Rer u m The , .

belie f in the astrological inuence o f the planets and con

s t ella t i o n s had by the time o f A lexander N e cka m alrea d y
, ,

become a xed part o f scientic doctrine B ut N ecka m

l still considers it necessary to safeguard his ortho d ox b
.

y y

means o f a caveat L et it not be supposed he says th at

.
, ,

the planets decide things here below by any inevitable law

o f necessity either by their conj unctions or by their being
, ,

in this or that domicile For the divine will is the unalter .

able and primal cause o f thin g s to which not only the -

planets show obedience bu t also create d nature as a whole ,

.

It must be unde r stood that although superio r bodies have ,

some inuence over inferior o nes yet the ar bi tr i u m ani me ,

is f ree and is not impelled by necessity either this way or

,

that It is p ossible that A lexande r N ecka m is paraphrasing

.

the I n tr odu c t or i u m i n A s tr on omia m o f A lbu ma s a r ?

The
discussion o f astrology in the D e N a tu r is R er u m i s c er
( M i g n e P a tr L o t 2 1 0
1
A n ti c la u d i a n u s 4 1 .
, . . .

H
2
D e N a tu r i s R er u m I 8 ( ed W ri g h t R oll s S er pp
. .
,
.
, .
39
A l exa n de r N e ckam a l l eg o ri z i ng t e n d en c i e s g e t th e bet t e r of hi m

s

even in hi s d eal i ng s w i th a st r o l ogy . e i dent i es sr

t he a t ol og cal i
i n u en ces o f t he s ever al p lan et s w i th the s even g ift s o f t he H oly
S p iri t w i s dom i nt ell ect cou n s el br ave ry s c i en ce p i ety
, , , , , , a n d f ea r

( pp 4 1
.
 The M edi e va l A c cep t a n ce o f A s tr o l og y 63

f ainly
one o f the earliest at tempts to bring the new science
o f the stars into conformity with Christian thought A lex .

ander N ecka m clearly points the way to the scholastic

d enition o f orthodox ast rology formulated in the thi r teenth
century .

The deciding factor in the development o f the scholastic

d octrine on the subj ect o f astrology was A ristotle himsel f .

The complete A ristotelian canon had been made accessible

?
in L atin translations b etween the years 1 2 1 0 and 1 2 2 5
A lthough the treatises on natural science were proscribe d
several times by Church councils and papal legates they ,

were gradually purged o f the noxious doctrines with which

they had become tainted while in the hands o f N eoplatonic
and A rabian commentators and by 1 2 5 5 were accepte d as ,

a part o f the standard curriculum o f the U niversity at

Paris ?
A lbert the G r eat al r eady re fers to A ristotle as the

regula v e r itat is in qua natura su mma m i nt ellec t u s humani

,

f i m de mo n s t r a v it

p e r ec t o n e .

This general acceptance o f A ristotle as the arbiter o f

human knowledge coul d not fail to augur well for astrol
ogy N o scholastic theologian d ared any longer question
.

the Peripatetic teaching t hat the processes o f earthly growth

and change depended for their existence upon the stellar
spheres A ristotle s d octrine o f the Prime M over en d owing
.

the heavens w ith a motion which they in turn impart to the

lower spheres and to the earthly elements tted eas ily into ,

a Christian scheme o f the universe A lthough diff ering .

considerably in detail ? a ll o f the medi e val interpreters o f

A ristotle fro m A vicenna and A ve r roes to A lbert the
,
? 6

1
Uber w eg G es c hi ch te
, d er P hilos ophi e ( B e r l i n ,
19 15 ) 2 .
40 8 .

2
I bi d . 2 .
41 0 .

3
D e A ni m a 3 . 2 .
3 .

The va ri ou s co sm i
o lo g ca l sys t e m s ar e s t di
u ed i n D u he m

s Le
S ys tem e du M ond e ; p a r t i c u la r
s ee, in , 3 3 42 , 3 5 1 ; 4
. . 226, 2 33 , 494 .

V au x A vi ce nn e ( Pa ri s

C a rr a de , ,
pp . 25 1 if .

Co mmen tu m i n D e Ge n er a ti o n e
2
et C or r u p t i o n e 2 . 10 ( A r i s t o t e l is
 64 M edie val A t ti tu de t ow ar d A s tr olog y

Great B a r tholom e us A nglicus Thomas A quinas and

,
1
,
2
,
3

D ante 1
accep ted the A r istotelian theo r y o f motion as a
,

fundamental postulate A n d astrological theory had s inc e .

,

the days o f Ptolemy become so inseparable a part o f A ris ,

t ot el ia n cosmology that the Christian theo l ogians in wel ,

coming the one were inevitably compelled to o ff er a ,

favo r able r ecep tion to the other .

A modication o f such importance in the traditional doc

trine o f the Church could not take place without a st r uggle .

S ince the days o f I sidore and A ugustine the ma thema ti ci ,

and r eaders o f ho r oscop es had been b r anded as servants o f

the devil and their fatalistic philosophy had been denounce d
,

with e r y rheto r ic The casting o f nativities had in fact .

, ,

been dened as a su p e r stitious a r t as late as the S u mma

Th e o l og i e o f A lexander o f Hales The s cholastic
g writers o f the thi r teenth centu r y themselves subscribed to
the tea c hings o f the Fathe r s on the subj ect o f demons an d
magi c ?
I n e ff ecting a comp r omise th e refo r e between the , ,

ve r dict o f the ea r ly Church and the new astrology A lbert ,

the G r eat and Thomas A quinas faced a problem o f no

s light di fculty .

The theologians o f the thirteenth centu r y discovered t he

clue fo r its solution i n that p assage o f the D e Ci vi ta te D ei 7

Op er a, ed . 1 5 5 0, 5 . H o r t en ,
D i e M etaphys i k d es A ver r oes
( H alle ,
p . 1 73 .

Gen er a t i o n e e t C or r u p t i on e 2 3 4
1
De . .
( ed J a m m
. y 2 .

M e taphy s i c or u m 1 1 2 2 5 ( e d J am my 3 3 89 . . . . D e C e lo e t M u ndo
2 3 5 ( e d Ja mm y 2 1 1 3 )
. . c f W e rn e r D i e
. . .
,
K os molog i e d es R og er
B ac o ( V i enna ,
p .
52 .

D e P r opr i e ta ti bu s R er u m 8 ( B a t man pp on B ar th ol ome

2
. 1 ff . u ,

L o n don , 1 5 82 , f ol .

O m ni
'
2
D e Ce lo et M u nd o 2 . 12 . 1 8, 19 ( Oper a a, R o m e, 1 888 1 9 06,
-

3 . 1 94, S u mma Theo log i e 1 . 1 . 1 15 .

3 ( i bid .
5 .

C onvi t o
1
11 2 . 15 .

S mm u a Un i ver s e Th e o l og i e Q ue st i o ,
1 66 . 2 ( ed . 1 622 , 2 .

1
H a n s en , Z a u ber w a hn pp 1 5 6 ff , . .

2
Ci v D ei 5 6 ( M i g n e ,
. . P a tr . La t 4 1 . . cf . a b ove p , . 24 .
66 M e d i e va l A t t i t u d e t ow ar d A s tr ol og y

The human soul on the other hand is d ependent upon ele , ,

mental matter not di r ectly but s ecu n du m qu od A gather , .

ing o f blood about the heart for example inclines the soul , ,

to wrath but anger is not a necessary consequence Henc e

, .

the stars govern the soul s actions only indirectly and not
s i mp li ci t er They can inuence the human will but only
by way o f the body ?
.

A lbe r t cites in support o f his defense

I ,

o f free will the same passage o f A ristotle s D e Inter p r eta

ti on e which A lbu ma s a r had employed in a simila r connec

2

tion and he makes it clear by means o f re ferences to the ,

Fathers that he does not wish to be accused o f leanings

,

towar d fatalism .

A lbert the Grea t s concessions to j udicial astrolo gy

,

guarded though they were su fced to change the traditional ,

hostility o f the Chu r ch into an attitu d e o f tolerance Con .

crete evi d ence for this is furnishe d by A lbert s own com

menta r y on the secon d chapter o f M atthew that story o f ,

the M agi which had served so many o f the Fathers as a

text for a s ermon against the astrolo g ers A lbert in .
,

dening the meaning o f the word mag us takes o ccasion

3
,

to discuss the magic arts in general When he comes to the .

ma thema ti ci he d ivi d es them into two groups according

, ,

as they represent the pure science o f mathematics ( ma the

s is ) or , the more d ubious practical art o f astrolo gy

1
I bi d .
, f ol r g o s ecu ndu m q u o d a n i mu s h omi n i s i ncli n a
. 64b :

Sic e ,

t ur e t d ep e n de t a d n a t u r am e t comp l exi on em s i c e t i am h ab e t i n cc
, ,

vi m c o n s t ella t i o vi d el i ce t s ecu n du m qu o d e t n on s i mp l i c i t e r
,
.

Q u o d a u t em s u p e ri o r u m co rp o r u m vir tu s i mp ona t n eces s ita t em

l ib e r o a rbi t ri o e t i am c o nt r a p h i10 3 0p hu m e s t p on e r e n i s i p e r hunc
, ,

mo du m : q u o di ci mu s i n clin a r i e t mu t a ri h om i n i s an i mu m

.

S e e a b ov e p 5 8
2
. .
,

Thi s d e n i t i on i t s el f s o u n d s s t r an g e t o e a r s a cc u s t om ed t o
2

p at ri s t i c ex eg es i s : M ag u s pr opri e n i s i mag nu s est qu i a sci ent iam

,

h ab en s de o mn ib u s ex n eces s ar i i s e t eff ect ibu s natu r ar u m conj ee ,

t u ra n s a li q u a n do m ir abi l i a na tu re p re os t en di t et e du ci t ( ed J ammy

.
,

9 .
 The M ed ie v al A ccep ta n ce f
o A s tr ol og y 67

( ma t hes is ) On the latter he has this to say : I f anyone
?

prognosticates by the stars concernin g those thin g s only

which are subj ect to natural caus es and to that ,

primal order o f nature which exists in the conguration o f

the stars an d heavenly circles he d oes not commit a fault , ,

but rather serves a useful purpos e an d saves many thin g s ,

from harm H e however who p redicts the futu re

.
, ,

arbitrarily ( n on c ons id era tis omni bus ) and concernin g ,

future things other than thos e dened above is a deceiver , ,

U nderneath this ca r e fully worde d

and is to be shunned 2
.

d enition one can feel a real enthus iasm fo r the science o f

,

Ptolemy an d A lbuma s a r .

Thomas A quinas in crystalli z in g nally the orthodox , , ,

attitude towar d astrolo gy o f the later me d i e val centuries ,

follows the lea d o f A lbert the Great L ike his pre d ecessor .
,

h e accepts the cosmology o f A ristotle ? and nds equal

com fort in the passage o f A ugustine which a d mits a rule
o f the stars over corporeal bodies He does not hesitate .

to declare that the employment o f astrology for meteoro

l ogical purposes an d in medicine is entirely legitimate ,
4
,
.

A s with A lbert the real debate centre d in j udicial astrology ;

,

and Thomas A quinas l ike his pre d ecesso r begins the dis , ,

cu ss i on with a psychological analysis The human intellect .

1
T hi s di s ti n t i c on , i t w i ll be r ememb e r ed i s f ou nd , in J oh n of

S a li s b ry
u . S ee a b ove, p .
37 .

2
Ed . J ammy 9 . 24 .

( Op
2
S u mma Th e o l og i e 1 . 1 . 115 .
3 er a O mn i a , ed . R o me, 5 .

De f u d i cii s A s tr o r u m ( O pu s cu la O m ni a, Pa ri s ,
p .
3 92 :

Et i d eo s i al i q u i s iu di c i i s a st r o ru m u t a tu r ad p r e n os cen du m c or

p or a l e s p u t a t emp es tatem et s er en i ta t em ac ri s s an it at em
e ff ec t u s ,
'

, ,

vel i n r m i t at em c o rp o ri s vel u b e r t a t em e t s t e r i li t a t em f r u g u m e t
, ,

s i mi li a que ex co rp o ralibu s e t n atu r alibu s can s i s dep endent nullum

, ,

vi d etu r e ss e p ecc a t u m N am omn e s h om i n e s c ir ca t a le s e ff ectu s

.

a l iq u a ob se r va t i o n e u t u n tu r co rp o r u m ccel es t i u m s i eu t ag ri cole ,

s emin an t e t m et u n t ce r t o t emp o r e M ed i c i c ir ca e g r i tu d i n es .

cr it icos d i es o b s e r van t q u i d et e r mi na n t u r s ecu n d u m cu r s u m s o l i s et

,

lune cf . S u mma 2 . 2 .
95 5 .
(9 .
66 M edie val A t ti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr ol og y

The human soul on the other hand is dependent upon ele , ,

mental matter not directly but s ecu n du m qu od A gather , .

ing o f blood about the heart for example inclines the soul , ,

to wrath but anger is not a necessary consequence Henc e

, .

the stars govern the soul s actions only indirectly and not
s i mp li ci ter They can inuenc e the human will but only
by way o f th e body ?
.

A lbe r t cites in support o f his defens e

. ,

o f free will the s ame passa g e o f A rist otle s D e Inter pr eta

ti on e which A lbu mas a r had employed in a s imilar connec

2

tion ; and he makes it clear by means o f references to the ,

Fathers that he does not wish to be accused o f leanings

,

toward fatalism .

A lbert the Great s concessions to j udicial astrolo gy

,

guarded though they were su fced to change the tra d itiona l ,

hostility o f the Church into an attitu d e o f tolerance Con .

crete evidence for this is furnishe d by A lbert s own com

menta r y on the secon d chapter o f M atthew that story o f ,

the M agi which had served so many o f the Fathers as a

text for a sermon against the astrolo g ers A lbert in .
,

dening the meaning o f the word mag u s ? takes o ccasion

to discuss the magic arts in general When he comes to the .

ma thema ti ci he d ivi d es the m into tw o gr oups a ccordin g

, ,

as they represent the pure science o f mathematics ( ma the

s is ) or ,the more dubious practical art o f astrolo gy

1
I bi d .
,
f ol r g o s ecu n d u m qu o d a n i mu s h omi n i s i ncli na
.
b
64 :

Sic e ,

t u r et d ep en d et a d n a t u r am e t c omp l exi on em s i c e t i am h ab et i n cc
, ,

vi m con s t e lla t i o v i d el i ce t s e cu n du m qu o d et n on s i mp l i c i t e r
, .

Q u od a u te m s up e ri o r u m co rp oru m v irt u s imp ona t n ecess ita t em

l ib e r o a rb i t ri o et i am con t r a p hilo s op hu m e s t p on er e n i s i p e r hunc
, ,

m odum : qu o di c i mu s i n cli nar i e t mu t a ri h om i n i s an i mu m

.

S ee ab ove p 5 8
2
. .
,

T hi s d e n i t i on i t s el f s o u n d s s t r ang e t o ear s ac cu s t om ed t o
3

p at ri s t i c ex eg es i s : M ag u s pr opri e n i s i mag nu s est qu i a sci ent iam

,

ha b en s de omn ibu s ex n eces sa r ii s et e ff ect ibus n atu r ar u m conj ee ,

tu ra n s a l i q uan do m ir abi l i a n a tu re p r e ost en di t et e du ci t ( e d J ammy

.
,

9 .
 The M edie val A ccep tan ce f
o A s tr ol ogy 67

( ma t hes i s ) On the latter he has this to say : I f anyone
?

prognosticates by the stars concernin g those thin g s only

which are subj ect to natural causes and t o that ,

primal order o f nature which exists in the conguration o f

the stars and heavenly circles he d oes not commit a fault , ,

but rather serves a use ful purpos e an d saves many thin g s ,

from harm He however who pre d icts the futur e

.
, ,

arbitrarily ( n on c ons i der a tis omni bus ) an d concernin g ,

future things other than those dened above is a deceiver , ,

and is to be shunned U nderneath this care fully worde d

2
.

d enition one can feel a real enthusiasm for the science o f

,

Ptolemy and A lbu masa r .

Thomas A quinas in crystalli z in g nally the ortho d ox , , ,

a ttitude toward astrology o f the later medi e val centuries ,

follows t he lead o f A lbert the Great L ike his pre d ecessor .

,

h e accepts the cosmology o f A ristotle ? and nds equal

com fort in the passage o f A ugustine which admits a rule
o f the stars over corporeal bo d ies H e does not hesitate .

to declare that the employment o f astrology for meteoro

4
lo g ical purposes an d in medicine is entirely legitimate
, ,
.

A s with A lbert the real debate centre d in j udicial astrolo gy ;

,

and Thomas A quinas like his pre d ecesso r begins the dis , ,

c u ss i on with a psychological analysis The human intellect .

1
T hi s di s ti n t i c on, i t w i ll be r em emb er ed i s f ou nd , in J oh n of

s
S a l i b u ry S ee ab ove .
,
p .
37 .

Ed J a mmy 9 24
2
. . .

8
S u mma Th e o log i e 1 1 1 1 5 3 ( Oper a m ni a e d R o m e 5
. . . O , .
, .

mn i a Pa ri p 3 92 : O s
2
D e J u d i cii s A s tr or u m ( Opu s cu la , , .

s
E t i deo i a l iq u i s iu d i c i i s a s t r o r u m u t a tu r a d p r e no s cen dum cor
p o r al es p u ta t emp es ta tem et s er en i ta tem acri s san it at em
e ff ec t u s , , ,

v el i n r m i t at em co rp o ri s vel u b e r t a t em e t s t er i l i t a t em f r u g u m e t
, ,

s i m i li a que ex co rp o r alibu s et n atu ralibu s c ans i s dep endent nullum

, ,

v i d et u r e ss e p e cca t u m N am o m n e s h o m i n e s c ir ca t a le s e ff ectu s
.

a liq u a o b se r va t i o n e u t u n tu r c o rp o r u m ccel e s t i u m s i eu t ag ri cole ,

s emi n an t e t m et u n t ce r t o t emp o r e M ed i c i c ir ca e g r i tu d in es .

c r i t ico s d i e s o b s e r va nt q u i d et e r mi nant ur s ecu n du m c u r s u m s o l i s e t

,

lu ne ; S u mma

cf . 2 . 2 .
95 5 .
(9 .
68 M edie val A t ti tu de t ow ar d A s tr ol og y

and will he says a r e not co r poreal ; consequently they

, ,

escape that inuence which the stars necessarily exert over

matter Indirectly however and by accident the inuence
.
, , ,

o f the heavenly bodies does a ff ect intellect and will inas ,

much as both intellect and will are intimately connected

with corp o r eal organs The intellect in truth i s necessarily
.
, ,

a ff ected wheneve r man s physical processes are distu r bed .

The will on the other hand d oes not follow o f necessity

, ,

the inclination o f inferior appetite although the irascible ,

and the concupiscent in man incline the will toward this

o r that choice ?
The maj ority o f men in fact are gov , ,

erned by thei r passions which are dependent upon bodily ,

appetites ; in these the inuence o f the stars is clearly felt .

Few indeed are the wise who are capable o f resisting thei r
animal instincts A strologers consequently are able t o
.
, ,

foretell the truth in the maj ority o f cases especially when ,

they undertake general predictions In p articular predic .

ti ons they do not attain certainty for nothing p revents a

, ,

man from r esisting the dictates o f his lower faculties

.

Where fo r e the astrologers thems elves a r e wont to say that

the wise man rules the sta r s fo r asmuch namely as he ,
, ,

rules his own passions 2

.

B ut Thomas A quinas i s not prepared to set asi d e entirely

the patristic teaching that astrology is a diabolic a r t o f
divination He accepts j udicial astrology so long as it can
.

prove itsel f a part o f natu r al science and he goes j ust a s ,

far as he dares in freeing it from the restrictions with which

it had become encumbered in earlier Church doctrine .

N evertheless there was still remaining a narrow margin

,

o f astrological theory which coul d not be brought within -

the p ale o f a reasoned cosmological science This portion .

S u mma 1 1 1 1 5 4, R esp on deo ( 5

1
. . . .

2
S u mma 1 1 1 1 5 4, A d T e r t i u m ( 5
. . . T he phr a e

a p i en . s s s
s s s
h omo dom ina tu r a t ri r ecu r m any t i me i n th e a t r olog i cal l i te r a

s s
tu r e o f t he t hirt eent h a n d f ou r t een th cent u ri e ( s e e b elow, pp s .

135
 The M e di e va l A ccep ta n ce o f A s tr o log y 69

o f j udicial astrolo g y Thomas A quinas con d emns in the

language o f the Church Fathers I f any one he says .
, ,

employs the o bservation o f the stars for predicting f o r tu i f

tous events o r such as happen by chance or even for pre i

, ,
-

dicting with certainty ( per c er ti tu di ne m ) a man s future

actions he does so falsely In this sort o f prophecy the

,
.

A s fo r astrological

activity o f demons is called into play 1
.

ma gic this nds no place in Thomas A quinas system
,
.

N ecromancers he admits invoke demons accor d ing to the , ,

congurations o f the stars but not by reason o f any com ,

pulsion which the heavens exercis e over the fallen angels .

The demons come when thus called in order to lead men , ,

into a belie f in the divine power o f the stars an d because ,

under ce r tain constellations corp oreal matter is better d is

posed for the result for which they are summone d ?
A stro
logical images and charms such as are employe d in me d i ,

cine are also under the ca r e o f demons A s a p r oo f o f this

, .
,

Thomas A quinas cites the fact that such images are never
e fcacious unless inscriptions are written on them which ,

tacitly invoke the aid o f evil spirits ?

The long war fare o f science with theolo gy carried on ,

f r om the days o f Tertullian and A ugustine had resulted ,

in a distinct victory for science A strology had success fully .

S u mm a
1
2 . 2 .
95 .
5 (9 .

2
S u mma 1 . I . 1 15 4, A d S ecu n du m ( 5
. . T h o ma s A q u i na s
r mly b eli eve s in ss
t h e p o ibi l i ty o f ma g i c r
a n d n e c o m an c y .

s s h r b gs
H
T h om a A qu i na
8
S u mm a 2 2 96 2 (9 e e e t he
i s t s R og e r
. . . .

s
r ea l q u e t i o n at i ss u e . O th r s i e c en t B a con, f o r e x a mp l e
( s ee B r ew e r , Op er a Q ue d a m a c t en u s I n e d i ta R o ll Ser , p 5 3 1 ) ,
s . .

did n o t t ak e i t f o r g r a n t e d t h a t i n c rip t i o n w e r e n ece a ry f o r s s ss

s
a t r o l o g i c a l i ma g e s s
It i a l o i n t e r e t i ng t o s ee t h e R e na i an c e
. s s ss

H
co mm e n t a to r of Aq in s u a ,
p an i e s
C aje t a n ( hi s c o mm e n t a ry a cc o m

the t e x t i n t h e L eo n i n e e d i t i o n ) t ak e i ss u e w i th hi s m a s t e r o n t hi s ,

p o i nt . e c i t e s c e r t a i n m a r ve l o u s s t o ri e s o f G u i d o B o n a t t i a n d

o t h e r a s t r o l og e r s t o p r ov e t h a t i f i m a e s a r e m a d e a t c e r t a i n h o u r s
g ,

t h ey c a n be u s e d t o p r o d u c e f ea t s o f m a g i c w i th o u t t h e i n t e r v en t i o n
of d em o n s .
 7o M e d i e val A t ti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr ol og y

divested itsel f o f the stigma o f illegitimacy which it ha d

borne for centuries A lthough condemnations o f j udicial .

astrology continued to a pp ear in later writers they were ,

usually in the nature o f belated borrowin g s from A ugustine

and I sidore The denition o f Thomas A quinas also left
.

r oom for di ff erences o f opinion in particular cases It

might have been possible to level against almost any pro

f e s s i on al ast r ologer the accusati on that he was indul g in g
in p r edicti ons per cer ti tu di nem but the burden o f p roo f ,

woul d have been laid upon the accuser A s a matter o f fact .

,

a fte r the middle o f the thi r teenth centu r y a sane science

had no longer anything to fear at the hands o f the Church .

Indiscriminate denunciations such as had found their way ,

into the canon law o f Ivo and Gratian ceased to appear ,

.

A n indication o f orthodox opinion in the last quarter o f the

century is furnished by a list o f proscribed wo r ks on the
oc c ult a r ts which fo r med a p art o f a dec r ee against heresy
,

issued in 1 2 77 by B ishop Tempier o f Paris ?

A work on

geomancy a fo r m o f divination by means o f gures drawn
hapha z a r dly by the questioner and inte r p r eted astro

,

logically is singled out for condemnation and a general ,

p r ohibition is made o f all books dealing with the invoca

tion o f demons The decree also takes issue with certain .

A verroistic doctrines denying the f r eedom o f the will ?

B ut a sober astrology is not attacke d A similar pronounc e .

ment on superstitious arts ma d e a century later ( 1 398 ) by ,

the same U niversity o f Pa r is is equally lenient ?
It ,

Ch at ela i n ( P a ri s
1
D en i e -

, Char tu lar i u m Univers i ta tis P ar is i ens is ,

1 889 ) 1 .
5 43 if .

2
N0 . 1 62 .

Q uod v olu n t a s no str a j
s u b ace t p ot e s t at i co rp or u m
c el es t i u m

.

No . 2 07 .

Q uod in , h omi n i s i n c o rp o r e su o
h or a g en e r a t i o n i s
e t p er co n s eq u en s i n a n i m a q u e s equ i t u r c o rp u s ex o r d i n e cau s a r u m
, ,

s up eri o r um et i n f eri o ru m inest homini d i s p o s i t i o in clinans ad tale s

ac t i on e s v el event u s E rr o r n i s i i n t ell ig at u r d e even t ibu s n a t u r al
.

i bu s e t p e r v i am d i s p o s i t i on i s
, .

3
I bi d .
4 3 2 ff
. .
 7 2 M ed i e va l A tti t u d e t ow a r d A s tr olog y

for meteorological predictions and in chemistry medicine , , ,

and ag r iculture ?
He also discourses at length u p on the
ast r ological signicance o f comets ?
But o f j udicial astrol
ogy he says not a word R oger Bacon like his predecessor .
, ,

sees in the new astrology something more than a divinatory

a r t He says expressly that even i f j udicial astrology were
.

abolished altogether enough would be left to constitute a ,

science o f immense value ?

All the great masters from
A ristotle to A lbu ma sa r he asserts repudiated its vulgar
4
, ,

p r actitioners especially those who contaminated it with

,

necromancy ?
I n the matte r o f j udicial ast r ology Ptolemy ,

himsel f made a distinction between gene r al and particular

prognostications Only in the former can ce r tainty be .

attained In pre d icting the future the true astrologer does

.
,

not prophesy necessary events but merely indicates motives ,

and tendencies ?
P r o gnostications o f pa r ti c ula r human
actions to be su r e o ften p r ove success ful s ince character
, , ,

and morals depend largely on bodily health General pre .

dictions he suggests can be o f g r eat service to the Church

, ,

itsel f He cites as an exam p le o f a legitimate pro p hecy the

.

horoscopes o f the va r ious religions o f the world institute d ,

1
D e A r ti bu s L iber a libu s ( B au r pp 5 ,
Gr o ss et est e enu mera tes
.

hr e e p r a ct i cal u s es o f
t a s t r o n omy ( a s t r ol ogy ) :

veg et ab ili u m p l an

t a t i c m i n e r a li u m t r a n s m u t a t i o e g r i t u d i n u m c u r a t i o

.
, ,

D e C o m e ti s ( B au r pp 3 6
2
.
,

Opu s M aju s P ar s Q u ar ta ( e d B ri dg e s L o n d on 1 900

2
, .
, , , 1 .

B a co n a ss u m e d t ha t A ri s t ot le w a s t h e au th o r o f th e S ecr e tu m
1

S ec r e t o r u m ( i bi d . 1 .

5
I bi d . 1 . Th e S p ecu lu m A s tr o n omie , a c rib ed t o Alb er t the
240 . s
Gr e a t , bu t p r o b ably w ri t t en by B a con ( s e e b el o w , p ay s s .

th a t m a ny b ook s o f m ag i c t r y t o a ss u m e a s c i en t i c a i r by clot hi ng
t h e m s e lv e s i n a s t r o l o g i c a l l a n g u a g e : S c in t illa t i o n i s g r a t i a s ibi

,

m it t u n t q u a s da m ob s e r va t i o n es a s t r ono mi ca s , ut s ic se r e d d an t al i

q u a t en u s d e d i g no s

( A lber t i M a g ni O p er a, ed . J a mmy 5 .

l s tr
2
O pu s M aju s 1 . 2 49 , 2 5 2 . B a co n a ss r t s t h
e at i t wa s y f at ali s t i c
onl

a ol og y th at ha d b een r epr eh en d ed by t he Ch u r ch F a th e r s and ,

l c i t es p a ss ag e s to pr ove t h a t t h ey ac c ep t e d t h e t r u e s c i en c e ( 1 .
 The M edi e va l A c cep t an ce f
o A s tr olog y 73

by A lbu ma sa r A ccording to the latter a maj or c o nju n c

?
,

tion o f Jupiter with one o f the other planets signied the

rise o f a new religion The conj unction o f Jupiter with .

Saturn had brought about the Heb r ew religion ; that w ith

M ars the Chaldean that with the S un the E gyptian ; that
, ,

with V enus the M ohammedan ; and that with M ercu r y

,

the Ch r istian The conj unction with the M oon signi fying
.
,

the religion o f A ntichrist was still in p r ospect A ccording to ,

.

Bacon s slightly unortho d ox chronology the M ohammedan

religion would soon have completed its course a hope fo r

which he nds additional warrant in the mystic numbers o f
the A pocalypse He therefore b r eaks out into a panegyric .

on the wonder ful science which thus corrobo r ates the Ch r is

tian faith and p redicts the ove r throw o f its enemies :
,

Propte r quod la u da n du s est D eus qui p hilos op hi s dedit ,

lumen sap i ent ie per quod lex ve r it a t i s c on r ma t u r et

,

r obo r a t u r e t per quod p e r c ip i m u s i n i m i c o s de i destrui

,

R oger B acon indee d exhausts his eloquence in

debere .
, ,

pra i se o f astrology emphas i z ing above all its utility in ,

medicine ?

R oger B acon probably overstepped the boun d s o f con

s er vat i ve opinion on the su bj ect o f j udicial astrolo y only
g
in the enthusiasm with which he applied it to sacred

1
I bi d . 1 . 25 3 -
66 .

2
I bi d . 1 . 2 66i t o r o f t he O pu s M aju s ( B ri dg es
. T he ed c om

men t s on B acon s b eli e f i n a s t r ology i n a p a ss ag e t h at i s wo r thy

To a b el i eve r in a l i m i t e d an d s ph e ri cal u n i ve r s e

o f q u o t a t i on :
,

w i th a t e rr es t ri al c ent r e no t hi ng c ou l d s e em m o r e va l i d a s a w o r k
,

i ng hyp o th e s i s f o r exp l a i n i ng phy s i ca l cha ng e s o n the e a r th s s u r

f ace th an t h at a lte r a t io n s o f th e d ir ect i on s in whi ch the p la net s

we r e s een s h o u l d be f o llow e d by co rr e s p on d i ng a l t e r a t i on s o f t e rr e s
t ri al o bj ec t s The co mbi nat i o n s o f p la ne t a ry b o d i e s a s s e en i n
.
,

co nj u n c t i o n i n opp o s i t i on o r i n in t e r m e d i a te p o s i t i on s o ff e r e d a
, , ,

wi de eld o f s p ecu la t i on w hi ch b ecam e p r a ct i cally b ou ndle ss wh en

,

t o t h e app a r en t r ela t i o n o f t h e s e b o d i e s t o o n e a noth e r w e r e a d d e d

t h e ir app a r e n t re la t i o n s ( a ls o eve r va ry i ng ) w i th th e x e d s ta r s .

H u man an d t e rr es t ri al event s comp li cated a s th ey mi g h t be we r e , ,

74 M e di e va l A tti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr ol og y

things I n the matter o f astrological magic he und oubtedly

?
,

pro gresse d bey on d the limits set by Thomas A qui na s .

B acon condemns magic by th e ai d o f d emons hol d in g the ,

view that most o f it is fraud anyway ; but ma gic that

?

sim p ly utili z es the marvelous inuences o f the stars n d s

in him an enthusiastic supp orter Images and verbal .

charms i f made under the pr oper constellati ons ar e

, ,

endowe d with unusual p owe r s because they store up th e ,

mysterious energy o f the stars an d o f the h u man spirit ?

B acon quotes in all earnestness a story t old by Josephus , ,

in which M oses escapes fr om a compr omising love a ff air -

with an E thi opian princess by gi v i ng her a ring causing

for g etfulness ?
M any o f the miracles of saints h e says , ,

were p er f ormed by means o f magic w ords spoken at the ,

proper astrological moment ?

I n his S p e cu lu m A s tr on omie 6
,

and his E p is t ola d e S ecr e tis N a tu r e he even ventures to

7
,

p a ra ll el e d by e qu al comp l i cat i on i n t he p lay o f cele s t i al f o rces It .

m ay be s a i d on t h e wh ol e t h at so f a r fr om b el i e f i n a s t r ology
, ,

b ei ng a r ep r oa ch t o B a con an d hi s cont emp o r a ri es t o h ave dis ,

b el i eved i n i t wou ld h ave b een i n the t hir t eent h c entu ry a s i gn o f

i nt ellectu al weakn ess It con f o r me d t o the r s t l aw o f Comte s .

H
phi los ophi a pr i ma as b e i ng th e b e st h yp oth es i s o f whi ch t he a s oe r
f a i n e d ph en om ena a dm i tte d

.

e a l m o s t u n d e r t ak e s i n o ne p a ss ag e t o w ri t e t h e h o r o s cop e o f
1
, ,

C hri s t hi m s el f ( i bid 1 . .

B r ewe r O per a In edi ta p 5 23

2
. .
, ,

2
Op us M aju s I .
3 95 7
-
.

Ibi d . 1 .
3 92 .

5
I bi d . 1 .
3 95 .

6
A w ork u nt i l r ecent ly a s c rib ed b r
t o A l e t t he Gr eat . M an d onn et ,

in an a r t i cle i n t he R evu e N e o S c olas ti qu e

( 17 3 13 ha s fa i rly

-
.

pr ove d t i t he s ti s f
r e c en t a s c h o l a r a c t on o f s o a s D u hem ( 3

a t l ea s t
o a .

t h at i t wa s w ri t t en by R og e r B a c on p r ob a b ly s h o r t ly a f t e r ,

B i s h op T e mpi e r o f P a ri s ha d i ss u e d hi s dec r e e ag a i n s t b ook s on

m ag i c a n d g eoman cy T he S p ecu lu m i s f ou n d i n t he O per a o f
.

A l b e r t t h e Gr eat ( e d J ammy 5 65 6 ff ) in p a r t al s o i n Ca ta log us

. . .
, ,

C o di cu m A s tr olog or u m Gr e c or u m ( B r u ss el s 1 906) 5 85 3 ,
-
. .

C f a b o ve p 5 3
.
, . .

B r ew e r p 5 3 2
2
. .
,
 The M e di e va l A ccep tan ce o f A s tr ol ogy 75

de fen d certain con d emne d books on m agic maintaining ,

that some o f them are merely thought to be ba d but really ,

c onta i n use ful scientic facts In books on geomancy .

,

especially he sees no harm sinc e h e nds that this divina

, ,

tory art em p loys scientic methods con di t S aturno et
domino hor e 1
I n utte r ances like these B a c op wag ger
.

m
m g

t ain ly indis creet Geoman cy was among the arts o f .

the Church permitte d no compro

mise ?
It is possible that B acon s o w n impri s onment at
,

the hands o f th e M inister General o f the Franciscan or d er ,

f oll owed as a d irect result o f the publication o f the

S p ecu lu m A s tr o n om i e ?

The Church fearing perhaps that it ha d d ealt t oo ,

leniently with astrology in theory gave evi d ence that it ,

could b e all the mo r e sev e r e with it whenever in p r actice

%
it meddled with magic or with fatalistic doctrines It .

was ostensibly on t hes e two accounts at any rate that , ,

the Inquisition con d emne d t o the stake its rst astrol ogical
heret ic Cecco d A scoli pro fessor o f astrology at the U n i

, ,

versi ty 0 the rst quarter o f the f ourteenth

century The author o f a n encyclop e d ic poem th e A cer ba
.
, ,

o f an astronomical commentary on the S p he r a o f S acro

B osco and o f s everal minor astrol ogi cal texts Cecc o

, ,

d A s c o li has in recent years arous ed much historical inter

?
est His execution at Florence in 1 3 2 7 following upon , ,

1
S p ec A s tr , c h a p
. . . 16 ( e d J a mmy 5
. .

2
A q u i n a , S u mm a s 2 . 2 .
96 3 . .

2
M a n d on n et ,
p .
3 34 .

A c co r di ng t o i ( L a P o es i a A s tr o l og i ca n el Q u a t tr o cen t o
S o ld a t
,

F lo r ence 1 906 p , wh o s e j u dg men t o f the con t r ove r s i a l l it e r a

, .

t u r e o n t he s u bj ec t i s r ec en t a n d m a t u r e t h e b e s t o f t h
e m a ny ,

bi og r aphi es o f C ecco i s t h a t o f B a ri ola C e cc o d A s co li e l A cer ba ,

,
F lo r en ce 1 87 9 T w o e x ce ll ent s h o r t a r t i c le s a r e t h o s e by B oi to :
, .

P er che f u C on d a nn a t o a l F u oc o l A s tr o l og o Ce cc o d A s c o li ( S t u d i

e D oc di S t or e D i r i t t o 2 0 a n d 1 1 D e P r i n ci i i s A s t r o l o

. .
3 66 .

p .

g ie d i C ec c o d A s c oli ( Gi or n S t or di L e tt I t S u pp l

I h ave . . . .
, .
76 M edi e val A tti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr ol ogy

a p revious con d e mnation o f his teachings at B olo gna an d ,

involving the usual amount o f I talian intrigu e is still ,

something o f a myste r y A cco rd ing to Giovanni Villani .

,

our best autho r ity h e was foun d g uilty by the Franciscan,

inquisitor o f three he r etical doctrines : First that in the ,

ae r ial s p heres there existed mali g n spirits which c ould be

const r ained by m eans o f enchantments per f bf md uii d e r
m
' '

certain c onstellations to perform many marvel ous thin g s ,

.

S econdly that he had ascribed a necessary inuence t o the

,

heavens Thirdly that Christ s birt h ,_
.
,
0 0

h ad been accor d ing to th e rule o f the stars

?
There can be
no d oubt that Cecco was guilty on the rst c ount that
"

o f having ha d dealin gs with the necromancy o f the Jews
and M oo r s ?
H e is in fact an ex c ellent rep r esentative o f
, ,

that scientic ma g ic which was spreading ov er E urope fr om

the O r i e nt and which was making its rst im p o r tant home
,

in Italy The second and third c ounts upon which Cecc o

.

stood a c c us e d a r e mo r e difcult to substantiate His .

w orks contain a liberal sprink li n g o f pious phrases and a

l ong discussion o f Pt ole my s the o ry o f free w ill ?
Cecco

i s car e ful t o quote the ap plicati on o f astrolo gy t o Chri st

n ot s een i og r aphy o f C e cco by G C a s t e ll i ( B ol ogna
the b .
,

n o r t h e r ec ent e d i t i o n o f t h e A cer ba by P R o s a ri o ( L a nc i ano .

,
1
Gi ovann i V i llan i Cr o ni che I O 40 ( ed F lo r enc e 1 823 5 5 5
, . .
, , .

A s i mi la r a s t r olog i cal i nt e rpr et at i on o f the l if e o f Chri s t i s f oun d

i n a w o rk o f t he I tal i an lawy er L i g nano ( d i ed 1 3 83 ) , see F ant u z z i ,

N o tizi e d eg li S cr i t t or i B olog n es i ( B olog na 1 796) 5 3 9 Cf also , . . .

t h e a r t i cl e o n L i g nano by P r o f e ss o r A S C o ok R om R ev 8 3 7 1 . .
, . . . .

B o ffi t o P er ch f u C ond a nn a t o p 3 7 5 ; B a ri o la p 9
2
, ,In t he .
, . .

A cer ba i s f o u n d a s mal l manu al o f t h e b lac k a rt s ( 4 4 : e d V en i ce . .

,

1 820 p, 203 ; c f G o we r C onf A m 6 1 261

. .
, whi ch c los es wit h
. . .

t h e a dvi ce t o the l i s t ene r t h a t he s h ou ld pr ove t h e ir ef cacy f o r

h i m s el f . P a ss ag e s in hi s pr o s e wo rk s ar e fr equ ent whi ch s h ow
t h a t C e cco n ot o nly b el i eve d i n t h e p o ss i b i l i ty o f d i a b ol i c mag i c
a t hi n g whi ch t h e Ch u r c h n eve r de n i e d bu t a dvo cat ed it s pr act i ce .

Se e the phi lo s ophi c al de f en s e o f a s t r ology i n hi s pr os e com

1

m ent a ry o f t he D e P r i n cipiis A s tr olog ie o f Alchabit iu s ( Gi or n .

S t or S u pp l 6 p
.
,
.
, .
 The M e di e va l A ccep tan ce f
o A s tr olog y 77

at second han d B ut the general tone o f his writin g s

?
,

even as w e have the m can be legitimately suspecte d o f ,

he r esy A strolo gy w as assuming in I taly a much bolder

.

tone than in th e universities o f France an d E nglan d Cecco .

d A sc oli came t oo at a time when the Church un d er the

, , ,

g ui d ance o f Pope J ohn X X I I was unusuall y energeti c in ,

its pe r secution o f magical practices ?

Cecco d A s coli has

frequently been ranke d very high as a scientist He him .

sel f presumably believe d in his own teachings an d the story ,

goes that he preserved at his trial a n d executi on a mag

n i cent calm .

Cecco d A scol i atone d for the sins o f many ; his d eath

h a w ;

forms an alm ost is olate d instanc e in the

Iiiqisif ib The boldnes s o f his utterances his lack o f
"

.
,

of E iEl patronage an d th e fact that he w as expose d t o the

,

calumny o f p ower ful rivals su bj ecte d him t o dangers from ,

which lesser an d g reater men were exempt I taly in fact .

, ,

during the c ourse o f the thirteenth century h a d become the

great E uropean centre o f astrology outsi d e o f M oham
medan Spain A t the universities o f B olo gn a P a dua and
.
, ,

M ilan the list o f pro fessors o f astrology is continuous from

,

the early thirteenth to the s ixteenth century boasting the ,

names o f such famous s cientists a s Pietr o d Aban o

,

Giorgio Pe u r ba ch and R egiomontanus 3

B ologna is, .

cre d ite d with the p ossess ion o f a chair o f a strol ogy as earl y
as A t t he courts o f E mpero r Frederick I I an d
E cc eli no d a R omano M oorish a nd Jewish a strologe r s ,

1
P er che i n C o nda nna to p 3 80
B off i t o, , . .

H
S ee t he s eve ra l p ap al l ett e r s whi ch P op e J o h n X X II w r o te o n
2
.

t he s u bj e c t o f mag i c b et w e en t he y e a r s 1 3 1 3 a nd 1 33 1 p u b l i s h e d i n ,

J a nsen s Qu ellen u nd Unter s u chu ng en z u r G es chi chte d es H exc u

.

wahns u nd d er H exenverf olg u ng ( B onn pp 2 7 , .

-
.

2
Gabot t o

, L A s tr o log i a n el Q u a t t r oc e n t o ( R i v . di F i l . S ci e n t .

8 3 78
.

B u r ckh a r dt , D i e K u lt u r d er R enai s s a nce i n I t a li e n ( I ot h cd .
,

Le ip z i g , 1 908 ) 2 240 . .
7 8 M edi e val A t ti tu de t ow ar d A s tr ol og y

practise d the most mercenary o f arts In the service o f .

th e fo r mer was a certain Theo d orus an d M ichael Scot , ,

the translator o f A ve r r oes B esides some astrological .

texts M ichael Scot furnishe d the emperor with a work

,

on and he is also kno w n as the autho r o f a

'

treatise on g e omancy ?
Whatever be the nal ve r dict on
this man a s a philos opher or s cientist he w as fame d in ,

his time as a vulgar magician ? and B oc c accio calls him

gran m e st r o in nigro man z ia Frederick s contemporary

5
,

E c c el i n o s o the ch r onicles tell u s sur r ounded himsel f

with a host o f necromancers a strologers an d magicians : , ,

M aster S alio a canon from Padua R ip r an d in o o f Verona

, , ,

Gui d o B onatti an d Paul a S aracen with a white bear d

, , ,

who came from B aldach in the r emote O r ient and who by , ,

reason o f his ori gin aspect and actions d eserve d the name , , ,

o f a second B alaam

.

Pe r haps th e most famous pro fessi onal astrologer o f t he

thirteen th century was Guido B onat ti A lthough in the .

intellectual an d social scale he st ood above m ost o f hi s

fellow cra ftsmen he is the author o f one o f the popular
-

medi e val text b ooks on astrologyhis science n ever the

-

less woul d har d ly have met with full approval on the part
,

o f Thomas A quinas A s an example o f the kin d o f s er .

- 4

vices he rendered his maste r s Filip p o Villani relates that

?
,

while in the empl oy o f Gui do de M onte feltr o he w oul d ,

mount the camp anile to observ e the stars at the outbreak

o f any military expedition A t th e rst striking o f the bell .
,

the count and his men would put on their a r mo r ; at the

1
W ii st en f eld p , . 1 00 .

2
J W B r ow n
. .
, Li f e a nd L eg en d f M i cha el S c o t ( E di n bu r g h
o ,

p . I 9O .

2
S e e S ca r t a z z i n i , D i vi na Comm edi a ( Le ip z i g ,
1 874 ) 1 . 220 .

D e ca m 8 9 . . .

M u r at o ri R er I tdl S cr ipt 8 7 05 344 ; 1 4 93 0

5
, . . . .
, . .

Q u ot e d by B on c omp a g n i , i n D ella Vi ta e d e lle Op er e di Guid o

B ona t ti ( R o me p 6 , . .
80 M edi e val A tti tu d e tow a r d A s tr ol og y

Q u ell r
a l t o , ch e n e

a nchi co si p o co ,

M i c h e le S cot t o f u ch e v e a men t e r
mg i
,

diell e a ch e fr ode s epp e i1 g i oco .

V e di Gu i do B on a t t i
1
.

B ut D ante c on d emning astrology in the Inf er n o i n so far

,

as it is a diaboli c a r t resto r es it to its p r oper p lace i n ,

-

Ch r istian cosmology and ethics in the P u r g a t or i o and

P ar a di s o For D ante the inuence o f the stars up on
.
,

human li fe was indee d an awe ins p iring fact The heaven s -

are the i nstruments o f God ?

I t is to them that the First
M over has d elegated th e power to mould the d estinies o f
the w orld ; they are the hammers ear th the metal ; they
3 1
,

are the seals and earth the wax ?

Were it n ot for the
,

inuenc es o f the stars children woul d be exactly like their ,

parents D ante in e ff ect revers es the A ugustinian ar gu

.
, ,

ment c once r ning twins by pointing to the heavens as the ,

only p oss ible cause o f Ja c o b s di ff ering f r om E sau ?

The

Platonic myth o f th e Ti me us is empl oye d in the s ymbolism

which assigns the saints to their diff erent s pheres ?
His
own arrival in th e c onstellati on Gemini he exp lains on the
g r ound that it rules ove r his nativity ?
Ca n G r ande s noble

character is due to the fact t hat he was stamped at hi s

birth by the strong sta r o f M ars 9
A c cording to B runetto .

1
I bid . 20 . 1 15 -
8:

T h at ot h er who i s s o s mall ab ou t ank s was
th e
M i c h a el S co t ; a nd of a t r u t h h e k n ew t h e p l a y o f mag i c fr au ds .

S ee Gu i do B on a t t i
2
D e M ona r chia 2 . 2 :

I ns t r um e n t u m e u i s !D ei ! qu od , coelu m

es t .

D e M on
2
. 2 . 2 ; 3 . 2 ; 3 . 16 ; Ep 5 . . 1 33 -

5 ; P ar . 2 . 121 ; 8 97 9 ;
.
-

C onv 3 . . 15 . 1 59 -
61 .

P ar 2 1 27 9
-
. . .

P ar 2 1 30 2 ; 13 73 5 ; 8 1 27 ; 1 4 1 , 42
- -
. . . . . .

P ar . 8 .
5 130 -
.

2
T hi ss ymbo li m s is n ot ri g o r ou s ly rri ed t hr ou g h The f act t h at
ca .

the u n f a i th fu l in th e moon has no a st r olo g i cal s ign i cance
T

are .

!
P ar . 22 . 1 12 ff .

P ar 17 76 8
-
. . .
 The M e di e va l A c cep t an c e of A s tr o log y 81

L atini s

advice t o the poet obe d ien ce t o one s horoscope ,

becomes a positive duty ?

The ethical problem involved in
the belief in an ast r ological cosmology D ante solves as does ,

Th omas A qui nas M arc o s speech to the poet in the six

.

t e en t h canto o f the P u r g a t or i o might be regarded as the

2

nal expression o f the ortho d ox d octrine concerning

astrology
V oi c h e v ve t e og n i i c ag i on r ecat e
p ur s s l i l si m
u o a c e , co co e se t u tt o
mo v ss es d ie ss i t t ec o n ec e a e .

S e co s i f ss in v i f r d i s t r
o e, o o a u t to

l ib e r o a rbi t ri o , e n on fo ra g iu s t i z i a
p e r b en l e t i z i a , e p er m a l e a ve r l u t t o .

Lo i
c el o i vo s t ri m vi m o ent i iniz i a
n on d ico t utt i : ma , p o s t o ch i o
i l d i ca ,
lu m e e dato b en e ed m a l i z i a,

v a a

E l ib e r o v ol e r
f a t i ca
, ch e, se

n el l e p ri m e b at t ag l i e c o l c i el du r a ,

p o i vi n c e tu t t o s e b en s i nu t ri ca ,
.

A magg i o r f o r z a ed a m i g l i o r n a tu r a
s
l ib e ri ogg i ac ete, e q u ella c ri a
la m en t e i n voi , ch e il c i el n on ha i n -
r
s u a cu a .

P roe ,
se p r es ent e d i s v i a
i 1 m on d o ,

i n vo i e la c ag i on e i n vo i s i cheg g ia , ,

e d i o t e n e s a r o o r ve r a s p i a .

D ante s con d emnation o f the astrol ogers an d d iviners in

the twentieth cant o o f the Infer no in d icates as yet n o d is

belie f i n the e fcacy o f their art though in the case o f ,

1
I nf . 15 .
55 . M . A . O r r , i n D a nte a nd t he E ar ly A s t r o n o mer s

( L on d on , p o i nt s ou t th a t D ant e nowh e r e m en t i ons s u ch

deta i l s o f pr act i cal a s t r o logy a s the h o u s e s o r a s p ect s o f p lan et s ,

o r t he d i vi s i on o f s i g n s i nt o ma s c u l i n e a n d f em i n i ne mo bi le an d ,

s tab le S ee t hi s wo r k f or a f u ll l i s t o f D ante s r e f er ence s to

.

a st r olo gy .

2
P ur g 1 6 67 84 ( ed M o o r e O x f or d 1 892 p
. .
-
.
, , , .
82 M edie va l A t ti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr olog y

M ichael Scot s ome scep ticism is implied when he is accuse d

of magic frauds The crime o f t he diviners was one o f .

impie t y not charlatanism S ince the time o f the Church

,
.

Fathers in fact the practitioners o f divination ha d n ot

, ,

been refuted with rationalistic arguments It was e n ough .

f or D ante and Thomas A quinas as for A u g ustine an d ,

Tertullian that magic was w icked ; a fter d ecidin g that i t

,

was w rong logi c had d one its d uty ?

,
With rare exc ep
tions the write r s o f the M i dd le A ges t ook astr ol ogy even ,

in the vul g ar mani festations which it classe d with necro

mancy quite ser iously It was not because it mi gh t be
, .

less succes s ful that Thomas A quinas con d emne d a str o

logi cal predicti on per c er ti tu dinem but because it had t o ,

do with demons B envenuto da I mola expres s es the .

medi e val view when he gives as a reason f or the truth

o f M ichael S cot s prophecies the very fact that he min gl ed

necromancy with astrology ?

I t remaine d for the a rrival o f t he m od ern spirit a nd ,

especi ally o f its r st great representative Petrarch to j oin , ,

to the sco r n shown to t he nec ro mancer by medi e val piety

the lau ghter o f the satirist Petrarch livin g at the court .
,

o f the V isconti at M ilan had indeed an excellent o pp o r , , ,

t u n i ty to obse r ve the pr o fessi onal a strol o g ers at their w o r st .

The astrologer necromancer o f th e time was an i gn or ant -

fellow who knew little o f his own scien ce and n othin g

, ,

o f a stronomy pr oper who employe d si mple table s f or hi s ,

calculations an d who w ould have been quite unabl e t o

,

discours e on th e phil os o phical problems involved i n hi s

pro fession ?
Pet r arch who was in general quick to see ,

T at lock
( The S c ene of the F r ankli n s Ta le Vi s i ted Ch au ce r
1
,

S oc 1 9 1 4 p 3 4 ) c h a r a c t e ri z e s t h e M i d d le A g e s s i mi la r ly
.
, , . .

Com m en tu m ( F l o r en c e 1 887 ) 2 88 : E t n ot a q u o d M i c h a e l
2
, .

S cot tu s ad mi s cu i t n ig r omant i am a t ol og e sr i ; i deo c r e dit u s est d i ce r e

mu lt a r ve a .

2
S o l da t i , in La P o es i a A s t r o l og i c a n el Q u a ttr oc en t o ( pp . 1 09

i s
g ve a g o od c h a r acte ri za t i on of th e a st r o l og e rs of the f ou r t eenth
 The M edi e val A c cep tan ce o f A s tr o log y 83

1
t hrou h t h e pretenses o f the pseu d o learne d makes spor t -

g ,

o f his fellow courtiers I n a letter on the subj ect o f

-
.

a strolo gy w ritten t o B occaccio in the y ear 1 3 63 he relates

, ,

?
a number o f amusing stories regar d ing them Gal ea zz o

II consulting his astrologers on the occasion o f a cam

,

p ga i n against Pavia held back his a r my for many days ,

in order t o await the favorable astrol ogical moment When .

he was nally permitted t o march ou t the w eather which , ,

ha d been dry d uring the time o f waiting turne d su d denl y , ,

?
an d a erce rain spoile d the whole expe d ition The
astrologer s su ff ere d a nother di s comtu r e in conn ecti on
with the installation into ofce in 1 3 5 4 o f the three sons , ,

o f Giovanni Vis c onti Petrarch himsel f ha d been aske d .

t o d eliver an oration but was interrupte d by the astrol ,

og e r s who were awaiting the exact point o f time at which

,

th e stars w ould be most pr opitious When this ha d nall y .

and f teen th ri e s ; a n d Gabott o s ch a rm i ng ess ay L As tr o log ia

c ent u

,

n el Q u a t tr o c e n t o ( r e f e rr ed t o o n p c i t e s hi s t o ri c a l d o cu m en t s .

illu s t r at i ng t h e ir ch a r lat an ry Cf als o B u r ckh a r dt D i e K u ltur d er . .

,

R enai ss a n c e i n I ta li en 2 . 2 38 ff .

1
P tr r h s t r
e a c phy s i c i an s i s es p ec i ally i llu s t r at ive o f

ea t m en t of

hi s att i tu de t owa r d a s t r olog e r s The medi c i ne o f hi s day was h at e .

f u l t o P e t r a r c h b ec au s e i t was f ou n de d u p on t he w ri t i ng s o f t he
,

A r ab s f o r wh o s e l i t e r a tu r e an d s c i en ce h e h a d a s mu c h d i s da i n
,

as f o r i t s u n chri s t i an phi lo s oph y e x emp l i ed i n A v err o e s ( c f , .

S eni les 1 2 1 2 : e d 1 5 8 1 pp 905 .

,
P et r a r ch w r ote a n ent ir e
.
,
.
,

H
t r ea t i s e th e C on tr a M e di cos ag a i n s t th e phy s i c i a n s o f h i s t i me i n
, , ,

whi c h h e i n du lg e s i n v iru l en t s at ir e o f t h e ir quack e ri e s ( op ci t . .

,

H
pp 1 09 1 1 093
.
, e a dmi t s t h a t t h e s c i en ce i t s el f i s p o ss ib l e
, ,

at l ea s t i n t h e m i n d o f Go d bu t t h a t i n i t s pr e s en t f o r m i t i s a ,

fr au d ( S en 1 2 2 : i bid p . e eve n o b t a i ne d a co n f e ss i o n
. .
, .

fr om a phy s i c i an qu o d med i c i ne not i t i a d el ectabili s es t u t r eliq u a r u m

,

O mn i u m q u e a r t e et r eg u la co n t i n en t u r ; op er a r i a u t e m s ecu n du m

me d i c i n am a cas u es t I t u nu nc he s ay s t o hi s fri en d D ona t u s

.
, , ,

et c a s u i d e m h a b e l Cf H en s c h e l

( S en 5 5 : i bi d p

. . .
, . .
,

P Ara te

Ur theil ii ber di e M ed i ci n u nd d i e

e tr ar ca s s ei ner Z ei t
( J a nu s , Z e i ts chr f ii r Ges ch u nd Li t d er M e d
. . . . 1 . 1 83
2
S en 3 1 ( i bi d ,
. . . pp .
765
I bi d , p 769
2
. . .
84 M e diwval A tti tu de t owar d A s tr olog y

a r rived the a s trologer s pre s ented the three brother s s uc

,

c es s ively with a s ceptre but pau s ed s o lo ng with the r s t ,

two that when they nally ap p roached the third the ,

or i ginal happy co n gurati on o f the s tar s mu s t have long

s in c e gone by A yea r however ha d n ot pa ss ed s ays .
, , ,

P etrarch before M atteo V i s conti the elde s t o f the three

, , ,

the one who had r eceived the s c eptre at the favorable

a s trological moment lo s t hi s rule and s hortly after hi s , , , ,

li fe The other two live d in pro s perity ten year s longer

.
1
.

P etrarch in a conver s ati on with one o f the a s trologer s o f

,

the M ilan e s e court obtaine d from him th e con fe ss ion that ,

hi s art wa s vain but that the nece ss ity o f s uppo r ting hi s ,

family forced him to c on tinue the frau d 2

.

S trange to s ay when Pe trarch turn s f rom s atire t o ,

d ialecti c and attempt s to refute a s trolo gy in theory he n o

, ,

longer employ s ration ali s tic a rgu ment s but the ancient ,

theologi c al rhetori c o f A ugu s tine 3

P etrarch s attack on .

a s tr olo gy a s a whole i s divide d between s atirical comm ent

on the quack s who lead the po pulac e by the n o s e and ,

erce denunciation o f the a s trologer s imp i ety L i k e John

.

o f S ali s bury he a ss ert s that the future i s known t o the

,

Creator alone A s trology w ould s hi ft the blame f or

.

wrong d oing upon God hi m s el f

-

Why he a s k s the

.
,

a s trologer d o you thu s make weary heaven an d earth
, ,

an d vex man ki n d i n vain ? Why d o you bur d en the luci d

s tar s W ith your empty law s
.
? W hy do you turn u s who ,

"
were born free into s lave s o f the in s en s ible s tellar s phere s ?
'
,

A n d he s um s u p hi s a d vice to B occ acc i o l n the w ord s :

C lo s e your eye s to tric k s ter s an d y our e a r s t o magician s ; ,

1
Ibid .

2
I bi d . Pi o R ajna ( Gi om S tar . . 10 . 1 04 if .
) i d enti es t ish l
a st r o o g er

w i th M ayno de M ayn er i who i s know n , to h av e l i v e d at the co u rt

o f t h e V i s con t i a t th is ti m e .

Pam ( pp I
3
.
3 . 8 . D e R e me d . a tr . F or tu n . . 1 12 ( pp .

94
p
S en . 1 .
7 ( .
 The M e di aeva l A ccep t an ce o f A s tr o l og y 85

s hun phy s i c ian s ee a s trologer s ; thos e d e s troy your li fe , ,

the s e your so ul 1
.

P et r a r c h s eem s to have known li ttle o f the a s trological

s c i ence o f hi s own day A s repre s entative s o f a s trology h e .

doe s not name the A rabian ma s ter s nor the m ore modern ,

autho r itie s but F irmicu s M a t er nu s and P tol e my

,
?
He doe s
not atta c k a s trolo gy a s a co s mological s cience nor doe s ,

he take notice o f the s chola s ti c teachings on the s ubj ect .

He a d mit s i n pa ss ing that there may be s ome power i n

, ,

the co n s tellation s and a dvi s e s the a s trologer s to pre ,

dict the weather 3

A s a poet too he frequently s ub s cribe s .
, ,

to a s trological doctrine s 4
In a letter to E mperor C ha r le s .

h e mention s with pri d e a pre d iction that he w oul d be upon

term s o f intimacy with almo s t all o f the great prince s o f
hi s age 5
P et r arch even ha s to a dmit that he i s not
.

altogether free f ro m the p opular a s trological s u p er s tition

regarding the climacteric year s nine and s even On the , .

occa s ion o f hi s s ixty thir d birth d ay ( a multiple o f the two -

unlucky number s ) he write s to B occaccio s corning s uch

6
, ,

puerile belief s A year later however ref errin g to the .

, ,

s ame s ubj ect h e con fe ss e s that he wrote th e former letter

,

more to s tren gt hen the faith o f hi s frien d than becau s e he

him s el f wa s entirely w ithout a pprehen s ion A cur i ou s .

in s i ght i nto the min d o f th i s great humani s t i s a ff or d e d

S en 3 I ( p 7 7 0 )
1
. . Cl a u .

d e o cu l o s p r aes t i g i i s , a u r es m ag i s ,
v i t am
d

me i ci s, a s t r ol og o s fu g e : i ll i p or a hi a ni mo s lae du nt

cor , .

S en . 1 .
7 (p. .

3
S en 3 . . I (p . .

R i me 7 5 6 .
-

( ed Ca r d u cci
. e F e r r ar i , p .
9)
E t e si p e nt o
s og n i b enign o lu me
D el cie l , p er cu i s i n f o r ma u mana v i t a

.

C f R i me 4 4 ( p
. . . wh ich he d escr ib es th e con g u rat ion o f the
in
s t a r s a t the b i r th o f h i s m i st r es s ; a n d 1 28 p wh ere he
5 2 ( . .

a tt r ibutes the sad s t a t e o f I t aly t o a m a l ig nan t s t a r .

l
F am . 23 . 2 ( tr . F r aca s s et t i 5 l o) . .

1 5 8 1 , p 829 : t r F r acas s et t i I

S en 8. . I ( ed . . . .
 86 M e d iceva l A tti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr olog y

by hi s s tatement to B o cc accio : T o s ay the truth the ,

s ecurity which I exp r e s s ed in my former letter s prang not ,

s o mu ch f r om a feeli n g o f s corn for the threat s o f the

a s trologer s a s from a de s ire to continue my meditation s
,

on the ne c e ss ity o f death and the folly o f fearing i t

1

P etrarch s attitu d e towa d a s t r olo gy
r on the one han d

remini s c e n t o f the co n s ervati s m o f the earl y medi aeval

centurie s a n d on the othe r poi nting ahe a d to the time
, , ,

W hen a s trology would be univer s all y laughe d t o s com

wa s fou n de d i n the r s t in s tance upon in d i ff erence t o
, ,

s cien c e a s a whole ?
In hi s o w n and in s ucceeding c en
t u r i e s hi s religiou s abhorrence o f a s trology wa s s hared
,

by numerou s philo s opher s a n d theologia n s Hi s own friend .

,

C olucci o S alutati although paying s ome r e s p ect t o the ,

s chola s tic co s mology o f T homa s A quina s follow s P etrarch ,

in denouncing a s trology a s an empty sci ence an d a vain

art 3
. He even rehea r s e s s om e o f t he a n cie n t a r gu m ent s o f
C ar n eade s s uch a s that co n ce r ni n g twi n s
,
}
Ge r a rd Gr oote ,

the D utch reformer o f the fourteenth century condemn s the ,

e n tire s c ie n c e o f a s tronomy a s one that i s ho s tile to Go d ,

and to the tea c hings o f A ugu s ti n e 5

T hi s revival o f the .

1
S en 8 8 . .
( ed . 1 5 81 , p 843 :
. t r F r a ca s s ett i
. 1 .

2
P et r ar ch s a ttit u de
t ow a r d
m e d i c i n e i s ag ai n illu s t r a t i v e .

A M a r ti n M i t t e la l t er li che W el t a n d L e be ns am cha u u ng ( M u n i c h
3
.
,

an d B e rli n pp 1 05 1 8
, .
-
.

M a r ti n pp 1 1 2 3 ; c f a b o v e pp 1 1
, .
-

46 .
, .
, .

5
G r oo t e i s w r iti ng t o d i s s u a de a f r i en d f r om b r i ng i n g ou t a b o ok
whi ch w o ul d r e fut e t he h er es i es o f A lbu ma sar and sub s ti tut e a ,

t r u e a s t r on omy G r oot e a rg u es th a t th e wh o l e s c i enc e i s so bad

.
!

th a t it ha d b es t be l e ft a l on e altog eth er : A d eju s ig itu r de st r u c
t i on em plu s p r o c i t qu o d f a l s i s u n t lib r i qu am qu o d a c cu ra t ae
ver i t a t i a p p r op i nq ua r en t Q ui d mihi p r o f u i t mag i s c r edi t i s vel
.
, ,

A lbu masa r i s e t s i mi li u m e r ro r vel p alli a t a f r on s P t olemaei a d ,

a st r o n om i a m dim i t t en dam ( A cqu oy Ger ar di M ag ni E pis tola ,

X I V A m s t e r dam 1 85 7 p
,
T h e l ett er fu r n i sh es g o o d e vi denc e
, , .

o f t h e f a c t th a t as t r o l o g y i n t h e f o u r t e en th c en tu r y w as m u ch

co n t am i n a t e d w i th ma g i c ( s ee pp 1 18 .
88 M e di e va l A tti tu de t ow ar d A s tr ol og y

t he time o f Kep l e r da r ed to que s tio n the reality o f ,

1

a s trology M o s t a s tro n omer s in fact carrie d on th ei r

. , ,

s tudie s a s an adj u n c t to the more lucrative trade o f rea d

i n g horo s c op e s John o f S axony a P ari s ian a s tro n omer
.
,

o f the fou r teenth centu r y felt it nece ss ary to de fe n d the ,

publi c atio n o f a p urely a s t r o n omical w or k by empha s i z in g

?
it s utility f o r t he p ra cti c al s c ien c e o f j udgme n t s In
time to be s u re a s tronomer s ma d e more and more o f a
, ,

di s ti n ction between general an d particular pre d icti on s an d ,

becam e s cepti cal about the latter 3

F ranci s B a c on in the .
,

s ane a s trology which he comme n d s in hi s D e Ang rnen tis

.Sci en ti a r n in 4
aboli s hed p r ogno s tication s o f s i n gle event s
,

altogether But s cience never re fute d th e fun d amental

.

principle s o f a s trology M en o f lette r s too w ere o ften .

, ,

it s en thu s ia s tic s u p porter s B o cc accio t o whom P etrarch .

,

had add r e s s ed ma n y o f hi s diatribe s wa s a rm believer i n ,

s tellar i n u en c e Whe n i n 1 4 1 0 P o ggio brought t o light

5
.
, ,

the r s t manu s cript o f M anil i u s humani s t s vied with one ,

a no ther in p r odu c ing comme nt arie s ?

P oggio him s el f wa s

H er z Kepler s A s tr o l og i e V i en n a 1 89 5
1
,

, , . E v en G alil e o w r o t e
h or os c op e s a t th e M e d i c ean c ou r t ( Sol d a ti p , . 1 1 7, no t e ) .

D u h e m 4 84
2
. .

S o l d a ti , p 1 1 6
3
. .

S p edd i n g and R ob er t s on, The P hi los ophi ca l Wor ks of F r an ci s

B a c on ( Lon d on ,
p .
464 .

B occ acc i o

s b eli e f in t l
a s r o ogy i s d i s c u s s ed i n so me d t il
e a in
Ta t lo ck

s The S cene o f the F r ankli n s

T a le Vis i ted ( pp . 24,
cf . A . G ra f , M i ti L egg en d e , , e S up er s tiz i oni d el M edi o E va ( Tu r in,
1 89 3 ) 2 . 1 69 -
p o u ses su ch a s tr o l og i cal d oct r i nes
95 . B occacc i o es

a s th a t V e nu s p r o d u c es a c ut e i n t e ll e ct s an d lib e r a l d i sp o s i ti ons
(De
Genea log i i s D e or nrn It t r V en i ce 1 5 80 f ol 5 2b ) , th a t M ar s cau ses
. .
, , , .

wa r s an d f a i lu r es o f c r op s ( i bid f ol cf f o l s 1 4h 5 3 .
, . . .
,

th a t th e a nc i en t b eli e f i n g o d s a r ose f r om a dei cat ion o f the

pl an et s ( Vi ta di D a n t e ed M o uti er p 5 2 ; c f pp 29 , and .
, . . .
,

tha t o nly t h e exi st ence o f s te ll a r inu en ce can accou nt f o r the

i n n it e d iv er s ity o f hu man t al ent s ( Commen t o s opr a D an te ed ,
.

M o uti e r 1 7 1 2 ; c f 2 5 5 -
. . .

S o l d ati p 1 3 0 ff , . .
 The M e di e va l A c cep ta n ce o f A s tr o l ogy 89

a convert to a s trolo gy were T a ss o and P on tano The

.
1
So 2
.

D e R e ba s Ce les ti bu s o f P onta no written in re futation o f ,

P ico della M i r a n d ola s attac k i s j udged by a recent critic

3
,

to be a ma s terp iece o f logical rea s onin g I t con s titute s .

,

perhap s the culmination o f that philo s ophical d efen s e of

,

C hri s tian a s trology which ha d been in the mak ing s ince the
time when Al bert the Great boldly accepte d the new s cience
o f the M oor s .

B ut to tra c e the hi s tory o f a s trology through the fteenth

a n d s ixteenth ce n turie s i s not ou r ta s k D uring the R enai s .

s ance a s trology enj oyed once more that univer s al reign

,

which it ha d held in the R oman E m p ire In th e long war .

fare between theolo gy an d the s cience o f the s tar s th e ,

latter had fairly conquered The nal di s proo f o f a s trol .

o gy wa s never written S o long a s the co s molo gy o f .

A ri s totle and the geocentric a s tronomy o f P tolemy hel d

, ,

s way in medi aeval s chool s a refutation wa s impo ss ible , .

With the arrival o f the new a s tronomy o f Cop ernicu s it wa s ,

n o lon g er nece ss ary .

( ed T o n e lli ,
1
E pi s t .
9 . 16 .

2
B ell on i , I l S ei c e n t o ( M il an , no d t
a e ) ,
p . 8 .

S o l d a ti , p
3
. 25 3 .
 C H A PT E R V I

A ST R OLO GERS I N M ED IE VA L EN GLAN D

Italy p eculiarly ex p o s e d by reas on o f it s geograp hical
,

o s ition had ea r ly be c o me i n fe s ted with a ho s t o f a s t r o l o

p ,

ger s an d magician s which s he in turn tran s m itte d to her

, , ,

northern n eighbor s F rance an d E nglan d T hi s proce ss, .

o f migratio n wa s however a s low one In the s tudy of

, , .

s cientic a s tronomy indeed the univer s itie s o f P ari s , ,

and Ox ford were in advance o f tho s e o f Bologna and

P adua 1
.B ut the s o ber s cholar s o f the N orth p racti s in g ,

a s trolo gy a s a p art o f th e accep ted a s tronomical s cience

o f the day wer e s till at a far remove from the p ro f e s
,

s iou al nec r oman cer s in the employ o f an Italian p rince .

It s eem s that not u n til the middle o f the fourteenth cen

tury c ould the royal c ou r t o f F rance boa s t an a s trologer
o f the ty p e o f Guido B o n atti A n d in E n glan d whi c h .
,

wa s s eparated by a further d egree from contact with the

M oori s h E a s t a s trol ogy n ever acqui r ed that po s ition o f
,

promine n ce whi c h it o c cu p ied in s outhern E u r ope The .

vernacular literatu r e o f E nglan d be fore 1 3 5 0 a ff or ds few

refe r e n c e s t o it th a t do n ot go ba ck to literary s our c e s .

E ven a fter that date a s trology probably remaine d a thing

m ore talke d ab out by the learn e d an d th e literary than s een
in pra ctice .

A ll the greater intere s t there fore attache s to tho s e few , ,

indi c ation s which d o exi s t o f the p re s ence in me d i aeval

E n gl a nd o f a c tual a s trologe r s A t the U nive r s ity o f Ox fo r d . ,

o f cou r s e the s cie n ce wa s well k nown alth ough it d i d not

, ,

occu p y nea r ly so exalted a p lac e in the curriculum a s at

the u n iver s itie s o f B ologna a n d P adua ?
R obe r t Gro ss e

D uhem 4 1 82 5
1
Cf . .
-
.

T he li s t o f t ext b o ok s t l y O xf o r d, g iv en by R a s h
2
-
on a s r o og at

dall ( Uni ver s i ties o f E u r op e , O xf or d ,

1 89 5 , 2 . con t ai ns no
9 2 M e d i e va l A t ti t u d e t ow ar d A s tr ol ogy

to become uninhabitable L et each per s on be a ss ured .
,

s ay s Cor ump hi r a that the co nj unction about to tak e place
, ,

whatever othe r s may s ay s ign ie s to me i f God s o will s , , ,

the mutation o f k i n gdom s the s uperiori ty o f the F ran k s , ,

the de s tructi on o f the S aracenic race with the s uperior ,

H
ble ss ed n e ss o f the religi on o f Chri s t and it s e s p ecial ,

exaltation together w ith longer li fe to tho s e who s hall be

,

born he r ea fter In ov e den s c h r o n icle the r e i s added
.

anoth er p r ogn o s tication by an E ngli s h a s trologer Will i am , ,

c lerk to John the con s table o f C he s ter

, William i s no more .

re s trained than hi s f ellow prophet i n p r edi c ti n g the dire s t -

happening s on all s ide s Hi s progno s tication bri s tle s with .

technical j argon 1
Ina s much a s M ar s i s being s corche d
.

by the orb o f the S u n William conclude s hi s prophe cy ,

,

being thu s impede d an d embarra ss ed between two evil s ,

S atu r n and the T ail o f the D ra gon he become s in fecte d

'

,
:

with their nature and s i gnie s s orrow s contention s alarm s

, , , ,

cata s trophe s murder s and s poliation o f proper ty The

, ,
.

T ail al s o s ignie s s ep a r a tion s lo s s e s da n ger s a n d d i mi nu , , ,

tion o f p o ss e ss ion s B ecau s e M ar s f or m s an evil con

.

j un c tion with the T ail i n the a s cendan t I d o therefore ,

contradict the j udgme n t pronounced by A lbu ma sar upon

thi s gu r e i n t h e C en ti l o q u i u rn : T ur n you r eye s f ro m the
z

gure in which M ar s i s at the greate s t angle when S corpi o

or the T ail i s i n the a s c e n da n t A n d a s it i s evide n t .

t o every a s trologer that S aturn rule s over thi s climate ,

the M oo n pa r ti c ip ating with him I am o f op inion that ,

thi s la n d can n ot be c on s idered exempt from the impending

evil Whe r e fore the o n ly rem edy remaining i s for prince s
.
,

to be on their guard to s erve God and to ee the d evil , , ,

that s o the L ord may avert their imminent pu n i s hme n t s .

1
C hr on i ca 2 2 92 3.
-
.

2
T h e C e n ti l o q u i u m o f c o u r s e , w a s ,
n ot a s cr ib e d to Albu ma s a r ,
but t o P t o l emy W illi am i s i n g ener a l
. p r et en di ng t o mo r e l ea r n i ng
th a n he p oss es se d T he C en ti lo qui u m
.
,
as w e h a v e i t co nt a i ns n o ,

a ph o r i sm s i m il a r t o th a t qu o t e d .
 H
A s tr olog er s i n M edie va l E ng l a n d 93

a ss ert s that t error wa s wide s p r ead at the

ov e d e n

approach o f S eptember when the conj unction w a s expected ,

to take place S ome com fort wa s gaine d fro m a more

.

rea ss uring prediction made by a S ara c en a s trologe r P ha r a ,

mella which he s ent to John B i s hop o f T ole d o P hara

, ,
.

mella tak e s hi s northern colleague s t o ta s k f or blun d ering

in their calculation s H e accu s e s th em i n particular o f .
, ,

leaving out o f account the re s pective s ituati on s o f M ar s

and V enu s M ar s he s ay s on the day o f the conj unction
.
, , ,

will not be in L ibra but in the thirteenth d egree o f V irgo ;

,

while V enu s in S corpio which i s the hou s e o f M ar s will , ,

ent irely neutrali z e hi s evil inuence ?

T he fact that L ibra

i s a win d y s ign Phar amella a ss ert s mean s nothing

, ,
.

Gemini and A quariu s are al so windy s ign s an d yet the

,

recent conj unction s in tho s e con s tellation s p roduced no

harm He advi s e s the a s trologer s o f the N orth t o keep
.

abrea s t o f the t i me s in the matter o f a s trological literature ,

an d to read the table s o f Herme s A s tale s a n d A lbu mas ar , ,

.

He call s upon them t o s top their d reaming an d t o relinqui s h

their fal s e O pinion s or el s e be converted to the religion o f
,

I s hmael A n d he e n ds hi s letter with the word s : A ccord
.

ing to the j u dgment o f M es sa ha la and A lki n d i unle ss Go d ,

s hall ordain i t otherwi s e there will be a s canty vintage , ,

cro p s o f wheat o f m oderate average much s laughter by ,

H
the s wor d and many s hipwrec k s
, .

B ecau s e o f the po s itive tone employe d by the M oo ri s h

a s trologer the editor o f ov e d e n s u s pect s that thi s letter
2
,

may have been written a fter th e d angerou s d ay had pa ss e d .

A t any rate very little o u t o f the or d inary hap p ene d in

,

the year 1 1 86 T he F ren c h chronicler R ig o r d s ay s that

.

the p redi c tio n s o f the a s trologer s we r e e n ti r ely di s credited 3

,

and the author o f the A nnales M ar ba cens es a dds the com

1
Chr oni ca 2 2 97 . .

H
2
Chr o ni ca 2 2 99 . .

3
Vi e d e P hi lippe A u g u s t e ( i n Gu i z o t C o ll d es M em R e la t if d

-
s . .

l i s t d e F r a n c e P a r i s , 1 82 5 1 2

.
, , .
94 M e di e val A tti tu d e t owar d A s tr olog y

ment : p r obar et u r s apientia mun d i huju s s tu lt i t i am e ss e
ut

a p ud D eum 1
Other w r iter s fou n d s ome j u s tication for
.

the a s trologer s apprehen s ion s in the victorie s o f S ala d in
in the Holy L and i n 1 1 8 7 ?

Whether the a s trological learnin g which William the ,

cler k o f C he s ter wa s s o eager to exhibit repre s ente d a , ,

wide sp r ead inte r e s t in the s cienc e among the E ngli s h o f

the time it we r e har d to tell
, Certain it i s that other .

re fe r en ce s to a s trology in th e chronicle s are few One .

s hort notice i s to be foun d in the M i r acu la S Thome .

Ca n tu a r i ens i s w r itten by a monk Willi a m toward the clo s e

, , ,

o f th e twelfth century William relate s how an Italian .

and hi s s on wh o were aficte d with the falli n g s ic k ne ss

, ,

and who a s cribe d their malady to the evil inuence of the

s ta r s c ame for cu r e to the s ai n t s tomb
,
3
William take s
.

occa s ion to preach a s hor t s ermon agai n s t a s trol o gy ,

employi n g the well known argume nt s o f the C hur c h -

F ather s M any di s ea s e s he a dmit s vary in inten s ity

.
, ,

acc ording to the moon but thi s i s n o excu s e f or accu s in g ,

the s ta r s o f evil A ll thing s made by God are good L et . .

the lunati c rather a cc u s e the s p irit s o f evil who ob s erve ,

the p ha s e s o f the moon to e n te r thei r victim s 4

F rom the .

other hi s to r i c al re c o r d s o f the time little i n d ee d can be ,

gleaned exce p t notice s o f comet s an d falling s tar s A comet .

wa s s aid to have heralde d the arriv a l o f W illiam the

C onque r or in 1 0 66 5
an other the death o f P op e U rban in
I n the year I 3 94 an unu s ually unlu cky comet ,

B en e d i c t P et er b or o ug h , I t
1
of op . ci t . .
3 2 4, no e .

H
2
I ti n er ar i u ni P er eg r i n or u ni et Ges ta R eg i s R i car di ( e d

. S tubb s,
R o ll s S e r .
) 1 . 6 .

3
M a t er i a ls f or t he i s t or y o f A r c hbi s h op Th o mas B ecke t ( ed .

R ob e r t s on , R o ll s S e r .
) I . 1 65 .

4
T he p a s sa g e is x c e ll en t i n d i c a ti o n th a t t he p a t r i s ti c vi ew o f
an e

f a r f ro m d i s app ea r i ng i mme d i a t e ly a ft e r th e i n t r o

H
t l
a s r o ogy was
d u c ti on of th e n ew a s t r o l ogy .

E u l og i u m i s t or i ar u m ( e d H ay d on R o ll s S e r ) 3 45
.
,
. . .

6
I bi d . 1 .
391 .
9 6 M edi e val A t ti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr o log y

kin g s pecically to avoid an abominable s uper s titiou s

, ,

belief o f the E ngli s h who held he s ay s that a man woul d , , ,

have bad lu c k all the week i f s ome one made a face at him
on M onday ?
N i c ola s O r e s m e the g r eat F re n ch e co nomi s t ,
!

a n d B i s hop o f Li s e u x wrote a s erie s o f t r eati s e s again s t ,

a s trology the p u r p o s e o f which wa s to preve n t Charle s V

,

from p la c i ng to o much conden c e in hi s Italia n advi s er s

-
?

But N icola s O r e s me though he repre s ent s on the s ubj e c t o f

,

a s t r ology the con s e r vative s cientic opinion o f hi s time an d ,

though he w a s quite s evere in denoun c ing magic and the

ext r eme form s o f j udicial a s trology wa s him s el f compelle d ,

to accept a strology in theory C on s equently hi s polemic can .

have had little e ff e ct ?

S imon de P hare s a c h r oni c ler o f the late fteenth cen

,

tury ha s left u s a li s t o f the prominent a s trologer s living in

,

F r a n c e at the time o f C harle s V ?

T hi s docume n t b e s ide s ,

indi cating the exte n t to which a s trology wa s current at the

F r en c h c ourt s o f P ari s a n d Orlea n s contai n s a number o f
5
,

H
2
Leb eu f , op . ci t .
,
p .
3 99 .

2
Ch . N i co la s O r es m e e t les A s tr o l og u es d e la Cour d e
J ou r d a i n ,

Char l es V ( R ev d es Q u es t . i s t or 1 0 1 3 6 . . .

A s u mm a r y o f O r es m e s v e r n ac ul a r t r e a ti s e on d ivi n a ti on i s
2

g iv en by M e u n i e r ( E s s a i s u r L a Vi e e t les O u vr ag es d e N i c ole
Or es me P a r i s , 1 85 7 , pp 48
,
It a ff o r s th e b es t p os s ibl e p r oo f
. d
of t he f ac t th t
v en the m o s t enlightene d sc i enti c m i n ds o f
a e -

E u r op e i n t he M i d d l e A g es w e r e p o w e r l es s t o r i d th em selv es o f
the b e li e f i n a s t r ol ogy O r esm e c an o f cou r se con d emn p r e d i cti on s
.
, ,

per c er ti tu d i n em a n d t he s ys t em o f elec ti on es wh en utili z e d f o r

, ,

m ag i c by app ea li ng t o t h e c u r r en t Chu r c h d oct r i n e on the s ubj ect

,
.

B u t i f the as t r o l og e r s c on n e t h em s elv es t o p r e d i c ti ng th e i n d i

vi du a l s

i ncli nat i o n s a n d c ompl e xi ons O r es me ex empt s th em

f r om c en su r e O r esm e s b es t a r g u m en t in g en e ra l i s th at t he
.

, ,

sc i en c e o f a s t r o l o gy i s s till t o o u n d ev el o p e d t o b e w o r th y o f mu ch

co n d en ce E v en i n p r ed i c ti ng th e w ea th er ma r i n er s a r e mor e
.
,

s u c c e s s ful th a n a s t r o l og e r s .

P ubli s h e d i n p a r t by L ebeu f i n h i s a r ti c l e D e L A s tr ol og i e q ui

, ,

a va i t C ou r s s ou s C ha r l es V ( pp 400 .

T h e n oti c es f o u n d i n S i m on d e P h ar es on a s t r o l ogy at O r l e an s
6

m ay b e o f i n t er e s t i n conn ec ti on with th e cl e r k o f Cha u cer s

 A s tr olog ers i n M edi e val E ng l an d 97

direct re ference s to E nglan d thu s furni s hing a valuabl e ,

hi s tor i cal background for that s udden intere s t in a s trology

s hown by the E ngli s h w riter s o f the latter hal f o f the four

t e en t h century T he almo s t continuou s war s between .

F rance and E nglan d nd frequent mention i n S imon s

chroni c le T hu s M ai s tre M i c hel de J along u e s i s s ai d t o

.

have pre d icte d the inundation s o f the R hone e t l eslevat i on ,

d e s A ng lo i s et B reton s qui s e m i s d r ent s u s pour expelle r

le s barbare s qui furent de sc on s devant l an I 3 74 1
M ai s tre
.

M arc d e Genne s an a s trologer o f Pari s prophe s ie d the , ,

outcome o f the battle o f R os ebecqu e and al s o predicted ,

the death o f E dward the B lack P rince 2

T he battle o f

F r an kli n s Ta le who it will be r emem b er e d wa s a b ach el o r o f

, , ,

l aw e at O r l eans Th e c h r on i cl e o f S i mo n m ak es no ment i on o f th e

.

u niv e r s ity but i n di ca t es tha t th e h o u se o f O r l ean s wa s a p a t r on o f

,

a s t r ol og e r s Thu s o f M a i s t r e G ilb e r t d e Cha s t eau du n ( Lebeu f

.
,

p 40 1 ) it i s sa i d tha t he w a s mo ult ap r ec i en l a m a i son d O r l an s

.

p o u r la s c i ence des esto ill es A g a i n ( p M es s i r e Pi er r e d e l a
.

.

B r uy e r e fut en cc t e mp s a O r l an s m oult e s t im d e s n obl e s e t du

c l er g ie s t en s o n t emp s plu s i eu r s i n s t ru m en s s er v an t a la th o r i e

.
,

O f s till a thi r d a s t r o l og e r i t i s s a i d tha t h e r eti r e d t o O r l ean s at

t h e cl o s e o f h i s li f e : C es tu i d e S a i nt M es m i n fut bi en so ui sant -

a s t r olo g i en et c o mp osa d e b e a ux t r a i ct i ez ;
,
ma i s en l es v i el s j o u r s
l a i ssa 1a fli c it mo n d a i ne e t s e r en d it r eclu s a O r l ans ( p
.

It w o ul d b e i n t e r es ti ng t o kn o w wh e th e r O r l ean s i n a dd iti on t o ,

b e i ng a g ene r al h av en f or as t r ol og er s a l s o f o s t e r e d th e o ccult ,

sc i e n ce s a t t h e u n i v ers ity Th e p o e t D es ch a mp s wa s a c l e r k o f
.

O r l ean s t he i n t e r p r e t at i on m a d e by o n e o f h i s e d it o r s

and i f ,

H
( G R ayn a u d e d it o r o f t he l a s t f ou r v o lu mes o f Oeu vr es C omplet es
.
, ,

1 882 ; s ee 1 1 1 48 ) o f B a la d e 2 25 ( op ci t 2 5 2 ) i s co r r e c t hi m s el f
. . . .
,

p r ac ti sed a st r ol og y i n hi s y o uth oep ff n e r ( E u s ta c h e D es c ha mps : .

L e be n u n d Wer ke S t r a s s bu r g 1 904 p 2 8 ) d o ubt s wh e th e r a ny

, , , .

liter al i n t er p r et ati o n o f the b a ll a d e i s j u s ti e d Th es e s li g ht i n d i .

ca ti o n s th a t O r l ea n s w a s a c e n t r e o f a s t r o l o gy ma y b e a dd e d t o

th o se menti oned by P r o f es s or T a tl o ck i n The S cene of the F r a nkli n s

Ta le Vi s i te d ( pp 4 1 .

H
Lebeu f p 40 1
1
. .
,

I bi d p 403 : C e s tui a u s s i p r d it l a m o r t d u n o bl e E d oa r d p r i n c e
2
. .
, ,

d e G a ll e s qui pui s fu s t r o y d A ng l et e r r e e t d y b e r n i e q u i t r es p as s a

, ,

l an
9 8 M edi e val Atti tu d e t ow a r d A s tr ol og y

C ocherel between the E ngli s h and B ertrand du

Gu e sc lin wa s fore s een by M ai s tre J a c que s de S aint A ndr e
,
? -

O f two a s trolo g er s it i s s aid expre ss ly that they vi s ite d

,

E ngland on e o f them for the purpo s e o f amu s ing King

,

John then a captive at L ondon :

,

M a i s t r e P i e r r e d e V a l o i s r s i da n t a Co u cy h omm e d e s ing u l i e r e
, ,

e st u d e e t m o ult a p r ec i d es A ng lo i s e t d epu i s du r oy Ch a r l es l e ,

Q ui n t p ou r la sc i ence de s e st oi lles Ces tui a la s o uv en t en A ng l e .

t er r e p ou r plu s ieu r s d i ff r ant s et p r di st plu s i eu r s ch o ses co mm e ,

e s t a s s i s p a r s e s p r o n o s t i ca t i on s s u r l es r v o luti o n s d e l an 1 3 60

.

C es tui su r la r v o luti on d e l an 1 3 5 8 p r o no s t i ca de la J acqu e r i e

, ,

q u i c omme nca en B ea uv o i s in p a r l es c omm u n es s u r l es g en til s ,

h ommes 1e 28 j ou r de may on dit an cc qui a d v in t car i ls tu er ont

, , , ,

t o u s les n o bl es et les f emme s et le s en f an s .

2

M a i s t r e Gu i ll au me d e Lo u r y r s i d en t a B o u r g e s fut env oy , ,

qu er i r p o u r s on g r an t son et s ingu l i er es exp r i ences de sa sci ence

,

d es es t oilles p ar le s A ng lo i s e t y a la vou l en t ie r s p ou r q u e c es t o i t
, , ,

p ou r d esennu yer le bon r oy J eh an q u i f u t p r i ns a P oi ti er s 1e , ,

lu n dy 1 9 de septemb r e 1 3 5 6 c omme i 1 avo it p r di t En s on t emp s , .

p r onos ti ca o u mo i s d a v r il 1 3 5 1 et de rechie f enco r e un e aut r e f o i s

, , ,

l an en s u iv an t fut enc o r e r e sc on t li A ng lo i s et G asc ons

Il .

a dver t i t a u ss i m e ss i r e C h ar l e s d E sp a ig n e

co nn es t abl e d e F r a n c e , ,

qui n e 1e v oulut cr oi r e e t fut tu en u ne h os t ell er i e en la vill e

, ,

d e La i g l e en N o r m an d i e p ar les g en s et du con s en t em ent du r oy

,

H
de N av a r r e ; p r di s t a u ss i l a de s c on tu r e de M ess i r e R ob e r t de
C l er mon t l i eut enan t du du c de N or m an d i e et la mo r t d e mes s i r e
, ,

G e ff r oy d e ar ecou r t .
3

A part from the s light notice s given by S imon d e P hare s ,

the hi s tory o f pro fe s s ional a s trologer s in medi aeval E nglan d

remain s largely a matter o f conj ecture It i s in d ee d dif .

cult to di s cover further tra c e s o f a s trologer s in the con

temporary hi s torical document s until the clo s e o f t he
fteenth century In the year 1 5 0 3 a follower o f E dmun d
.
,

de la P ole con fe ss ed at a trial that previou s to followin g

hi s ma s ter to the continent he ha d con s ulte d an a s trologe r ,

regarding E dmund s probable future but that he ha d

,

1
I bi d .
,
p .
406 .

2
I bi d .
,
p .
405 .

2
I bi d , . p .
404 .
 C H A P T ER V II

A ST R OLO GY I N T HE E M DIE V A L R O M AN C ES
L ong before the a s trology o f the found a home A rab s
in the univer s itie s o f Oxford and P ari s it ha d become ,

the s ubj ect o f s ong and s tory in the hand s o f the gleeman .

T he C r u s a d e s a n d the war s with t h e M oor s o f S p ain had

early brought the We s t into contact with the Orient an d ,

s torie s o f the learned magic o f the E a s t mu s t have been

cu r r e n t among the people many decade s before A delar d o f
B ath and He r man o f D almatia retu r ned with the r s t
A rabian text book s A lready in the Cha ns on d e R ola nd
-

.
,

the S aracen s a r e c redited with the practice o f d iaboli c

art s : A rchbi s hop T u r pin in the battle o f R once s valle s k ill s , ,

the enchanter S ig lor el who once had been in hell whither , ,

Jupiter had led him 1

I n the S pani s h epic F er na n
.

,

Gonga lez the M oo r s are r ep re s e n ted a s a s trologer s i n

,

league with the devil ?

T he romance s o f the twel fth and
thirtee nth centurie s habitually con n ect a s trology a n d
ne c roma n c y with the M oori s h E a s t Chr ti e n s Cli g es i n

.
,

de s cribing F e ni c e s s kil ful nur s e T hes s ala name s T he ss aly

, ,

a s the home o f ne c romancy and the land where the d evil s ,

art s are taught a n d where c harm s are made

,
?
I n t he
F lo oven t a s tory o f the war s between C hri s tian s and
,

( e d Ga uti er P a r i s p
1
Cha ns on d e R olan d 1 3 90 -

3 .
, ,
1 884, . 1 26 )

Et l a r c eves q u e l ur oci s t S ig lo r el ,
L

e n ca n t eii r ki ia fut f ;
e n en e r

Par a r t im al li

cu n du is t Jupit er .

( M a r d en P a lma d e F er nan Gonga lez

2
F er na n Gonga l ez 473 ff .
, ,

B a lti mo r e, 1 904, p 69 cf . . Com f o r t , Th e S ar a ce ns i n Chr i s ti a n

P o e tr y : D u bli n R ev
C li g es 3 002 1 0 ( ed F or s t er , H all e, 1 884, pp 1 20 E a s t er
3
cf

-
.
. .
,

A S tu dy of th e M ag i c E l em en ts i n the R oma ns d A ven tur e a nd the

R oma ns B r e t ons ( B alti mor e ,

p . 17 .
 A s tr o log y i n t he M ed i e va l R om an ces 10 1

M oor s an old pagan do c to r Jacob po s s e ss e s the power o f

, , ,

prophecy by rea s on o f hi s a s trological knowledge T he ?

S aracen maiden s furthermore who ap p ear s o frequently , ,

in the chans ons d e g es te re s cuing the captive C hri s tian s , ,

are u s ually well ver s ed in the magic s cience s ; and s ince

they employ their talent s in the s ervice o f t r ue believer s ,

are ra r ely c en s ured f o r their di a boli c lo r e F lo r de s p i ne .

,

the daughter o f the S aracen king M achabr e although only , ,

fourteen year s old know s how to s pea k Latin and ,

R omance

to play at che ss and to read the c our s e s o f the
, ,

s tar s and s hining moon ?

Gali enne the bet r othed o f the ,

C hri s tian M a i n et i s s imilarly endowed with learning ; it

,

i s by fore s eeing the future in the s tar s that s he i s able

to s ave her lover from a treacherou s a ss ault ?
I n the
Ipomed ona F rench romance o f the la s t quarter o f the
twel fth century tran s late d s everal time s i nto E ngli s h a
,

k i ng A dra s tu s come s to a tournament from Gr eece and ,

bring s with him hi s E a s tern a s trologer A mphiarau s who , ,

unfortunately however get s hi s term s con fu s e d and
, ,

,

fail s to fo r e s ee hi s ma s te r s de feat ?

1
F lo ove n t 7 3 9 if ( e d Gu ess ar d e t M i chela n t
. .
-

,
1 85 9 , p . F lo o
v en t d a t e s f r o m t he tw el fth c e n tu r y .

2
Gau f r ey 1 7 93 ff . .
( ed Gu es s a r d
. et Chaba ille, 1 85 9 , p . Gau f r ey
is as s i g ned t o the th i r teenth cen tu r y .

3
M a i n e t ( R oma ni a 4 3 05 ff ; . . cf .
3 29 , M oi n e t d t a es f r om
t he ea r ly tw el fth c en tu r y In t he Eng li s h Ch ar l emag ne r o manc es
.
-

t he S a ra c en m a i d en F l o r ip as f e e d s t he ca ptiv e C h r i s ti an s with t h e
, ,

aid o f h e r ma g i c g i r d l e ; Ca xt o n s C har les t he Gr e t e ( B E TS

cf . .

E S 3 6 1 23 )
. .The S ow d on e of B a by l on e ( B E TS E S 3 8 . . .

Ip o m ed o n 5 5 7 4 90 ( e d Kolbi n g u n d Ko s c hwit z , B r e s l a u , 1 889
-
.
,

p. T he ea r li es t o f t h e th r ee E ng li s h v e r s i o n s ( a ll e d it e by d
Kdlbin g B r es l a u , ,
Ip oma d on ,
w r itt en a b out 1 3 50 ( W e ll s p ,
.

a lt er s t h e n a m es t o A r yn s and A n f e ra s ( 4 1 97 , In
t he O F . ro ma n ce P a r t on opeu s d e B lo is ( da t e d
, Egyp t a b out
i s r e f er r e d t o ( 722 0 : e d C r a p el et 2 7 5 ) a s a h o me o f as t r o no my
. .

a n d m ag i c ( t h e r e f e r en c e i s n o t f o u n d i n t h e M E v e r s i o n w r i tt e n .
,

a b o ut T he l a t e O F r o ma nc e C l eo rna d es i nt r o du ces th r ee
.
, ,

E a s t e r n k i ng s who a r e v e r s e d in a s t r o n o my a n d n ec r o m ancy ( e d
, .

H ass elt B r u ss el s 1 89 5 pp 5 2
, , , .
,
 102 M ed i e val A tti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr o log y

One o f the early tale s o f the R oma n d e R enar t ( B ranch

X dating from the ea r ly thi r teenth centu r y ) i s particularly
,

inte r e s ti n g in that it allude s to the po s ition held by a s trol

ogy in the medi c al s chool s o f c ontemporary Italy T he .

F ox wi s hi n g to regain favor with King N oble appear s at

, ,

court in the r ole o f phy s ician promi s in g the s ick monarch ,

a s ure recovery He win s the c onden c e o f hi s client by

.

the preten s e that he ha s j u s t returned f r om a period o f

s tudy at the univer s ity o f S alerno and that he know s ,

a s t r onomy ?
I n a later continuation o f the R oman ( B ranch
X X I I I dated about ,
R e n art actually doe s venture
abroad i n s earch o f learning and become s an a d ept in ,

necroman cy at the famou s s chool o f magic at T ole d o by

s ecretly watching a pagan conj urer at hi s work in a hid d en
cell ?

E ven more directly traceable to an E a s tern s ource are

the a s trological re fere nc e s in certain collection s o f Oriental
tale s T he legend o f B ar laa m a nd J os a p ha t populari z ed for
.
,

the We s t by the L eg en da A u r ea o f Jacobu s a V oragine

( 3
1 2 0 and fou n d in three M iddle E ngli s h ve r s ion s ,

lead s u s back to a Greek text written probably in S yria ,

in the eighth centu r y ?

When in the cour s e o f the s tory

it s el f ba s ed upon a long Oriental tradition it i s related
how an a s trologer prophe s ied the future o f the young
prince Jo s aphat an evi d ent attempt i s made by the author
, ,

o f the Greek ver s ion to reconcile the incident with the

belief s o f the C hri s tian C hurch T hu s s pake the a s trol .

R om a n d e R e n a r t ( e d M art i n S t r as sbu r g ,
1
10 . 1 5 24 ff . .
,
1 882 ,

1 .

R oma n d e R enar t ( e d M a r ti n
2
23 . 1 1 72 if . . 2 .

T he m o s t t s u mmar y o f th e i nv es ti g ati ons on t he s ubj ec t

2
I r ecen
;
o f thi s l eg en d ( i n t h e e d iti on o f J o h n o f D a m a sc u s by W oo d w ar d

a n d M a tti ng ly L oeb C l a ss S e r
,
Lon d on 1 9 1 4 ) a sc r ib es t he or ig in a l
__ . .
, ,

B ar laa m a n d f os apha t ( p x1 1 ) with s ome c o n d e n ce t o J o h n o f

.

D amasc u s ( d i e d a mo ng wh ose w o r k s it has o ft en b een p r i n t e d .

O n the M E v e r s i o n s s e e W ell s p 806

.
,
.
, . .
1 04 M e d i e va l A tti tu d e t ow a r d A s tr ol og y

By z a n tine empire E ve n i n thi s it s earlie s t extant form .

, ,

the s to r y had embodied the legend o f A lexa n der s de s ce n t

from the E gyptia n s or c erer N ec ta na bu s T hroughout the , .

early portion o f the narrative in which i s related the ,

arrival o f N ec ta na bu s at the M acedonian court and the ,

deceit s by mea n s o f whic h he be c ame the fathe r o f the

futu r e king a s trology play s a n imp ortant p art S ucceed
, .

ing reda c tor s o f the legend dealt variou s ly with the s e a s tro
logi c al detail s The C hri s tia n writer s o n e a n d all took
.
, ,

delight in the c lo s ing epi s ode o f the s tory o f N ec t a nabu s ,

in which the s orce r er a fte r havi n g prophe s ied by the s tar s ,

that he would be killed by hi s own s on i s thrown into a ,

ditch by A lexa n der a n d taunted f o r hi s imp iou s belief s ,

?

In the mo r e techni c al detail s o f the s tory imitator s o f ,

the P s eu d o Ca lli s then es we r e not alway s s uc c e ss ful

-

O n e c uriou s mi s under s ta n ding o f t he a s tro logi c al term s

H
o f the Greek i s already to be fou n d in the L atin life
o f A lexander written by A r c hp r e s byter L eo in the tenth
,

centu r y a n d k n own by the name o f

,
i s t or i a d e P r e lii s .

The P s eu d o Ca lli s then es namely in de sc ribing an a s t r olabe

-

, ,

o f N ec ta nabu s and p ictu r ing i t s va r iou s di s c s had s poken

, ,

o f one c i r cle a s rep re s enting the a s trological deca n s
( 36 Ka V6v9
)
2
T h e C h r i st ia n
. t r a n s lato r i n h i s igno r an c e , ,

u n de r stood the Gr eek to be 36m r ods a n d t r a n s lated it with ,

decem i nt ellig en t ia s S ome o f L eo s follower s notably the .

,

author o f the War s of A lexa n d er repeated thi s c u r iou s ,

mi s take ?
T he F r e n c h ve r s io n s o f t h e lege n d are mo r e

2
A ta u n t whi ch in r ea li ty o f co u r s e m er ely a d de d t o the d r am ati c
, ,

i r o ny of th e s c en e . T h e th r e e E ng li s h v e r s i on s r el a t e thi s p o r ti o n
of the t al e ; cf . Wars o f A lexa n d er 708 ff .
( B E TS . ES .
47 .

A li s au n d er 1 07 2 ff .
( B E TS . ES . 1 . Ky ng A li s au nd er 7 1 0 ff .

( W eb er M e tr i ca l
, R om a n ces , E d i nbu r g h , 1 8 1 0, 1 . cf . W lle s,

p .
98 Ff .

D ivi s i o n s i nt o t en equ a l p a r t s i
2
of t he s g n s .

Th e War s of A lexa n d er s p e ak s o f tw e lv e u n d i r s t a n d i n g s ( 2 74 :
3

S k ea t d e n es t he w o r d s i mply as a n

e d S k ea t B E TS E S 47
.
, . . .

a s t r o l og i ca l t e r m

.
 A s tr olog y i n t he M e di e val R oman ces 10 5

enlighte n ed on ma t ter s a s trological ; the author o f the

E ngli s h Kyng A li s a u n d er imitating the F rench R oma n d e ,

T ou t e Cheva ler i e i s able to re fer to the my s teriou s i n s t r u

,

ment o f N ec t anabu s a s a n ar s t a ble 1
When Gowe r -

.

,

nally retell s the s tory o f N ect a n abu s in the C onf es s i o

,

A ma n t i s 2
the a s t r ological po s s ibilitie s o f the s tory are
,

fully exploited He de s c ribe s the a s trolabe o f the s orcerer

.

with s cientic detail an d air s hi s lea r ning a s he picture s the ,

magician s conj uring s .

The a s trology and magic o f the E a s t n d in g their way ,

into the popular literature o f F ra n c e and E n glan d by

variou s c hannel s s oon made them s elve s at home in the ,

whole realm o f medi aeval romance T hey ea s ily e s tabli s he d .

friendly r elation s with the C elti c magic o f the ma ti er e d e

B r e tag n e a n d it w a s n o t lo n g before the fairie s and dwar f s
,

o f N orthe r n folk lore were a s lear n ed a s the daughter s o f

-

the S aracen s ?
T he p r e c i s e poi n t o f time when the magic
o f the E a s t be c ame mingled with the indigenou s magic o f
the We s t i s o f c our s e di fcult to determine A work s o
, ,
.

Ky ng A li s a u n d er ( W eb er M e tr i ca l
1
2 87 ,
R o m a n c es I . The

Ky ng A li s au n d er was w r itt en b e f o r e 1 3 30 a nd a r s t abl e i s p r ob ably ,
-

t he r s t a pp ea r a n c e o f th e w o r d a s t r o l ab e i n E ng l i s h

T h e ea r li es t
.

c it a ti o n i n t h e N E D i s u n d e r t he y ea r 1 3 66. .

C on f A m 6 1 7 90 if ( e d M a c a ul ay O x f o r d 1 90 1 3 2 1 5
2
. . . . . .
, , ,

S ev e r a l i n s t a n ce s o f f a i r i es w ho a r e ex p er t i n t h e s c i en c e s o f
3

mag i c an d a s t r o l og y will a pp ea r i n the f o ll ow i ng p ag es A f ew .

mo r e m ay be a dd e d h e r e T h e f a i r y o f t he wh i t e h an d s i n Le

.

B el In connu ha s b een i n s t r u c t e d by h e r f a th e r in t he s ev en a r t s ,

a n d es p e c i a lly i n n e c r o ma ncy a n d a s t r o l o g y ( 1 9 1 8 4846 : ed Hip ,

.

p eau 1 860 pp 68
, , In t he s h o r t e r E ng li s h im it a ti o n Libea u s
.
, ,

D es conu s a lth ou g h s o r c e r y pl ay s a p a r t ( c f 1 5 1 3 1 7 80 1 7 9 5 : e d
, .
, , .

Kalu z a Le ip z i g 1 890 pp 84 99 1 00 ; c f W e ll s pp 7 1
, , , .
, , .
, .
,

a s t r o l og y i s n ot s p ec i cally m e nti on e d M e li o r th e f a i r y i n the .

,

E ng li s h P a r t on op e of B loi s ( a b o ut 1 45 0 ; t h e F r ench so u r ce i s
d a t e d ab o ut l e a r n e d t h e m a r v e l o u s a r t s o f t he E a s t f r o m h e r
f a th e r t he E mp e r o r o f Co n s t anti n o pl e ( 5 93 3 : B E TS E S 1 09
, . . .

C f a l s o C ha ns on d A n ti oche ( e d P P a r i s p 5 9 ; and

. . . .
,

D o lopa thos 9 27 5 .
1 06 M e di e val A t ti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr olog y

purely C elti c a s the M a bi n og i on i s s till free from a s trol

ogy S o al s o are the la is o f M arie de F rance a n d for the
.
, ,

mo s t p art the A r thu r ian roman c e s o f C hr tien d e T roye s

, .

A reference t o a s t r ology i s found in the E r ec but ,

C h r tien i s care ful to s tate that he i s borrowing from

M ac r obiu s T oward the clo s e o f the poem E re c appear s
.
,

in a r obe made by four fairie s who had portrayed thereon ,

geomet r y arithmetic mu s ic a n d a s tronomy The la s t o f

, , , .

the s e i s called the chie f o f all the art s an d i s de s cribe d in ,

wo r d s that remi n d u s o f the s imilar panegyric o f A delard

o f B ath :
L a qu a r t e qui ap r es o v r a , ,

A mo ut bu en e oevr e r ecovr a ;
C a r l a m ell o r des a r z i m i s t .

mi e s a n t r em i s t

D a s t r on o

C e l e q u i f et t an t e m er vo il le,
Q u i a s e s t o il es s e c o nso ill e
Et a la lu ne et au s olo il .

An a ut r e leu ne p ra nt conso il
De r i en qui a f e i r e 1i so i t ;

Ci l 1a con so illen t bi en a d r o it .

De g u anqu e el e l e s r equi ert ,

E t q u anq u e f u e t q u anq u e i er t,
Li f on t c e r t a i nn ement sav o i r
S a nz mant i r z dec evo i r 1
e t s an .

I n the roman c e s deali n g with the T ri s tan s tory a s tro l ,

o g y i s al r eady an integral part o f the ma ti e r e d e B r etag n e .

T he d war f F r oc i n who appear s in the F rench ver s ion o f

,

B r ou l ( 1 1 90 i s an expe r t a s trologer ?
When hi s
plan s for enticing T ri s tan and Is eu lt to betray them s elve s -

before the king have gone w r ong he i s able to fore s ee hi s ,

threatened di s grace in the s tar s T he Tr is tan o f T homa s .

,

o n the other han d though it al s o take s note o f the tradition

,

that the dwar f wa s an a s trologer i s s ceptical about hi s ,

"

1
E r e c 67 77 67 90 -

( ed F o e r s t er , H a ll e ,
1 896, p . cf . a b ov e
,

p .
50 .

B r oul , R oma n d e Tr i s ta n 3 20 ff ( e d M u r et P a r is p
2
. .
, , 19 13, .
1 08 M e d i e va l A t ti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr o log y

g round that the s ky it s el f was to blame f or mi s leadi n g them

i n thei r predi c tion s :
be sky ba t s o u s ch ew e d ba t
, ,

It w a s be f a de r ba t me bi 5 a t ; ,

F o r h e m e h a dd e n o u st to his will e ,

bu r c h
w a l d do m e spill e 1
s ou he

A s t r ology i s a l s o menti o n e d i n the roma n c e s o f M e r lin in

c on n e c tion with the fay M o r g a i n L ike the M ohammeda n .

e nc ha n tre s s e s o f the chans ons d e g es te s he i s ver s ed in ,

a s t r o n omy a n d n ec r oma n cy ?

T he attitude o f the romance s toward a s trology hardly

admit s o f logi c a l analy s i s A na r rator wa s a s li t tle .

hampered in the M iddle A ge s by que s tion s o f s cience or

o f ethic s a s he i s to day It may be s aid in general that -

.
, ,

a s trology to the pop ular medi aeval mi n d wa s a wonderful

, ,

s cie n c e vaguely dened and s eldom c o n dem n ed who s e

, , ,

om n ipote nc e w a s prove r bi a l It i s s poken o f everywhere .

a s the c hief o f the s eve n art s a n d wa s hardly di s tingui s hed ,

f rom n e c rom a n c y and magic T he reality o f it s power s .

w a s never doubted By rea s o n o f it s bei ng a learned foreign

.

importatio n a s yet s omewhat removed from the li fe o f the

,

unedu c ated a n d not s ubj e c ted to the s atire whi c h it in evit

,

a bly e n c ou n te r ed i n pra c ti c e a s trology could acquire a ,

fame i n po p ular lite r atu r e e ve n ex c e edi n g th a t whi c h it

held amo n g the a s tronomer s o f the s c hool s T he c ommon .

people who had not outgrown their faith in the s imple

magi o f the
c T n
euto s and C elt s witne s s the s eriou s
defen s e o f the belie f i n fairie s made by the author o f the ,

3
M elu s i n e w e re not likely to be s c e p ti c al o f the s c ie n tic
1
A r th ou r and M e r li n 1 5 83 -
6 ( e d Kolbi ng Le ip z i g
.
, , 1 890 , p .

cf . P r os e M er li n ( e d W h ea tl ey
.
, B E TS . 10 .

P r os e M er li n
2
( B E TS 2 1 . . cf . P a t o n , S t u d i es i n t h e F a i r y
M y t h o l og y o f A r t hu r i a n R om an ce ( R a d c liff e C o ll M on og r aphs .
,

p .
46, no e t . The wit c h C a r m i l e, a pp ea r i ng i n t h e A r t ho u r a nd
M er hn ( Kolbi n g p , . is an a de pt in n ec r om an c y .

3
M e lu s i n e c h a p , . I ( ed D on a l d B E TS E S 68
.
T h e a uth o r , . . .

15 J ea n d A r r a s,

w r iti ng ab o ut 1 3 82 94 In the E ng li s h t r ansl ati on -
.
,
 A s tr olog y i n t he M e di e va l R oma n c es 10
9

magic newly arr ived from the O rient A s eriou s work like
,
.

the pro s e L ap i da i r e o f P hilipp e de V aloi s c ould a s s ert that

only fool s doubted the exi s ten c e o f magi c power s in s tone s ,

he r b s and s poke n word s

,
?
A n d the author o f the famo u s
I mag e d u M on d e 2
which retained it s popularit y down to ,

the time when C axton t r an s lated it into E n gli s h unde r take s ,

to defend both magic and a s trology from the attack s o f

the incredulou s a s well a s from tho s e who a s c r ibe all s uch
,

wondrou s thing s to the devil He introduce s the s ubj e c t .

3
in c onnectio n with a de s cription o f V irgil a s a magi c ian :
V i r gy l e dy de and ma d e m a ny g r et e m e r vay ll es wh i che t he he r e r s ,

s ho l d h ol d e f or l esyn g es y f th ey h e r d e th em r ec o u n t e d ; if o r th ey
w ol d e no t by leve th at a no th er cou d e doo s u ch e thyng e a s t heye
c o u d e n o t m e d l e wy th A n d wh an th ey h er e s p ek e o f s u ch e m a t e r s
.

o r o f o th er th a t th ey s e e a t th e i r ey en a n d th a t th ey c a n n o t u n d er

s t o n de n e kn o w e n o t th e r e o f a n o n th ey s a y e th a t it i s by t h elp e ,

o f t h e f en d e th a t w e r k et h i n s u ch e m a n e r a s th ey th a t g l a d l y ,

my ss ay e o f p ep l e o f r e co m m en d ac i on A n d a l s o s ay e it i s g oo d .

n o t t o conn e s u ch e thy ng e s B ut y f t h ey kn ewe t he s c i en c e a n d .

m a n e r e th ey w o l d h o l d e it f o r a m och e n o bl e an d r i g ht w e r k e
,

o f na tu r e a n d w i th o ut o ny o th er e sp e c e o f evy ll
, A n d wh an th ey .

kn ow n o t n e u n der s t on de t he th ing e th ey s ay m och e m o r e evy l ,

th an w ell .

C e r t ay nly w ho th a t kn ew e w ell a s t r o no my e th er i s n o thy ng i n ,

t h e w o r l d o f whic h h e c o u d e en q uy r e by r es on but h e shold h av e

m a de a c en tu ry l at er , wy s e th a t s u ch e
we r ea d :

A n d he i s n ot

t hing es s up p o seth t o c o mp r eh en de i n h i s wit a n d w en eth th a t th e ,

m e r vay lles th a t ben t h ru g h t he u n iv er s a l w o r l d m ay n a t b e t ru e , ,

a s it i s s a i d o f t he th i ng e s th a t m en c a ll e ff ay r ee s a n d a s i t i s o f ,

many o th er thi ng e s wh e r eo f we m ay n ot h av e t he kn o wl ech e o f

,

a ll e th e m

.

E t n u s sag e s h orn s n e d o it do ut er q u e D i e x n a i t m i s v e r tu z en
1

p i er r es e t e n h e r b e s e t e n p a ro l es e t qui c e n e c r o it e t i1 d e s di t i l , ,

f a i t q u e p echi e r r es ( P ann i er L es L apidai r es F r a ncoi s d u M oye n

,

A g e P a r i s 1 882 p
, , , .

T he w o r k i s d a t e d 1 2 66 T h e r e i s a d i sput e a s t o wh e th e r th e
2
.

a uth o r s n a m e i s G a uti er o f M et z o r Go s s o u i n o f M e tz ; c f P r ior s

.

e d iti o n o f C a xt o n s t r a n s l a ti o n ( M i r r ou r of t h e W or ld P r i or

ed , .
,

B E TS E S 1 1 0 pp I x x )
. .
, .
-

Ca xt o n s M i r r o u r of t h e W or ld 3 1 3 ( e d P r i o r p
3
. . .
,
1 10 M ed i e val A tti tu de t ow ar d A s tr olog y

kn ow leche th e r o f A n d m any thy ng es shol d he doo th at shol de

.

s eme my r a cles t o t h e p ep l e wh i che th a t ku ew e no thy ng e o f the

sc ienc e I s ay e n o t but th e r my ght b e w el don evy ll by bym th at

.

co u de i t ; ff o r t h er i s n on e 5 0 g oo d s ci enc e but th a t myght be

.

en t en d e d th er i n s o m m e m a ly c e a n d th a t h e my g h t u s e it i n evy l l
1
,

th a t w ol d e s o ap p ly e by m ther t o Go d mad e n ev e r so g oo d a g osp el .

but s omm e my g hte to r n e i t cont r ary e t o t rou the ; and th er i s no

t hyng e s o t r u e but somm e my g ht s o g l os e th a t it sh old b e t o h i s
damp nac ion w ho tha t w o l d e p ayn e hy m t o do evy ll how wel i t
, ,

is no may s t ry e t o do y ll .

regard s the ethical que s tion involve d in the emplo y

As
ment o f a s trology and magic the view j u s t expre ss e d by ,

the author o f the I mag e du M on de i s al s o that o f the

medi aeval romance s C ondemnation s o f a s trology are
.

rare R emoved f rom eccle s ia s tical inuence and not calle d

.
,

upon to s olve que s tion s o f right an d wrong the writer o f ,

the tale s did not cen s u r e magic practice s except when a

condemnation wa s demande d by the s tory it s el f that i s ,

when magic wa s u s e d for mani fe s tly evil purpo s e s T he .

dwar f in B r ou l s Tr i s tan i s not s pa r ed a denu n c i at i o n ;

z

and the wi z ard M augi s in the P ou r e S onn es of A ymon , ,

though he i s willing to come to the aid o f hi s friend

R enaud even a fter he ha s for s worn hi s a rt reali z e s that ,

he may be dam n ed for thi s in the en d B u t de s p ite the fa c t

?
,

that magic i s o ften felt to be on the defen s ive it i s never ,

c ondemned outright In the Ai oi a F rench romance o f the

.
,

T h e I m ag e d u M o n d e l wh er e ( 2 24 : op ci t p 1 1 6) d en ou nce s
1
e se

n ec r o man cy
. . . .
,

whi ch it d e nes p r op erl y as a conj u r ing o f ev i l

sp i r it s
i n m o r e vi g o r ou s t er m s : Thi s i s a s cy en ce th a t wh o th a t ,

g evy th hy m t h er t o t o d o evy l h it gy veth by m t h e d e th ; ff or y f

,

h e t ak e th n o h e d e th er o f he s h al be damp n e d b o d y a n d sowl e
, .

B u t o n e m ay n o t e th a t h er e t oo it i s o nly wh en u s e d f o r evil en d s
, ,

th a t bl a ck m ag i c i s c on demn ed T he I mag e du M ond e h as many .

o th er r e f er en ce s t o a s t r o l ogy ; c f 1 1 3 ( op ci t p 2 33 ( p . . . .
,
. . .

3 8 .

B r o u l, Tr i s t a n 643 ff ( e d M u r e t , p
2
. . .

3
Th e F ou r e S o nn es of A y m on, c h a p . 24 ( ed . R i ch ar d s o n , B E TS .

E S 44 . . Cf . W ac e s
R oman d e R ou 7 5 3 7 .
1 1 2 M e di e val A t ti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr ol ogy

imaginatio n due in p a r t to the tempting o f the devil him

,

s el f partly to the per s i s tence o f pagan cu s tom s an d nally

, ,

t o the reading o f romance s Ger s on d ene s romance s a s

.

book s w r itten i n the F r ench tongue relating in poetic fo r m

,

the deed s o f milit ary heroe s s torie s which are ctitiou s

for the mo s t part and which s erve rather to s ati s fy a
,

hunger for novelty and a d miration than to fo s ter a ,

knowledge o f the truth 1
.

E x l e ct i on e q u o r u n dam R oman c i o r u m , i e , libro r u m comp o
1
. .

s i t o r u m i n G a lli co qu a s i p o et i c o ru m d e g e s t i s mi l it ar ibu s , i n qu ibu s

maxi ma p ar s f abul o sa e s t mag i s a d i ng er en dam q u an dam

, novi tat em

e t a dm i ra t i o n em qu am ve r i t at i s cog ni t i on em ( Schw ab

,
p .

Is thi s t he ea r li es t de n it i on of t h e no v el ?
 C H A P TE R V I I I

A ST R OLO GY I N M I DD L E EN GL I S H ERA L IT TU RE
However valuable the nai ve ref erence s to a s trology in
the F ren c h romance s o f the twel fth and thirteenth cen
t u r ies may be for dening the popular medi aeval attitude

toward the magi c o f the E a s t they are o f comparatively ,

s mall s ervice in dete r mini n g the s tate o f f eeling in E ng

land it s el f A ll the M iddle E ngli s h r oman c e s d ealing
.

with a s trolo gy were tran s lation s from the F rench o r L ati n ,

an d ve r y few even o f the s e bear a date earlier than 1 3 5 0 .

F o r direct evidence concerning the attitude towar d a s trol

ogy in E ngland d uring the thirteenth and fourteenth cen
t u r i es one mu s t turn to the more indigenou s litera r y
,

pro d uction s o f the time although the s e too a ff or d only a

, , ,

s canty gleaning It i s s a f e to a ss ume o f cour s e that the

vulgar a s trology o f the almanacwho s e importation into
.
, ,

l
E ngland d ate s back to the time o f ZElf r i c wa s already
widely current ?
B ut all evidence point s toward the con
e lu s ion that an intere s t in a s trology prop er did not become

general in the vernacular literature o f E ngland befo re the

age o f Gower an d Chaucer N ot until the fteenth c en .

tury in e ff ect are reference s t o a s trolo gy a s frequent i n

, ,
-

E ngli s h a s they were in the literature o f F ra n c e one o r

t w o centurie s previou s .

2
S ee b o v e pp 44 if
a , . .

T he b e s t p r oo f o f thi s can be f o u n d i n t h e p o r ti o n s o f a
2

p opul a r ca l en d a r f o r the y ear 1 3 49 publi s h e d by A H ah n ( A r chiv

, .

1 06 .
349 In t he manu s c r ipt whi ch c on t a i n s a m ong o th e r
, ,

thi ng s the sou r ce f o r a p o r ti on o f R o ll e s P r i cke of C o ns ci enc e

,

i s f o u n d a p o em o f s om e thi r ty n i n e li n e s o n the i nu en ce o f
-

pl an et s g ivi ng a d vi ce o n u n der t ak i ng any en t er p r i s e wh en th i s

,

o r th a t pl a n e t r ul es t h e d ay o r th e h o u r T h e a s t r o l ogy o f t h e p o e m
.

i s n ot m u c h a b o v e t he l ev e l o f t he O ld E ng li s h t r ea ti s es whi ch w e
met i n t he L eechd o ms ( s e e a b o v e p , .
 1 1 4 M e di e val A tti t u d e t owar d A s tr ol ogy

It may s eem s trange in view o f t hi s generali z ation that , ,

o n e o f the mo s t enlightened di s cu ss ion s o f a s trology in

M iddle E n gli s h i s found in a work dated a s early a s the

latter hal f o f the thi rteenth ce n tury I t o c cur s in a fra g .

me n t on popula r s cien c e part o f the L eg end of M i cha el

in the S ou ther n L eg en dar y C ollec ti on ?

T he line s which
bea r p a r ticularly upon a s trolo g y are found near it s begin
ning a n d c on s titute a paraphra s e o f the current C hurch
,

doct r i n e on the s ubj e c t o f s tellar inuence A fter a general .

co s mological explanation o f the univer s e an d an enumeration

o f the s even planet s the poet continue s : ,

T hu r f g r e t wit of l
c e rg e i h er e !t he pl anets ! name s were fu r s t
i f ou n de .

F or ech o f v er tu an u r the do
th e s oven e m a i g r et ,

B o th e o f w e d er an d f r u t a s h e r e p o e r i s th e r t o ; ,

A n d a l s o m en th a t beot h ib o r e u n d e r h er e m i s t e i w i s
S c hull e h a bb e d i v e r s e m i s t e an d ly i a ft er th a t h er e v er tu i s , , ,

S u mm e l echou r s a n d s u m me g l ot ou ns a n d s u mm e o th e r m aner e ;
, ,

N at h ele s a man o f g o d i nwit o f a ll e thulk e h im mai sker e :

F o r p lan et es n e do th n o n o ther b o t e s eveth i n man es will e ,

To be o lith e r o th er g o d a s h er e v er tu w o l e t o till e ,

A n d 3 yvet h a l so qu a lit t o do so o th er s o ,

A n d no st f o r th en by h i s i nwit ech man may do .

F o r s u ch qu alit h a th no m an t o beo l echou r o th e r sch r ewe ,

T h a t n e ma i h i m w i t i e th e r a 5 e n a c n a t hel e s s o d o th f ewe
2
, .

N 0 s ource fo r any portion o f thi s F r ag men t on P op u la r

1
p ass ag e i s at t imes r e f er r e d t o by i t s op en ing l ine a s The
The

r i s t e putt e o f h ell e The ea r li es t m an u s cr i pt d a t e s a b o ut 1 280 9 0

-
.

( c f W ell s p
. The p i ec e h a s b een pub li s h e d s ev e r a l ti mes :
,
.

i n W r i g ht s P opu lar Tr ea tis es on S ci e nce ( Lon d on 1 841 pp

.
, ,

1 3 2 40 )
-
in a r ep r i n t o f the ea r li es t ma nu s cr ipt ( L au d 1 08 : B E TS .

87 3 1 1 ) i n J ahr b f ur R om u nd E ng l L i t ( 13 an d in
'

.
-
22 . . . . .

M at z n er

s A l teng lis che S pr a chpr o ben (1 . 1 36 if .
) cf . fu r th er W ell s
, ,

83 5 .

2
M at z n er s A l t eng li s che S pr a c hpr oben ( B er li n 1 867 ) 1 1 3 8 The

. .
,

p o e m c o n ti n u es with a d e sc r ipti on o f t h e as t r ol og i ca l c h a r ac t er i s ti cs
of the da ys o f the w eek . T u e s da y an d S a tu r dy a ar e p r on o u nced
b ad f o r b eg i nn i ng th ing s .
1 1 6 M ed i e va l A tti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr ol og y

c lo s ing li n e with it s c omment that f ew men make u s e o f

,

thei r w ill p owe r i n thei r s t r uggle agai n s t evil i s the r e a hi n t

-

that the author wa s acquainted with the more re c e nt view s

on the s ubj e c t o f a s t r ology found in s uch work s a s the ,

S u mma Th eol og i e o f T homa s A qui n a s B ut whateve r

?

be the n al verdict a s to it s s our c e the pa s s age mu s t be ,

con s ide r ed o n e o f the earlie s t exp r e s s ion s i n a E uropea n

verna c ular o f the s c hola s tic doctrine con c erning a s tro
logical fatali s m I n E ngli s h the s ubj ect i s not again s o
.
,

fully d i s cu s s ed until the time o f B arbour s B r u ce and
Gower s C onf es s i o A ma u tis ; a n d the s omewhat s imilar

populari z ation o f the orthodox teaching regarding a s trolo gy

and free will found in Jean de M e u n s R oman d e la R os e
,

can at be s t have antedated the L eg en d of M i cha el by o n ly

a few yea r s ?

While the re fe r en c e to a s trology in the L eg end of M i cha el

r epre s ent s the c ontemporaneou s teaching s o f the learned ,

other di s cu s s io n s o f the s ubj e c t i n M iddle E ngli s h lite ra

tu r e drew upon le ss modern s ource s It i s a common s aying .

that the learned s cience o f one centu ry become s the popular

s cience o f the next T he more popular the s cienc e in fact .
, ,

the farthe r behin d the time s will it be S ide by s ide with .

the mo s t advanced view s regarding a s trology there s till ,

exi s ted the e c cle s ia s tical con s e r vati s m o f the early medi aeval
centurie s T he pa ss age s i n M iddle E ngli s h lite r atu r e
.
,

dealing with a s trology pre s ent a cc or ding ly a con s ide r able -

va r iety o f opi n ion sa va r iety which nd s it s explanation

,

o n ly in the light o f the whole hi s tory o f me d i aeval a s trolo gy .

(p . 1 61 )

E v er y m an
h a th t he p ow e r to d w ra e bym se lf t o do w ell
o r t o do evy l l w hi ch e th a t ,
h e wy lle, as he th a t h a th f re l ib er t e of

th a t o ne an d o f t h a t o th er .

C f S u mma 1 1 1 5 4 : P a u c i ut em s u n t s a pi ent e s qui hu i u s m o di
2
. . . a ,

p a s s i o n ibu s r es i s t a nt E t i d eo . a s t r ol og i u t i n plu r ibu s v e r a p o s

,

s u n t p r aedi ce r e , e t m a xi m e i n c o m mu n i N on a ut em i n s p ec i a li :
.

qui a n ihil p r o hi b e t a l iq u e m h o m i n em p e r lib e r u m a r bit r iu m p a s

s i o n ibu s r e s s e r e i t .

2
O n t he R oma n d e la R os e , s ee b el ow pp
, . 138 ff .
 A s tr olog y i n M i dd le E ng li s h Li t er a tur e 1 1 7

It i s important therefore in turning to the vernacular

, ,

di s c u s s ion s them s elve s to keep the early hi s to r y o f medi aeval

,

a s trology c lea r ly in mind A s w e have s een thi s wa s

. ,

divided c hronologically into two di s tin c t period s I n the .

r s t extending to the middle o f the twel fth century

,
,

a s trology wa s known o n ly a s a diaboli c art which had ,

been c o n dem n ed by the F athe r s o f the early C hur c h E ven .

when it wa s treated a s a fo r midable philo s ophi c al theo ry

by John o f S ali s bu r y and A belard it wa s de n ou n c ed a s a ,

mani fe s tatio n o f pagan impiety T he arrival o f A ri s totle .

a n d o f A rabian s c ien c e changed all thi s A s trology wa s .

accepted by the s cienti s t s o f the C hurch in theory and ,

virtually in practi c e T he champ ion s o f a s trology however

. , ,

were not bold enough to c on fro n t the tradit io nal teaching

o f the C hur c h with one diametrically oppo s ed Hen c e .
,

in s tead o f attempting a s ub s titution o f doctrine s they con ,

tented them s elve s with a s uperpo s it ion T he early C hurch .

had made no di s tinctio n between a true and a fal s e a s trol

ogy T he C hurch o f the thirteenth century by ma k in g
.
,

j u s t thi s di s tin c tio n wa s enabled to entertain an ent hu

,

s ia s m for t he moderate s cience o f P tolemy an d to pre s erve , ,

at the s ame time piou s s corn for a s trological magic and

, ,

that mani fe s tatio n o f j udi c ial a s trology which it loo s ely

dened a s predi c tion per c er ti tu di n em Th e vaguene ss .

inhe r ent in thi s denition o f o rthodox a s trology gave ri s e ,

in the later centurie s a s we have noted to plenti ful con

, ,

fu s ion s . E nthu s ia s t s for the s c ie n c e like R oger B acon ,

and P ierre d A illy c oul d make their appeal under cover

1
,

H
2
Pi er r e d A i lly ( 1 3 5 0 1 420 ) i s a n ex cell en t ex ampl e o f a n imp or tant

C hu r ch mand A il ly p r es i d e d a t t he C o u n c il o f Co n s t an c e ( 1 4 1 5 )
-

w ho wa s a r m b eli ev e r i n a s t r o l og y e e v e n s ub s c r i b e d t o
.

A lbu ma sa r s h o r o s c o p es o f t he v a r i o u s r e li g i o n s whi ch w e m e t i n

t h e w r iti ng s o f R og er B a co n Pi er r e d A i lly t o b e s u r e ma de a n

.
, ,

e x c epti o n i n t h e c a s e o f C h r i s ti a n ity whi c h h e s a i d w a s n o t r ul e d

, , ,

o v e r by t he s t a r s ( Gu ig n eb e r t D e Imag i n e M u ndi C e t e r i s q ue P e tr i
,

d e A lli a c o Ge og r aphi cis Opu s cu lis P a r i s 1 902 pp 1 6 , , , .

1 1 8 M edi e val A t ti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr olog y

o f the s ame o r thod oxy that s erved P etrar ch O r es me an d , ,

P ico della M irandola a s an excu s e for their attack s .

N ow in the di sc u ss io n s o f a s trology i n ve r na c ular litera

,

ture thi s s ituation wa s s till further complicated

,
T he .

d ebate c o n cerning a s trology c ar r ied o n by the learned could

at lea s t boa s t o f a continuou s development A fter T homa s .

A quina s had embodied the A rabian co s mology in hi s s y s

tem no eccle s ia s tical writerunle ss like P etrarch he
deliberately ignored the s e newer adva n c e sdared again to
, , ,

lau nc h again s t a s trology an i n di s c riminate p dlemic B ut .

the popular writing s o f the thirteenth and fourteenth cen

t u r i es we r e under no obligation to keep abrea s t o f con
temporaneou s s cientic lite r ature ?
I s idore and John o f
S ali s bury did not cea s e to be read o n the s ubj ect o f a s trol
o gy even though their c onclu s ion s ha d been s uper s eded by
,

tho s e o f A lbe r t the Grea t and T homa s A quina s .

A n example o f the per s i s tence in the fourteenth century

o f the ho s tility towa r d a s trology chara c te r i s tic o f the ea r ly

M iddle A ge s i s found in the writing s o f Ro lle o f Hampole

, .

H im s el f an educated man and at one time a sfu dEKt at

w

Oxfo r d he wa s in all p robability acquainted with the a s tro

,

logical s c ien c e o f the day A pa ss age o f the P r i cke of .

C o ns ci en c e eve n s ub s cribe s vaguely though it be to the , ,

current c o s mology o f the s c hola s ti c s c ie n ti s t s ?

N ev e r t h e
1
A g oo d illu t ti
s ra th i s i s the p opul ar encycl op aed ia t he
on of ,

Im a g e d u M o n d e A lth ou g h it w a s co n t emp o r a r y with s u c h La ti n

.

e n cy c l op aed i a s a s th o s e o f V i n c en t o f B ea uv a i s a n d B a r th o l o maeu s

A ng li cu s it a d opt e d a s i t s p r i n c ip a l s o u r c e th e I mag o M u ndi o f

,

H on o r iu s Inc lu s u s w r it t en mo r e th an a cen tu r y an d a h al f p r evi ou s

,

( s e e a b ov e pp , .

P r i c he of C on s ci en c e 7 5 96 761 7 ( e d M o r r i s B e r li n 1 863 p
2
-

.
, , , .

R o ll e c it e s B a r th o l om aeu s A ng li c u s a s t he s ou r c e f o r a p a ssag e on
t h e s t a r r y a n d c r y s t a lli n e h ea v en s F o r t h e f o ll owi ng li n e s i n
.
,

whi ch h e d ecl a r es t h a t t he m o v em en t o f t he h eaven s i s n ec es sa ry

f o r li f e o n ea r th h e n a m es n o a uth o r ity but it m ay w e ll be th a t
, ,

f o r thi s a g a i n the o r i g i na l i s t he D e P r opr i e ta tibu s R er u m ( c f .

B a tman u pp on B ar tho l om e f o l s 1 2 1 , N a s sy n g t on ( R e li g i ou s
.
a
1 20 M ed i e va l A tti tu d e t ow a r d A s tr ol ogy

T he fear o f t r a n sgre s s i n g the bound s o f s trict orthodoxy

wa s al s o the probable c a u s e o f a n a r gume n t again s t a s t r o
logical fatali s m whi c h T r evi s a in s e r ted into hi s tran s lation
o f Higde n s P o lychr oni c on
I n the third book o f hi s .

c hro n i c le Higden introduce s the legend o f A lexander the

,

Gr eat and rep eat s the s tory o f the E gyptian a s trologer

,

N ec t a nabu s T he clo s e o f the epi s ode together with

.
,

T r evi s a s orthodox c omme n t ru n s a s f ollow s z

l
,

In a wh an P helip wa s ab s en t A li sau ndr e p r ay ed N ectanabu s

d ay ,

ba t he w ol d e t e ch e b y m h i s c r a ft a n d h e g r a u n t e de ; an d wh an ,

bey come i n f er e u n t o a deep w a t e r p itt e A l i s aun dr e br e w t he ,

W i cch e i n be s am e pitt e ; an d wh an he wa s i n ba t pitt e a n d d ee d

w oun d e de h e a x e de o f A l i s au n d r e why he d e d e s o

Thy c r a ft

, .
,

qu o d A li sau n d r e i s t o bl am e f o r he w ar n ede be not wh a t schul de
, ,

by f a ll e : be r e bou li e s t n evely ng e a n d s chul d es t t ell e a ft e r bese ,

T h e w hi ch e an s w e r e d e a n d s e i d e

by ng es o f h ev en e N o ma n

.
,

may ee hi s o wn d es t ay n e I kn o w e w e l by bi s c ra ft ba t myn
.

o wn e s o n e s c hul d e s l ee m e Tr evi s a N ect a nabu s se i d e bi s sa w e

. .
,

a n d w a s a W i cche a n d ber f o r e it i s n ev e r e be b et t r e t o t ro wy ng e :
,

but it w e r e a vil e scham e f o r a Cr i s ten man t o t r o w e bi s f al se saw e

.

o f bi s w i cc h e ; f o r f r o m ev e r y my s hap ba t m an i s i sch ap e i n bis

w o r l d e t o f a ll e y nn e Go d m ay b y m s av e s i f it i s h i s will e
, .

We have s ee n i n our ge n eral s urvey o f medi aev a l a s trol

,

ogy that the per s i s te nc e o f the early eccle s ia s tical fear o f

,

the pra cti c al s c ien c e wa s f r eque n tly c oupled with a gene ro u s

acceptan c e o f a s trological theory S uch a j uxtapo s ition o f .

opinion s w a s already s lightly noticeable in the writing s o f

R olle o f Hampole It meet s u s fully in P i er s P l owman . .

I n fact the contradi c tion s betwee n the s everal reference s

,

to a s trology i n the poem have bee n emp loyed a s evide n c e f o r

. H
h el d the pl ac e whi ch a s t r o l ogy o c cup i ed i n the b e li e f s o f th e mo r e
l ea r n ed T h e f a c t th a t the a n d lyng S y nn e whi c h in thi s con
n ec t i o n d e a l s s ev e r e ly with f a t a li s ti c s up e r s titi o n s d o e s no t m en ti o n
,

H
a s t r o l ogy m i g ht be t ak en a s a d de d p r o o f th a t t he l a tt er ha d n ot
,

p en et r a t e d t o t he c ommo n p eopl e o f E ng l an d i n th e ear ly f ou r t eenth

c en tu r y ( t h e a n dly ng S y nn e w a s w r itt en a b out

P o ly chr o ni c on 3 27 ( c d with T r evi sa s t r an s l a ti o n by Lu m by

1
. .
, , ,

R o ll s S er 3 .
, .
 A s tr ol og y i n M i dd l e E ng li s h Li t er a tu r e 1 21

i ts multiple author s hip T o determine the attitu d e towar d

?

a s trology o f the author o f P i ers P l ow ma n two pa ss age s ,

are o f particular importa n ce One o f the s e i s foun d o n ly .

in the earlier two ver s ion s I n a s peech o f D ame S tu dy .

the po et i s wa r n ed not to meddle with s orcery and magic ,

an d the al chemy taught by A lbertu s ?

A s t r onomy i s name d
amo n g the li s t o f evil practice s along s ide o f g eometry an d ,

geomancy
A c a s t r o n omy e is a n h a r d e t hy n g e a n d yv e l f o r t o kn o w e ,

G eom et r i e an d g eomesy e i s gyn f u l o f s p ech e ;

W h o s o th enk eth w e r ch e with t he t wo t hr yv eth ful l a t e .

F o r s o r ce r y e i s th e s over ey n e b ok e th a t t o t he s ci ence l ong eth .

T he a s tronomy c ondemned by the poet j udge d by the

,

c ompa n y it keep s c a n not have been o f a very high or d er

,
.

It i s an a s trology o f quite a nobler kind that i s referred to

by the author o f the la s t o f the three ver s ion s in a later ,

pa s s u s o f the poem ?
T he inue n ce o f the s tar s upo n m a n
at birth i s here taken for granted In illu s trating the d i f .

ference between learnin g ( cler g i e ) and common s en s e

( y
k n d e w i t t ) the poet s ay s :
,

C l er g i e c om e th b o t e o f s iht an d kyn d e witt o f s t e r r es

, ,

A s t o b e b o r e o th e r by g et e i n s u c h c o n st el l ac io n
T h a t wit w exet h th er o f a n d o th er wy r d e s b o th e ,

4
Vu l t u s hu i u s s e cu li s u n t s u bi e c t i v u l t i bu s ce l es t i bu s .

T he fact that in the third ver s io n the earlier re ference to

a s t r o n omy a s a magic art i s omitted may s ugge s t that the

p oet whether the s ame a s the one who wrote the earlier
ver s ion o r a di ff ere n t o n ethought the condemnatio n too
s evere It may be too that the general e nthu s ia s tic inter
.
, ,

1
T h i s ha s b e en d one by P r o f e s s o r M anly ( M od P hi l . .
7 .

V er s i o n ( B E TS 2 8
2
A 1 1 1 5 2 ff
. . V e r s ion . . B 10 . 207

( B E TS .
38 .

V e r s i on C ( B E TS
3
15 . 28 ff . .
54 .

In V e r s i o n B , t he c on r a s t t b etw e e n c l er g i e and ky nd e w i t i s
g iv en quit e d iff e r en tly ( 1 2 69 3 8 1 96) .
-

7 0 : B E TS . .

O f qu od s ci mu s co m eth c le r gy e a n d co nnyng e o f h eve ne ,

A n d o f q u od vi di mu s c o m e th ky n d e witt ; o f s i 3 t e o f dy ve r s e p e p le .
1 22 M ed i e val A tti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr ol og y

es t hown in a s trology at the tu r n o f the c entury by men

s

like Gowe r and C hau c er reacted upo n the author o f P i er s

P l ow ma n s o a s to c au s e him to c hange hi s view s T he .

d enun c iatio n o f the mathemati cal s cie n ce s in the former o f

the two pa s s age s i s vague at be s t and may imply s imply a ,

g eneral ho s tility to s or c e r y and magic E ven i f the li n e s .

had been retained in the la s t ver s ion or i f both had been ,

written at the s ame time the contradiction between the ,

'

two w ould have been no greate r than that found in the

work s o f D ante and ma ny another medi aeval writer ?

The di s cu ss ion o f divination found in the fourth book ,

o f B arbour s B ru ce pre s ent s an attitude toward a s trology
,

s omewhat s imilar to that o f P i er s P low man although in ,

the B r u c e the ho s tile point o f view i s that o f a rationali s t ,

rather than that o f a con s ervative eccle s ia s tic Barbour .

introdu c e s the s ubj ect in connection w ith a p rophecy ma d e

by an ol d woman to the S cotti s h ki n g p romi s ing him ulti ,

mate s u c ce ss in hi s ght again s t the B riti s h T he fact that .

the prediction a c tually c ame t r ue p u z z le s Barbour a n d by , ,

way o f comment on the general problem o f prophecy he ,

enter s upon a lengthy excur s u s on a s trology and necro

mancy T he latter o f cour s e he denounce s a s a wicked art
.
, , ,

although he admit s that demo n s c a n foretell the futu r e ?

1
E v en i n t h e ea rli er tw o v e r s i on s a s t r ol ogy ,
i s in p a r t acc ept e d .

A ll th r ee t ext s c on t a i n a r e f er en ce to S a tu r n as a p r og nos ti cato r

o f f am i n e a n d oo d ( A 7 3 1 1 ; B 6 3 27 ;. C 9 a nd i n
. .

V er s i o n s B a n d C ( B 1 5 3 5 2 64 ; C 1 8 94 1 06) i t i s s t at ed th a t
.
-
.
-

s hip men an d s h eph e r d s f o r m e r ly p r e d i c t e d w eath e r by th e s t a r s ,

an d th a t t h e p r es en t f a ilu r e o f th e i r p r ed i cti on s i s a s i g n o f
d eg ener at e ti mes C f al s o C 1 0 1 07 8 ; A 1 0 1 42 P r o f essor
. . .
-
. .

Ta tl ock ( The S cene of th e F r a n kli n s Ta le Vi s i t ed p 29 ) has

.
,

a l rea d y s u g g es t e d th at t h e c o n t r a d i cti on s i n P i er s P l owma n a r e n o t

s o r ea l a s th ey a t r s t s i g ht a pp ea r .

2
B r u ce 748 74 ( E E TS E S 5 1
-

. . E ar li er i n t he f o u r th b o ok
.

( 2 1 6 if ) i
, n r e l a ti ng t h e d ea th o f K i n g E d w a r d B a r b ou r c it es a ,

l eg en d to the eff ect th at the E ng li sh m on ar ch hi ms el f ha d a demon

a s a f a m ili ar , who by mea n s o f a n a mbi g u ou s p r e d i c ti on ha d
, ,
1 24 M edi e va l A tti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr olog y

Barbour wa s too well informed on the s ubj ect o f a s trology

it s el f to atta c k mo r e than the extreme mani fe s tatio n s o f
a s trologi cal divi n ation Hi s max imum claim i s a fter all.
, ,

that the a s trologer c an n ot predi c t what will befall in par

t i c u la r c a s e s He admit s that the c on s tellation s can
.

in c li n e a ma n to goo d or ill and that t he a s t r ologer can ,

determi n e a ma n s n a tu r a l di s p o s itio n ?
With rega rd to
s uch general p r og n o s ti c at i on s B arbour merely make s t he ,

familiar re s ervatio n that man s will remai n s free even her e

H
to conque r hi s evil ten d encie s i f he s o de s i r e s He cite s ,
.

A ri s totle a s a notable example o f a s trong ma n who over

came hi s inclination s towa r d lying and c ovetou s ne ss e .

there fore con c lude s i n view o f s o mani fe s t a proo f o f

,

ma n s power to s hape hi s own de s tiny t hat divination by ,

the s ta r s i s n a c e r t a n e thing 2
.

It may be s tat ed a s a gene r al prin c i p le that the ent hu

s i a s m for a s tr ology s how n by medi aeval write r s varie s in

di r e c t p ro p o r tion to th e i r knowledge o f t h e s ubj ect While .

many a popula r religiou s writer might hold o ff from a s trol

ogy a s a thing i n it s el f evil n o s uch gene r al di s tru s t i s ,

noticeable on the pa r t o f the more learned A t the oppo s ite .

pole in fa c t f rom the attitude o f R i c ha r d R olle wa s that

, , ,

o f the g r eat E ngli s h theologian o f the fou r teenth century ,

B r a dw a r d i n e T he lat ter s D e Cau s a D ei although written

.
,

i n L ati n became widely kn o

,
wn and it s di s cu ss ion o f pre ,

de s tination and free will c a n not well be overlooked in deal

i ng with a s trology in the E ngla n d o f the fourteenth c entu r y ?

1
I bi d 8, 7 1 6 2 8
.
70 6
- -

Th e r e f e r en c e t o A r i s t o tl e ( 7 3 6 42 ) i s c u r i o u s T he
2
1 bi d 746 . .
-

e x a mpl e o f a m an c o n qu er i ng h i s evil n a tu r e u su a lly c it e d in the ,

lit er a tu r e o f the f ou r t eenth cen tu ry w a s th a t o f Hipp oc r at es ( s ee

,

b el o w p , .

T he i m po r t a n c e in t he th e o l o g i ca l d i s put e s o f t h e f ou r t e en th
2
-

c en tu r y o f t he p r o bl em c o nce r n i ng f r e e will a n d t h e r e ec ti o n s ,

o f thi s d i s put e i n M i dd l e E ng li s h lit e r a tu r e a r e no t e d by C F ,

. .

B r o w n i n The A u th or of The P ear l c ons id er ed i n the Li g h t of hi s

, ,
 A s tr ology i n M i d d le E ng li s h Li t er a tu r e 1 2 5

As an indi c ation o f the view regar d ing the s ubj ect o f a s trol

o gy c urrent at Ox ford B r a dw a r di n e s treatment o f the ,

s ubj ect i s in it s el f valuable .

B r a d wa r d in e s o rthodoxy o n the que s tion o f a s trology i s

irreproachable Ina s much a s the purpo s e o f hi s chief work

.

wa s a de fen s e o f the A ugu s tinian do ctrine o f pre d e s tination ,

any rival theory o f determini s m foun d in him a s to ut

opponent ?
Harking back to the quarrel between the early
C hurch and the ma thema ti ci he rehear s e s the hi s to ric con ,

demn a t i o n o f the ancient reade r s o f horo s c ope s by the aid ,

o f plenti ful quotation s f rom A mbro s e A ugu s t ine and , ,

Gregory ?
The que s tion o f a s trological fatali s m on c e
thoroughly di s po s e d o f however B r a dwa r din e s hi ft s from , ,

the atta c k to t he de fen s e He make s no obj ect ion s to the .

s cience o f hi s o w n day accepting in full t he mo d erate ,

a st rology o f P tolemy and the s chola s tic theologian s E ven .

i nto hi s expo s ition o f the patri s ti c doctrine he in s ert s a

caveat to the eff ect that when the a s trologer i n dicate s me r ely ,

tendencie s and m o tive s hi s art i s legit imate ?

T he action ,

o f t he st ar s upon man s low er nature i s explaine d accor d ing

to the familiar rea s oning s o f T homa s A quina s ?

T he

Theolog i ca l Opi ni ons ( P u b M od L ang A s s oc 1 9 1 1 5 . . . . . B ra d

H
wa r din e i s d i s c u s se d a t s o m e l e ngt h ( pp 1 28 .

B r a dwa r din e s h ar ply d i s ti ng ui s h e s a n ec es s i ta ti o p er cau s a m

1

s u p er i o r e m an d a n eces s i ta ti o per ca u s a s i nf er i or es . e ubj ect s

s

t he hu man will r s t but d e f end s i t s f r e ed o m o v er

t o t he , agai nst

t he s ec o n d T h e r ul e o f t he s t a r s w o ul d o f c o u r s e f all u n d e r t he
.
, ,

l a tt er ca t eg o r y ; c f S H ah n Thomas B r a dwa r di nu s u n d s ei n e L ehr e

. .
,

vo n d er M e ns ch li chen Wi llensf r ei hei t ( M nst er ,

1 905 : B au mk e r

s

B ei tr ag e V o l
'

.
,

( e d S av i l e p
2
D e C a u s a D ei .
, . 265 .

S i t am en f a tu m s i d e r u m n eq u aq u am n ece ss i t a t em s ed
2
I bid . : ,

q u a n d am d i sp os i t ion em , et i n c l i n a t i on em i n ho m in ibu s a d q u o s dam

ac tu s i mp o r t e t, n on vi d etu r p en itu s a bn eg a n du m .

I bi d .
,
p .
466 : P r o i u d i c ii s a ut em a s t r o log o r u m, p hi s i o g n o m o n i
co r um , e t caet e r o r u m s i m il iu m a dve r t e n d u m qu o d st ellae e t vi r tu te s
coel es t es multu m d i sp onu n t ,
et v eh em en t er i n cli na n t co r pu s hu manu m
1 26 M ed ie val A t ti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr olog y

p r ecept s o f a s a n e a s t r ology are them s elve s made to s e r ve
again s t the do c trine s o f fatali s m It i s our duty s ay s .
,

B r a dwa r d in e to s tudy the natural di s po s ition s which have

,

been impla n ted in u s by the heaven s and to fo s ter our ,

good trait s s o that they may in time conquer the ba d

,
.

B r a dwa r din e draw s upon P tolemy s C en ti l oqu i u m for the

advi c e that the wi s e man like the s hrewd hu s ban d man will , ,

s upplement the aid given by the st ar s and that by lookin g ,

i n to the future he will forti fy him s el f agai n s t an inevitable

evil ?
A s a n example o f will power c onqueri ng an evil -

di sp o s ition B r a dw a r d i n e relate s a s to r y f r om per s onal

,

experience He once met a rich merchant he s ay s who

.
, ,

con fe ss ed that the a s cendant at hi s birth wa s in the r s t

face o f A rie s a c on s tellation which normally would

have predi s po s ed him to a li f e o f homo s exual lu s t B ra d .

wa r dine o n expre ss ing hi s s urpri s e that the man wa s

,

in s tead a re s pectable mer chant learned that the latt er ha d ,

indeed been compelled to s truggle again s t hi s inborn pa s

s ion s ever s ince he wa s a boy ?
A n other i n s tance o f a
s imilar kind B r a dw a r din e borrow s from the S ecr e tu m
S ecr e t or u m a work s uppo s e d to have been written by
,

A ri s tot le A c c o r di ng to the S ecr e tu m s tu d ent s o f t he

.
,

Greek phy s ician Hippo c rate s once took a picture o f their

ma s ter to a famou s t eacher o f phy s iognomy only to be tol d ,

a d al iq u a co nv en i en t i a p r o s e q u en d a , et con r a r i at f u g i en da ; et h aec
d i sp os iti o vi r tu s s eu vitiu m natu r a l e d e qu a multi p hilosop hi
es t ,

n at u r a l es m o r a l e s e t a s t r o l og i seep e t r a c t a n t ; c f pp 45 0 ff

. . .
, ,

I bi d p 467 : N a m s i cu t s ec u n du m P t ol o maeu m i n C en t i l og i o v er b o
2

. .
,

8 : A n i ma s a pi en s a di u va t o pu s s t ella r u m q u ema dmo du m s emi nat or
f o r t i t u d in es n a tu r a l e s ; s i c se cu n d u m eu n d em s up r a eius dem v e r b o
,

5 : A s t r o l o g u s o pti m u s

s ec u n du m s t e ll a s v en t u r u m e s t
m ultu m m a lu m p r o hi b er e p o t e r it qu
c u m e iu s n a tu r a m p r aes civer i t :
,
o d ,

s i c e n i m p r aemu n i et cu m c u i m a lu m futu r u m e s t u t p o s s i t a liqu i d ,

p ati s i eut et t est an tu r exp e r i m en t a s up er iu s r ecita t a T h ese s ame

,
.

a ph o r i s m s o f t h e C e n ti l o qu i u m a n d s ev e r a l o th e r s a r e u s e d i n a

s li g htly d iff e r e n t c on n ec ti o n on p 45 0 . .

1 bi d p 4 5 0
2
. . .
,
1 28 M e die va l A t ti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr ol og y

oppo s ed to t hat o f B r a dw a r d in e Wycli f s negative attitu d e .

wa s not s o mu c h o n e o f ho s tility to a s t rology it s el f a s one ,

o f indi ff e r e n ce to s c ience a s a whole T o the E ngli s h .

re former a s to the F ather s o f the early C hurch an intere s t

, ,

in a s t r o n omy s eemed t r ivial compared with the eternal

i ss ue s f o r whi c h he felt that he wa s battling He alrea dy .

exhibit s that literal inte r p r etation o f the S cripture s which

fou n d in the B ible an all su fc ient guide in matter s s ecular -

a s well a s religiou s and which proved in later centurie s to ,

be emba r ra ss i n g to moder n s cien c e ?

Wycli f did not formulate hi s c on s ervative view s on

a s trology at the out s et o f hi s career ; nor were they foun d e d
upon ignorance o f the co n temporary teaching s on the s ub
j ec t .T here i s evidence in hi s writing s that he wa s well
a c quainted with the current a s trological t ext book s in hi s -

earlier work s he s eem s eve n t o have s ub s cribed to a s tro

logical theory T here i s extant a s hort treati s e o f hi s
.

on c omet s in which A r i s totle A verroe s Haly and other

, , , ,

A r abia n ma s te r s a r e f r eely cited ?

A gai n in a c uriou s ,

pa ss age o f the D e E n t e P re di ca men ta li which attempt s to ,

give a phonologi c al explanation o f onomatop oeia the i n u ,

e n c e o f c ele s tial bodie s i s tacitly taken for granted ?

In
2
W yclif ha s littl e u se f or a ny s ec ul ar s tu d i es wh a t soev e r Even .

l a w, g r am ma r , an d l og i c are to b e s hu nn e d b eca u se th ey a r e
,

em pl oy e d f or p r iv a t e ga n i ( P olemi ca l Wor ks ,
ed . B u d d en s i eg ,
L on do n , 1 883 , 1 . In hi s D e Ver i ta t e S a cr e S cr ip tu r e ( ed .

B u dd en s i eg , 1 906, 2 . he e xh o r t s p r i es ts n o t t o s p en d th ei r

ti m e w o r l dly s tu di es : S i ig itu r sc ien c ie
in -
s ec ul a r e s s i n t p os t

p on en d e qui a n on d i r ec t e du cu nt a d p i et a t em
, , q u e e s t c ultu s D e i ,

qu an t o mag i s a r t es c on t en ci o s e e t lu c r a tiv e qu e i ndu cu nt cultum ,

secu l i e t f ac i u n t t h eo l og i a m con t emp n i l ( c f a l s o i bid 1 22 ; and

. . .

b el ow p , .

D e E n t e P r e d i c a m e n ta li Q u aes ti o X II ( e d B e e r 1 89 1 p
2
.
,
.
, ,

U t r u m co m e t a s i t d e n atu r a c eli vel e l em en t ar i T h e t r ea ti s e

.

it sel f whi ch i s a ch a ra cter i s ti c s ch o l as ti c d i sput a ti on i s u n intel

, ,

li g ibl e t o me .

2
1 bi d p 1 7 .
,W yc li f r e f e r s t o c el e s ti a l i n u en c e i n s ev er a l oth er
. .

w o r ks but hi s l a ng u ag e i s f r equ ently so c rypti c th a t i t r e fu s es t o

,
 A s tr olog y i n M i dd l e E ng li s h Li t er a tu r e 1 29

s till another in s tance however where the power exerci s ed , ,

by the s tar s s erve s to illu s trat e the relation between Go d s

foreknowledge and man s f ree will Wycli f alrea dy s a fe ,

guard s him s el f by s tating t hat a s trology i s intro duce d

merely by way o i example ?

Wycli f s mature j udgment concernin g a st rology wa s d i s
t i n ct ly u n favorable He inveigh s again s t it in hi s s ermon s
.
,

in hi s E ngli s h tractate s and e s pecially in the Tr i a log u s , ,

the treati s e which he wrote at the c lo s e o f hi s li f e and ,

which might be called hi s s umma theologi se I n all the s e .

di s c u ss ion s he emp ha s i z e s the futility o f a s trology

,
He .

accu s e s the friar s o f pra c ti s ing s orcery ? and o f s tudying

v eyn s op hi s t r e e a n d a s t r o n o my e
?
in s tea d o f the B ible
Wycli f would bani s h apparently all a s trology and a s tron , ,

o m y from the s c hool s and s ub s titute the pure Word o f Go d

,
.

In o n e o f hi s L atin s e r mo n s he a s s ert s that i n the ve r s e ,

o f the N ew T e s tame n t B r u n t s i g n a i n s o le e t lu n a i s
, ,

contained whatever o f truth can be foun d in Ptolemy s

Q u a dr i par ti tu m o r in any other a s tronomical text book

? -

Wy c li f even j oin s to thi s religiou s con s ervati s m the s e ep

y i el d c l ea r s en s e T hu s i n hi s D e B lasph emi a ( e d D z i ewi ck i 1 893

. .
, ,

p . it i s app a r en tly a c onj u nc ti on o f s ev e r a l u n tow a r d pl an e t s

th a t i s t ak en a s a s i g n o f d i s s en s i on i n th e C h r i s ti an Chu r ch In a .

s er m o n o n L u k e 1 2 2 5 ( B r u n t s i g n a i n s o l e et lu na et
. th e
m utu a l d ep en de n ce o f e a r th a n d h eav e n i s quit e c l ea r ly a cc ept e d
( S er m on es e d Lo ser th 1 887 1
, .
, , .

Q u o d p on a t u r g r a c i a ex empli E n te 2 7 : e d D z i ewicki
2
(D e

. .

1 90 9 , p W ycli f is t ryi ng t o a n s w er th e qu e s ti o n wh e th er
d eny hi s Lo r da thi ng p r ed i c t ed b e f o r e
.

P e t e r ha d
b e en f r e e n o t t o
h an d by Ch r i s t hi m s el f .

D e A p os tas i a c h ap 2 ( e d D z i ew i cki p
2
, . .
, 1 889 , .

The E ng lis h W or ks of Wy c lif ( e d M a tth e w B E TS

2

.
, .
74 .

S er m o X II ( S er m o n es 1 84 ) Et . s ic i n t ellig i p o t es t A u g u s ti nu s,
d i cen s qu o d i n f er t i li ta te s cr iptu r e q u e li be t ver i ta s es t i n c lu s a .

N am i n ill o Lu c . XX I, 25 : B r u nt s ig na in s o le e t lu na i n t ellig itu r

q u i d q u i d v e r i t a t i s q u a d r ip a r t i t u m P t o l e m e i vel a li a t
a s r o no m a i i n t el

l ig i t .
1 3 0 M e di e val A tti tu d e t owar d A s tr olog y

t ic i s m o f the rationali s t A s in the ca s e o f A ugu s tine the .

,

co nviction that a s trology wa s u s ele ss tempt ed him to attac k

it with s cie nti c argument s A n entire chap ter i s devote d
to a s tronomy an d a s trologythe two are never clearly di s
.

t i ng u i s he d by Wycli f in the Tr ia l og u s ?
A fter a not
un s ympathetic expo s ition o f the doctrine s o f t he double
s cien c e Wycli f pro c eed s to nd fault with them
,
He .

obj e c t s for on e thing to the A verroi s ti c teaching that i f

, ,

a s i ngle s tar we r e adde d to t he s ky the whole univer s e ,

would c ea s e moving ?
Jo s hua s c au s ing the s un to s tan d
s till s ay s Wycli f would alone re fute s uch a theory
, , .

A gain s t j udicial a s trology it s el f he employ s among othe r s , ,

the patri s tic argument c o nc erning twin s T he a s trologer .

at lea s t cannot predict the future ce r t itu dinalit e r T he r e .

are ma ny factor s be s ide s tellar inuence which d etermine a

child s fateheredity nutrit ion and exerci s e ; yet what

, ,

a s trologer take s ac c ount o f the s e ? I t i s clear that a s trol

o g e r s like phy s i c ian s s peak c tio n a s o ften a s truth
,
?
A fter ,

Wycli f ha s again att acked a s tronomy proper by pointin g out ,

that it i s u n able to explai n even the s imp le s t d ifcu lt i e s

whether f o r example angel s regulate the motion s o f the
planet sWy c li f pa ss e s j udgment upon the whole s cience
, ,

a s follow s : E x multi s t al ibu s videtur mihi quod peri c u ,

los u m e s t nimi s in s omn i i s i s t iu s s c i ent i as i mmo ra r i ,

s p ec ia li t e r cum f u n d a t i o illi n s s c i ent i as s it incerta et deli s ,

po ss et longe meliu s in ali i s exer c it i i s a n imae o ccu p a r i N ec .

2
Tr ia log u s ,
c h ap . 15 : D e C e lo et A s tr i s ( ed . L ec hl er , O xf o r d ,

1 879 ) pp . 1 23 -

7 .

2
Tr i a l og u s ,
p . 1 25 . W y clif i
s ng es l ou t R ob e r t G r o s s et e s t e f or
c en s ure ; cf .
, on the t
a s r o no m y of A v er r oe s, R ena n, A ver r o es et

l A ver r oi s me ( P ar i s p

, . 12 1 .

2
Tr i a l og u s , p
p a t e t qu o d s i c u t med i c i s i c et a s t r o l og i
. 12 6 : Et ,

ng u nt seep e s en t en ti a s qu as i g no r an t ; et t a li s f a ll ac i a es t in ar t e
a l chi m i ca e t i n m ulti s s i m il i bu s s op h i s ma t i s f alla c i t er a t r u t a nn i s

.

I bi d p 1 2 7
2
. . .
,
 C H A P T E R IX

A ST R OLO GY I N GO W ER A ND C H
A ER UC

T he lite r a r y i ntere s t i n a s trology whi c h had bee n on the ,

increa s e i n E ngla n d throughout the fourt eenth c entury ,

culmi n ated in the work s o f Gower and Chau c er A lthough .

refe r ence s to a strology were already frequent in the

romance s o f the fourt eenth c entury t he s e s till retained ,

the s ign s o f being foreign imp ortat ion s It wa s only in .

the ftee n th c e n tury that a s trologi c al s imile s and embel

l i s hm en t s be c ame a matter o f cour s e in the literature o f
E ngla n d .

S uch i n n ovation s o n e mu s t c o n fe s s were due far more

, ,

to Chau c er than to Gowe r A lthough Gow e r too sa w .

, ,

arti s tic po ss ibiliti e s in the new a s trologi c al l e arni n g and ,

made p r ompt u s e o f the s e in hi s retelling o f the A lexa n de r

legend he conned him s el f for the mo s t part to a bald
1
, , ,

rehear s al o f f a ct s and theorie s It i s ac c o r dingly a s a p art

.
, ,

o f the long en cy c lop aedia o f natu r al s c ien c e whi ch he i n

s e t ted into hi s C onf es s i o A mau ti s and in certain dida ctic ,

pa s s age s o f the Vox Cla m an ti s and the M i r our d e l omme

that a s trology gu r e s mo s t largely in hi s work s By rea s on .

o f thi s ve r y fact o f cour s e ; i t be c ome s all the ea s ie r to

,

dete r mi n e Gower s pe r s onal attitude toward a s t r ology

.

Gower s s ource s on the s ubj ect o f a s trology in s o far

,

a s the s e are at pre s ent k n own were A lbu ma sa r s I n tr odu c ,

t or i u m i n A s tr on omi a m t he P s eudo A ri s totelia n S e cr e tu m

,
-

S ecr e t or u m B runetto L at ini s Tr s or and the S p e cu lu m

, ,

A s tr on omie a s c r ibed to A lbert the Great ?

It i s la r gely
upon Albu ma sa r and B ru n etto L atin i that the C onfess i o
A mau ti s d r aw s for the expo s ition o f a s trology which form s

2
S ee b o v e p 1 05
a , . .

2
W e h a v e s e en ( a b o v e p , .
74 ) th a t thi s w as p r o b ably w r itt en by
R og e r B aco n .
 A s tr olog y i n Gow er an d C hau c er 1
33

a part o f the s eve nth book ( 63 3 T he pa s s age

de s cribe s at length the a s trologi c al inuence s o f the variou s
planet s and c o n s tellation s nami n g the climate s which they ,

s eve r ally gover n an d the va r iou s human di spo s ition s which

,

they produce i n tho s e born u n de r their rule T he pa ss age .

r ead s in fact like the s u mma r y o f an a s trologi c al text

, ,
~

book enlive n ed here and there by b it s o f poetic de s c r iption

, .

O f e s pe c ial s ignicance i s the de n ition o f a s tronomy and

a s trology with which Gower open s the a c count a de n i
tion for whi c h he wa s largely indebted to the S ecr e tu m
S ecr e t or u m ?
E ver s i n c e the i n trodu c tion o f A r a bia n s c i

M a ca ul ay ( Co mp le t e W or ks of Gow e r O x f o r d 1 90 1 3 5 22
2
, , , .
,

5 24 6) ha s p o i n t e d ou t m o s t o f th e p a r a ll e l s b e tw ee n the C onf es s i o
-

a n d L a ti n i s Tr es or T h es e h a v e b ee n s uppl em en t e d by H a m i lt o n

i n a r e c en t a r ti c l e ( S om e S ou r c es of t he S even th B oo k of Gow er s
)

C onf es s i o A mau ti s : M o d P hi l 9 3 4 1 G o w e r men ti on s

. . .

A lb u ma s a r by n am e H am ilt o n p o i n t s o u t ( p 2 0 ) th a t hi s .

ex a c t i n d ebt e d n es s t o t h e I n tr o d u c t or i u m c a n o n ly b e a sc e r t a i n e d

by a s tu dy o f the compl et e t ext a s it i s f ou n d in m an u sc r ip t, i n s t ea d

of the a b r i d g e d t ext of the i n cu n abul a
p ar a ll el b etw een th i s . A
p o r ti o n o f t he C onf es s i o a n d M an d evi ll e s Tr avels has I b eli ev e

, ,

n ev e r b een n o t e d In g ivi ng th e as t r o l og i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s ti c s o f th e
.

m oo n G o w er s ay s th a t she r ul es o v er m en w ho r oa m f r o m pl a c e
,

t o pl a c e a n d th a t s h e co n s e qu en tly h as d o m i n i o n o v er E n g l a n d
, ,

s i n c e t h e E ng li s h a r e g r ea t t r a v e l e r s ( C onf A m 7 74 9 5 4 ) . . .
-

A n d a s o f thi s c o n d i c i o n
T h e M o n e s d i s p o s iti on
U p o n t h e l o n d o f A le m a i g n e
Is s et a n d ek up on B r e t a ig n e
, ,

W hi ch n ou i s c l ep e d E ng elon d ; .

F o r th e i t r ava i le i n e v e r y l on d .

T he E ng li s h a r e s i m il a r ly pl a c e d u n d e r th e r ul e o f t he m oon by
M a n d evill e ( Tr avels c h ap I 5 : e d La y a r d Lo n do n 1 89 5 p
, . .
, , , .

2
H a m ilt on ( M od P hil 9 3 26 ff ) h a s s h o w n th a t G o w e r e mpl oy e d
. . . .

n o t o n ly a L a ti n t ext o f t h e S e cr e tu m but a l s o a F r e n c h t r a n s l a ti o n ,

by J o f r o i de W a t r e f o r d M i d dl e E ng li s h t r a n s l a ti o n s o f b o th h av e
.

b een publi sh ed i n S t eel e s Thr e e P r os e Ve rs io ns of the S e cr e tu m

S ecr e t or u m ( B E TS E S T he t r a n s l a ti o n f r o m th e La ti n ( pp

. . .

4 1 1 1 8 ) d at es f r o m t he ti me o f G ow e r ; th a t f r o m t he F r en c h o f
-
1 34 M edie val A t ti tu d e tow ar d A s tr olog y

ence the di s tinction between a s trology and a s tronomy had

,

become hopele ss ly c onfu s ed ; William o f C onche s and

R oger Bacon had even inverted the accepted u s a g e It .

i s intere s ti n g therefore to nd the old I s idorean de n i

, ,

tion s reappearing in Gower P robably for the r s t time

!
?

in E n gli s h a s tro n omy and a s trology are dened according

,

to the de n otation s whi c h the wo r d s bear to day j -

T he pa ss age on a s t r ology in the s eventh book o f the

C onf es s i o A ma n ti s s eem s to indicate that Gower accepted
in full the s cience o f A lbu masa r Y et he i s at once ho s tile .

to a s trolo gy when it a s s ume s the r ole o f a fatali s tic

philo s ophy He pr e fa c e s hi s expo s ition o f a s trolo g ical
.

theory with s ome thirty li n e s ( 633 63 ) in whi c h he expoun ds -

the orthodox do c trine o f f r ee will To the a ss ertion o f .

t he n a t u r i en s that all thing s are governed by the s tar s ,

Gower oppo s e s the belief in an o verruling P rovidence :

B ot the d ivi n se ith o th er w i s e ,

Th at i f m en w er en g oo de and w i s e
A n d pl es an t u nt o the g o dh e de ,

T h e i s h o l den n og ht th e s t e r r e s dr ede ;
F o r 0 m a n i f h im w e l b e f al l e
, ,

Is m o r e w or th th an b en th e i a ll e
T o w a r de s h im tha t w el deth al .

B o t y e t t h e l aw e o r i g i n a l ,

W h i ch h e h ath s et i n t he natu r es
"

M o t w o r chen i n th e c r ea tu r es ,

T h a t th er o f m ai b e n on o b s t a cl e ,

B o t i f it s t on d e u p on m i r a c l e
Thu rg h p r eier e o f s om h o ly man .
2

J o f r oi ( pp. 1 1
9 248 ) wa s ma de i n 1 422 by J ames Y ong e Th e .

t r an s l a ti on f r o m t he Lati n p r es e rv es t h e n u mb er i ng o f c h apt e r s
f ou n d i n t h e o r i g i n a l .

C onf A m 7 67 0 84 ( M a c a ul ay 3 Th e F r enc h v er s i o n
2 -
. . . .
_

o f th e S e cr e tu m c it es Is i do r e i n a p a s sag e whi ch emph as i z es t h e

utili ty o f a s t r ol og y i n me d i c i n e ( S t eel e, p .

2
C onf A m 7 65 1 63
. . .A v e ry s i m il a r th o u g ht i s th a t e xp r es se
-
. d
in t h e M i r ou r d e l omm e 48 ( M a ca ul ay

-
1 .
1 36 M e di e val A tti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr ol og y

the s aying a r e two o f the p recept s o f the C en ti loqu i u m ,

1

whi c h p r ai s e the utility o f a s t r ology P ote s t qui s c ien s .

e s t s o r u n s o n e o f them ( N o mu lt o s s t ella r u m eff e c tu s

.
,

ave r te r e qua n do natu r am ea r u m n ov e r it a c s e ip s u m a n te

, ,

i llo ru m even t u m p raep a r a r e T he s eco n d ( N o 8 ) read s :

. .

S a pie n s a n ima con f e r t coel es t i op e r at i o n i q u ema dmo du m ,

optimu s ag r i c ola ara ndo exp u r g a n doqu e c on f e r t natur ae 2

.

Whateve r be the ultimate so urce o f the phra s e whet her ,

it goe s ba c k to a c ommentary on the C en ti l oqu i u m or wa s ,

arbit r arily a s cribed to P tolemy becau s e o f it s s imilarity to

h i s tea c hing s there can be no doubt that it be c ame known
,

early in it s p r e s ent form We have already met it in the .

S u mma The ol og i e o f T homa s A qui n a s ? who em p loy s it

in a n a r gument again s t prediction s per c er ti tu di n em : N ihil
p r o h i b e t a l i q u e m hominem p e r liberum arbitrium p as s i o n ib u s

re s i s tere U nde et ip s i a s t r ologi d i cu nt quod s ap i ens hom o

.

d omi n a bi tu r as tr i s i n qu a n t u m s c ili c et dom ina t u r s ui s pa s

,

s i o n ibu s

John o f S axony a P a r i s ian a s tronomer o f the
.
,

fou r tee nth century de n itely c ite s P tolemy s A lmag es t a s ,

the s ou r c e f o r the s ayi ng a n d i n te r p r e t s it by t h e aid o f the , ,

s imilar s e n timent expre ss ed i n the fth aphori s m o f the

C en ti l o qu i u m a s imp lyi n g that fo r ewar n ed i s forea r med

,
.

The good a s trologer he s ay s i s able to preve n t many an , ,

evil by knowing the future beforehand and ca n fortify hi s ,

c lient to bear an i n evitable mi s fortune with calmne s s o f

mi n d C e c c o d A s c ol i i n his A cer ba enla r ge s in like

?

, ,

2
S ee b ov e p 5 1
a , . .

B o th o f th e s e ( N o s 5 a n d 8 ) h a v e a l r e a dy b een qu o t e d a b o v e
2
.
,

p 1 2 6 n o t e S ee Clau di i P t o lem e i O mni a q u e exta n t Oper a ( ed

.
, . .

p 43 8 . .

S ee ab o v e p 68
2
, . .

Th e p a s s a g e c o n s titut e s t h e o p e n i ng pa r a g r a ph o f J o h n o f
2

S a x o ny s co mm en t a r y on t he Is ag og e o f Alch ab i t iu s : V i r s api en s

do m i nabi t u r a s t r i s : D i c it P to l emeu s i n s ap i en t i i s A l mag e sti Et .

p o t es t d ecla r a r i s i c Ill e dominab i t u r a s t r i s qui eff ectu s p r ovent i ent es

.

ex i p s i s a s t r i s p o t es t i mp e d i r e v el p r o hib e r e z s e d ho c p o t es t f ac e r e

n i s a pi en s M i no r p r oba tu r au ct o r i t at e P t ol em ei i n qui n t a
.
 A s tr ol og y i n Gow er an d Chau cer 1 37

manner upon the a dvantage s o f a s trological lear n ing The ?

S e cr e tu m S e cr e t or u m a t lea s t the F rench ver s ion which
Gower knewha s a c uriou s r eferen c e to the s aying i n c o n ,

n ec t i o n with an exp o s ition o f phy s iognomy and a s trology .

In the M iddle E n gli s h tra n s lation made f rom the F rench ,

by Jame s Y onge the pa ss age read s a s follow s : A n d
t her f o r every man o f the b eg ynnyn g e o f hi s be r th by the
, ,

vertu o f the s t e r r i s wych tha n have r ew a r d e to hym i s ,

d i sp o s i d dyver s e ly to vertue s a n d to vice s B ut s oth hit i s .

,

that every wy s e man have vertu and will ; by whi c h he may

kepe hym a n ent kynde and ve r tue s o f s t er i s a s s ayth ,

B u g u sa r u s the P hi loso f r e in the beg ynnyn g o f the C en t i log e ,

o f T holom ew e 2
.

In the c our s e o f time P tolemy s doct rine o f the wi s e ,

man ruling the s tar s gathered about it s el f a whole litera

ture ?
It fou n d i t s chief popula r embodime n t in Jean de

p r op o s i t i one ubi d i c it : O pt imu s a s t r olo g u s m ultu m

C en t i l o q u i i ,
m a lu m p r oh iber e p o t es t qu o d s e cu n d u m s t ell a s vent u r u m e s t c u m
e iu s n a tu r a m p r e s c i v e r i t S i c en i m p r e m u n i e t eu m cu i m alu m
.

ven t u r u m e s t u t c u m v en e r i t p o s s i t illu d p a ti T he c op y o f

.

Alchabi t i u s whi ch I h av e u s e d i s i n t he Co lu mbi a U n iv er s i ty

H
Lib r a r y It s full titl e r ea d s : Li bellu s Ys ag og i cu s A bdi lazi i d es t
.
,

S er vi Gl or i os i D ei q u i d i ci tu r A lcha bi t i u s
, , ad M a g i s t er i u m J u di ti
or u m A s tr or u m i n t er pr e ta tu s a J o ha nn e
,
i s pa l e n s i s c r i p t u m q u e
in e u n de m a J oha nn e S a xoni c , V e n ic e, 1 485 . d
Th i s i s ev i ently the
co mme n ar t y o f J o h n o f S ax ony o f whi ch a s h o r t ex c er pt i s g i v en
by L D eli s l e i n B i bli o thq u e N a ti on a le : M a nu s cr ip ts L a ti n s e t
.
,

F r a n co i s ( P a r i s 1 89 1 ) 1 2 7 ; c f H a m ilt o n p 3 44
, . .
, . .

A c er ba 2 2 ( e d V e n i c e 1 82 0 p
2
. . .
, ,

S t ee l e Thr ee P r os e V er s i ons p 2 1 6 T h i s pu zz l ing a sc r ipt i on

2
.
, , .

o f a uth o r s hip i s n o t f o u n d i n t h e La ti n t e xt a t l e a s t n o t i n th e on e ,

publi sh ed a t B onn 1 5 0 1 ( copy in H a r v a r d U n iv er s ity Lib r a ry

, ,

f ol .

2
It s p opul a r ity f ac t c o nti nu e d th r o u g h o ut t h e l at er m edie v a l
,
in ,

c en tu r i es a n d t h e R en a i s s a n ce B en v en ut o d a Im ol a qu o tes i t i n
.

hi s com m ent a r y ( C omm e n tu m F l o r en c e 1 887 1 ,In t he , , .

l ett e r s o f R ob er t Gag u in ( 1 42 5 it is ci te d i n a n a r g u men t

a g a i n s t a s t r o l og e r s ( ed by Thu a sn e P a r i s 1 903 3
. T he , , , .
 1 3 8 M edi e val A tti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr ol og y

M eu n

s Jean de M eun doe s not cite
R oma n d e la R os e .

P tolemy by name and it s eem s probable that he o b tained hi s ,

knowledge from a s e condary s ource s u ch a s the S u mma ,

Theol og ie o f A quina s with who s e di s cu ss ion o f a s trology ,

the cor r e s ponding pa ss age o f the R oma n d e la R os e s how s

general s imilaritie s ?
In the cour s e o f a lo n g expo s ition o f
s tellar inuence p r ede s tin a tion and free will Jean de
,
2
, ,

M eun recur s s everal time s to the wi s e man who brave s the

power o f the s tar s by winning the victory over hi s own
pa ss ion s In each ca s e hi s t hought re s emble s that o f the
.

S u mma The ol og i e T o over c ome the evil inuence o f the .

con s tellation s Jean de M eun declare s :

,

Il su f t q u e sa g es s e ti ennen t
E t l e u r s moeu r s n a tiv es r e f r en en t
2
.

It a li an Lu d ov i co y i ng i nscr i b e d on a c ross ( B u rck

M o r o ha d t he sa

h a r dt 2 . It w a s ev n t r i bu t e d byo n e w ri teg t
e t o ( i bi d

) n
.

hl le 7 1 3 : Edf i bh hbn P a r i s 1 842 p 1 1 5 ; c f

2
r
-

a n d V ill on ( C o di c
'

, , , . .

H ami lt on p 344 ) names S ol omon a s th e auth o r The p r ecept w as

,
. .

p opul ar as a con v en i en t a rg u men t f o r an o r th o do x a s t r ol ogy as

l ate a s the cl ose o f t he s ev en t een th cen tu r y ; c f Kitt r edg e Th e Ol d .
,

F a r mer a n d his A lma na ck ( B o s t on p 50 , . .

C i with t he S u mma The o l og i e ( s e e a b o v e pp 67 if ) i n a d d i

2
. .
, ,

ti on t o t he li nes t o be qu o t e d s h o r tly J ean d e M eun s as s er ti on o f ,

t h e f r ee d om o f t h e will e d M a r t ea u O r l ean s 1 87 9 4 7 9 ) .
, , , .

M a i s l a f a t a lit je n i e .

T out cc q u e p eu t f a i r e l e c i el ,

C es t l eu r d onn e r m oeu r s e t coeu r t el

Q u i ls s o i en t en c li n s a fa i r e ch ose

Q u i de l eu r t r p a s so it 1a c au se ,

P a r l a m a ti er e d o m i n s
D on t l es coeu r s son t e sc l av es n s .

Lang l oi s ( Or ig i n es e t S ou r c es d u R oma n d e la R os e P a r i s 1 890 ) , ,

n am es n o o r i g i na l s f o r a ny o f t he a s t ro l og i ca l p a ssag es o f the p o em .

R o ma n d e la R o s e Th e p a s s ag es whi c h b ear p a r
2

t i cu la r ly up on s t e ll ar i n u enc e a r e 8 82 ( e d M ar teau -

,
-
.

4 67
.
, J ean de M eu n s s ta tement th a t i n t he or d i na ry co u r se

of e v en t s t h e s t a r s g ov er n e v er ythi ng
, s h o w s s om e

r e s embl a n c e t o t he li n e s o f G o w e r qu o t e d a b o v e p
( .

R oma n 2 ( e d M a r t ea u 4
2 -

. .
1 40 M edi e va l A t ti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr olog y

c hampion o f free will A gain a n d agai n in hi s ballade s a n d

.
,

i n hi s long poem L a F i c ti on d u L y on he g l o r i es fra n c
, ,

vouloir . It i s not s u rp ri s ing therefore that D e s champ s

, ,

al s o follow s T homa s A quina s in interp r eting the Ptolemaic

phra s e a s implying the po ss e ss ion on the part o f the vir ,

s apie n s not s o much o f mere a s trologi c al wi s dom a s o f
the p ower o f will to conquer hi s lowe r natu r ethat part
, ,

o f ma n which alo n e i s s ubj e c t to c ele s tial i nuence ?

T he origi n al meaning o f the P tolemaic precept wa s

obviou s ly quite di ff ere n t from that whi c h i s give n to it i n
the R oma n d e la R os e and the ballade s o f D e s champ s A s .

John o f S axony and C ec c o d A s co li well under s tood the

vi r s a p i e ns de s ignated in the r s t in s tance no one but the

, ,

s c ientic a s trologer who c ould employ hi s s uperior knowl

,

edge for hi s own end s With T homa s A quina s who wa s .

,

followed by Jean de M eun and D e sc hamp s the ph r a s e ,

a c quired an ethical inte r pretation T he wi s e man wa s .

no longer the learned a s tronomer but the man o f character , ,

who had indir ectly gai n ed control o ver the inuence s o f the
s tar s by ma s tering the inclination s in s pired by them Now .

when we turn to Gowe r we nd that an eve n more religiou s ,

tur n i s given to the s aying I t i s not s o mu c h the man o f .

2
One qu o t ati on ( Cha ngons R oya u lx 3 72 s tanz a 4 : , o p . ci t .
3 . 1 24 )
may s u f c e a s a n illu s t r a t io n :

M a i s li s a i g e ce no u s d it T hol om e
, ,

Les e s t o ill e s s e ig n eu r i t d e ca ju s .

R es i s t e r p u e t, et e s t n o bl e v er tu s ,

A l e u r e ff e c t , f a it es d oubt an ce ;

e t n en

Ca r pui s qu il a d e ll es la c ong no i s sanc e

Il p ne t fui r l e u r m a l e ent enci on ,

E t con v e r ti r e n bi en l e u r m au ve u i llan c e
P a r F r an c V oul o i r s el on m opp in i on

, .

A no th er p oem i n whi c h Pto l emy i s menti o ne d b eg i ns with the l ine :

L h o mme e s t l a p r o p r e c a u se d e s es m a ux a n d d ea l s with e x ac tly

th e sam e i de a t ha t G o w e r e xp ou n d s a t l eng th in h i s M ir our d e

l O m me ( M i r ou r

 A s tr ol ogy i n Gow er an d C hau cer 1 4 1

character a s the man o f prayer who rule s the s ta r s I t i s

, ,
.

o nly i n vi r tu t e D ei and m e d i a n t e D e o that t h e w i s e man i s

free d from the power exerci s ed by the heaven s :
In vi r tut e D ei sa pi en s d om i n a b i t u r a s t r a ,
T o t aq u e c on s e q u i t u r vi s o r i z o nt i s eu m :

C i r culu s e t c i cl u s , o mn i s qu o qu e s p e r a s up r ema
Sub p ede s u n t h om i n i s qu em i uvat ip se deu s 2
.

B oth in the Vox Cla man tis and the M i r ou r d e l Omm e many

illu s tration s are given where God ha d s et a s ide the law s o f

nature in an s wer to a holy man s s upplication Jo s hua .
,

bidding the s un s tand s till in the vale o f Gibeon D aniel ,

in the lion s d en the mira c le o f the ery cloud an d that o f

, ,

P haraoh s de s truction i n the R e d S ea all go to prove s ay s

, ,

Gower that the element s are obedient to the Go d fearing

,
? -

Gower wa s p robably not s u fciently intere s ted in the

legal s ide o f the que s tion to tell u s j u s t where he drew the
line between a legitimate an d an illegitimate j udicial a s trol
ogy He nowhere re fer s to the u s ual s chola s tic di s crimina
.

Vox C la m ( ed M a ca ul ay
2
a n ti s 2 . 239 -

42 .
4 .

Vox C la man ti s M i r ou r
2
2 . 23 8 -
80 ; -

96 ( i bid . 1 . 2 99

N ot e t he e m ph a s i s on p r ay e r
p a s s a g e qu o t ed a b o v e ( p 1 3 4 )
in the .

f r om the C onf es s i o A mau tis O nl y the p r ay er o f s om h oly man .

( 7 663 ) can ch a ng e th e o th e r wi se i mm ut abl e i n u en ce o f th e

.

h eav en s It i s p r o b ably the S ecr etu m whi ch i n du ce d G ow er t o

.

pl ace s u ch emph as i s up on p r ay e r in connec ti on with a s t r o l ogy A t .

t he c l ose o f a l ong d e f en s e o f t he utility o f a s t r o l og y t h e a uth o r ,

of t he S ecr e tu m say s ( S t ee l e Thr e e P r os e Ve r s i ons p , , .

W h e r f o r e y t y s meky l w o r th t o kn ow e bi ngy s b e f o r e ff or m en ,

m o w e b etty r th ol e h em a n d esch ew e hem wh enn e bey kn o w e h em

,

t o co m e W he r f o r e m en o g ht e wy th by s e p r ay er s bys ek be h eg h e
.

d es ty n our ba t h e by h i s m e r cy t o r n e be evy l s ba t e r t o come an d

, ,

bat h e will e ober wy se o r dey n e a n d f o r ba t men a we t o p r ay e t o ,

g o d dy s p i t ee i n o ry s ou n s d evoc i ou n s p r ay e r s f a s tyn g e s er v i c es
, , , , ,

a nd a lm e s s e and o be r g oo d e d e dy s , by s eka n d f o r gy f n e s s e of hir

t r esp a s , an d be re p en da nt o f h i r sy nn es

T h e F r en c h. v e r s i on
( S t eel e, pp 1 96 207 ) ha s a l ong a dd e d ch apt er
.
-

o n t he s ubj ec t o f

p ra y er i n wh i ch many o f G ow e r s o wn ex a m pl es a r e u se d ( J os hu a

, ,

D av i d ,
J on a h ) .
1 42 M edi e val A t ti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr ol ogy

tion again s t prediction s per cer ti tu di n em On the s ubj ect .

o f magic he i s more e xp li c it In the C onfe ss or s s ermon .

again s t s or c ery a s a mean s to win illicit fruit s o f love full ,

note i s taken o f the fact that a s t ro logy formed an integral

part o f the c onj u r er s ritual ?
D e s p ite hi s gene r al ho s tility

to the o cc ult art s however Gower s tep s beyond the limit s

, ,

s et by o rthodox do c trine in co n doning the practice o f magic

whe n employed for a good pu rpo s e :
F or th es e c r a f t es a s I n d e,
A ma n m a i d o b e w e i e of k in d e,

Be so it be t o g o o d t t
e n en e .
2

T hi s emanc ipa ted view o f magic which had never been ,

s an c tioned by the C hur ch and which wa s among the tenet s ,

di s ti nctly co n demned in the important edict o f Pari s in

1 39 8 ? Gowe r probably owed to hi s s ource the L atin ,

S p ecu lu m A s tr on omi e It wa s for j u s t s u c h a co n dona

?

tion o f magic it will be remembered that R oger Bacon

, , ,

the po s s ible author o f the S p ecu lu m A s tr on omie very ,

likely w a s condem n ed to impri so n ment at the hand s o f hi s

e cc l e s ia s tical s upe r ior s ?

I n tur n i n g to Chau c er it i s ref r e s hing to nd the dida c tic ,

a n d c ont r over s ial attitude toward a s trolo gy rep laced by

th a t o f the arti s t A s trology for mo s t medi e val poet s wa s
.

s till too novel an d dangerou s a s ubj e ct to be treated a s a

H
2
C onf Am 6 ( e d M a caul ay

H
. . . 1 33 8 -

50 .
3 . 203

H
e m akt h w r i t i ng e he mak th g u r e,,

H
e m akt h hi s cal cu la c io n s ,

H
e m a k t h h i s d e m on s t r a c i o n s ;
i s ho u r es of A s t r on om i e
e k ep e th as f or th a t p a r ti e
W hi ch l o ng e th t o t h i n sp e cc i on
Of l ov e an d hi s a ff e cc i o n ( 1 3 44
2
C on f A m 6
. . . 1 3 03 -

5 ( i bi d .
3 .

S ee a b o v e p 7 1
2
. .
,

C f M a c a ul a y 3 5 1 5
. . .

S ee a b ov e , p 7 5
2
. .
1 44 M ed i e va l A t ti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr ol ogy

o f the p lanet M ar s with the heathen god o f war in the

de sc riptio n o f the T hra c ian temple in the Kn ig ht s Ta le i s

e n ti r ely due to C hau c e r T he c o r re spo n di n g pa ss age s o f .

the Th e ba id o f S tatiu s and the T es ei d e o f B occac c io con

t a i n n o hi n t s o f a s trology ?
E ngli s h literatu r e al s o owe s
to C h a u c e r the i n trodu c tion o f s u c h a s tronomi c al pe r i
ph r a s e s a s th a t o f t he familiar li n e s o f the P r olog u e ( 7

t he yo ng e s o nn e

H a th i n t h e R am h i s h al f e co u rs y r o nn e ,

a type o f poeti c embelli s hme n t whi c h be c ame a c ommonplace

i n the f tee n th c e n tury
?

Y et the v e ry fact that C haucer i s r s t and foremo s t

t h e litera r y a r ti s t m a ke s it u n u s u a lly di fcult to a s c ertain
hi s ow n p e r s o n a l view s o n the s ubj e c t o f a s trology T here .

c a n be n o d o ubt o f hi s c o n ti n u e d i n tere s t in the philo

s op hi ca l p r oblem o f f r ee will a n d prede s tination I n V iew .

o f the imp o r ta n c e whi c h w a s given to the que s tion in the

T a tl o ck i n Th e S c en e f t he F r a n kli n Ta le Vi s i t ed, pp

o s . 19 ff ; c f . .

the sa me a uth o r s
A s tr o l og y and M ag i c i n Ch au cer
'
s F r a n kli n s

T a le ( Ki t tr e dg e A n niv er s ar y P ap er s ,
B o s t o n, 1 9 1 3, pp .
33 9
O n t h e F i lo co l o as the so u rce of t h e F r a n kli n

s Ta le, s ee R a j na
( R om a nia 31 .
40

7; 32 . 20 4 S ch o eld ( P u bl . M od . L a ng .

T a tl o ck, The S c e n e f

A s s oc . 16 .
405 o t he F r an kli n s Ta l e
Vi s i t e d ,
pp .
5 5 ff .

2
Kn i g h t s T es ei d e 7 3 1 ff ; Th e ba i d 7 3 4 ff ;

T a le 1 1 17 -

92 ; cf . . . . .

Hi nckl ey N o t es , on C ha u c er p 84 A s i m il ar m i ng li ng o f
. .

myth o l og y with t l y
a s r o og is f ou n d in t he li n es of t he Tr oi lus
(3 1 2 02 4)
-

B u t T r o ilu s , al h ool of ca r e s oo l de
Gan t hank en th o th e bli s f u l g o dde s s ev en e ;
T hu s so n dry p ey n es b r i ng e n f o l k t o h even e .

P a r a ll e l s f o r thi s g u r a tiv e
i n d i c a ti ng ti m e may be m e th o d
2
o f
f ou n d i n D an t e an d P et r a r c h ;
cf D a n t e s I nf I I 1 1 3 2 4 1 2 ; .

. .
, .
-

P u r g 1 2 1 2 5 6 7 3 2 5 3 ; P a r 2 7 68 2 8 1 1 7 2 9 2 ; an d P e t r a r c h s

-

. . . .
. .
, .
, , , .

Ca nz o n e 1 3 5 88 ( ed Ca r d u cc i e F e r r a r i F l o r e n c e 1 899 p

. . .
, , ,

m or e 4 7 ( e d A pp e l H a ll e 1 90 1 p

Tr i on d A 1 . .
, , , .
 A s tr o logy i n Gow er an d Chau cer 1 45

theologi c al controve r s ie s o f the time thi s i s not s u r p ri s ing ,

?

C haucer re c u r s to the s ubj ect o f fate again a n d again in

hi s writing s and even goe s out o f hi s way to in s ert refe r
,

e nce s to it whe r e the s e are not called for in the lea s t by

hi s original s ?
A lthough he s eem s n ever to have quite made
up hi s mind on the relation between foreor d i n ation and free
will the re ference s in which a s trology i s parti c ularly men
,

t i on e d point to the con c lu s ion that he fa vo r ed a kind o f

d etermini s m A pa ss age in the M a n of L aw s Ta le bor
.
'

rowed i n part from the D e M u n di Uni vers i ta te o f B ernard

S i lve s t r i s expre ss e s an out s poken a s t r ologi cal fatali s m ,

although it doubt s that any s cience i s able actually to

d ecipher the language o f t he heaven s :

2
S ee t h e ti c l e by Ca r l et on F B r o w n i n P u bl M od L a ng A s s o c
ar . . . . .

( 1 9 1 28 T a tl o ck d i s cu s s es t he s ubj ec t o f Ch au c e r s i n t e r e s t

.

i n t he qu es ti on o f f o r eo r d i n a ti on i n h i s a r ti c l e Chau cer a nd Wy cli f

( M od P hi l 1 4 2 65 ; c f al so M od P hi l 3 3 70
. . . . . . .

T he ex cu r s u s i n t he Tr oi lu s ( 4 9 5 8 1 07 8 ) i s t h e m o s t c on spi c u ou s
2
-

e x a mpl e Th i s p as s age ob ed i en t t o the d ra ma t ic r equi r ement s o f

.
,

t he s t o ry a rg u es ag a i n s t f r e e ch o i c e a n d f o r a b so lut e n ec es s ity
, .

P r o f esso r Kit t r e dg e ha s r em a r ke d ( Cha u c er s P a r d on er : A t la n ti c

M on th ly 72 829 ) th a t the i d ea o f f a t e e xp r es se d i n thi s l o ng exp o s i

ti on i s s ubtly i n s i s t en t t h r o u g h out the p o emi t i s p e r h ap s eve n
.

the key t o C r es s i d a s c h ar a c t e r A n d P r o f e s s o r C a r l et o n F B r o w n

. .

a d d s ( P u b M o d L a ng A s s oc 1 9 1 28 ) th a t

. . . it m ay be a t t he s am e
. .

tim e a key t o Ch a u ce r s ch a r a ct er F o r o th er d i s c u s s i o n s i n Ch au ce r

.

o f t h e p r obl em o f f a t e s e e N u n s P r i es t s Ta le 4 1 4 3 0 5 1 8 ; C om

-

, ,

plai n t of M ar s 2 1 8 2 6 ; Tr oi lu s 2 62 1 3 ; 5 1 5 5 0 2 1 5 4 1 5 ; L eg end
-
.
-
.
-

,
-

of Go od W o m e n 9 5 2 ; Kn ig ht s Ta le 2 5 0 1 ; 44 5 5 4 2 1 29 if ( th i s
- -
.
,

l as t i s f o u nd i n B o c cacc i o ) T h es e r e f e r en ces i n clu de o nly th os e

.

whi ch a r e n ot a s t r o l og i ca l A p a ssag e i n t he N u n s P r i es t s Ta le
.

( 420 3 ) s h o w s th a t C h a u ce r wa s a t l ea s t s up er c i ally a cqu a in t e d

-

w i th s o me o f t he name s whi ch g u r ed i n th e co nt r o v er s i e s r eg ar d ing

f r ee will :
B u t I n e c a n n o t bult e it t o the b r en ,

A s can t he h o ly do c t o u r A u g u s t yn ,

O r B oece o r t he bi s h op B r a dwa r dy n ,
.
1 46 M edi e va l A tti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr ology

F o r i n th e s t e r r es , cl er er t h an i s g l a s,
Is w r it en Go d w ot wh o s o , , c o u d e it r e d e ,

T h e d ee th o f ev e ry man with o ut e n
2
, d r ede .

I n the Kn ig ht s Ta le the advice o f A r cite to Pa la mon

,

ac c ept s the rule o f the s tar s over man s de s tinie s a s an
unavoidable fa c t a n d merely coun s el s S toic re s ign ation :
,

F o r Go dde s l ov e , t ak a l i n p ac i en ce
O u r p r i sou n , f o r it may non o th e r b e ;
F o r tu n e h a th y ev en u s th i s a dver s i t ee .

S om w ikke a s p ec t o r d i sp o s i c i ou n
O f S a tu r n e, by su m c on s t el l ac i o u n ,

H a th y ev en u s thi s a lth ou g h w e ha dde it s w o r n ; ,

S o s t o o d t he h ev en wh an th a t w e w er e b o rn ;
W e m os t e en du r e it : thi s i s the s h o r t an d pl eyn .
2

C haucers f requent u s e o f s uch d eliberate reference s to

aventure or de s tinee a s
W er e i t by a v en tu r e o r d es tin ee ,

( A s wh an thi ng i s sh ap en it s h al 2
,
a , be, )

W ere it by d es ti n ee o r a v en tu r e ,

W e r e i t by i nu enc e o r by n atu r e ,

Or c o n st e l la c i on ?
i s al s o s igni c ant I n fact it i s di fcult to nd anywhere.
,

in Chaucer s work s an appreciable s o ftening o f thi s extreme

fatali s ti c philo s ophy T he cleare s t attempt to harmoni z e .

a s trologi c al determini s m with the belief in an overruling

P rovidence occur s in a pa ss age in which C haucer wa s

1
M an o f L aw

li n es b o r r ow ed f r o m B ernar d
s Ta le 96 8 -
. T he
S i lve st r i s ab ov e
(cf p 3 4 ) a r e f o u n d i n t he s t a n z a i mm e di at e ly
.
, .

f oll owi ng ( 99 It i s w o r thy o f n o t e tha t t h e s u spi c i ons r eg ar d

ing t he p o s s ibility o f r ea d i ng t he futu r e i n t he s t ar s a r e a dd iti on s
o n t he p a r t o f C h au ce r ( c f 9 7 1 04 .
,
2
Knig h t s Ta le

22 6 -

33 .

2
1bi d 607 9
.
-
.

M er ch a n t s Ta le 72 3 5 ;
-
cf . P r o l 844 ; F r a n kli n
.

s Ta le 7 80 . T at
l ock ( M o d P hi l 3 3 72 ) . . . p o ints to D an t e ( I nf er n o 15 .
46, 47 ;
3 2 7 6 8 ) f o r p a r a ll el s
-
. .
1 48 M e d i e v a l A t ti t u d e tow a r d A s tr ology

ignori ng all thi s ! T hat he s hould have lacked information

on the s ubj e c t s eem s unlikely P tolemy and Alchabit iu s .
,

?
it i s true are the only prominent a s trologer s whom he
,

mention s by name ; and the only original s that he i s

denitely k n own to have u s ed for hi s s tatement s regarding
a s trological fatali s m are D ante an d B ernard S ilvest r i s It .

i s s trange too that the long di s c u s s io n o f the problem o f

, ,

fo r eknowledge and prede s tination in the Tr oi lu s s houl d

have limited it s el f to a paraphra s e o f B oethiu s and s hould ,

have pa ss e d by entirely the more recent theorie s on the

s ubj ect B ut the s e fa c t s do not quite make plau s ible the
?

s uppo s ition that C haucer s failure to mention the s chola s tic

view s regarding free will wa s due to ignorance T he .

D i vi na C ommedi a o f D ante and the R oma n d e la R os e o f

Jea n de M eun would alone have s u fc e d t o give him full
informatio n I s C haucer s empha s i s upon a s trological
.

determini s m therefore to be explained on the ground that

, ,

hi s matu r e j udgment de c ided in favor o f a fatali s tic

philo s ophy ? O r may it be a fte r all that hi s intere s t in the , ,

problem wa s dictated largely by arti st i c con s ideration s and ,

that when he had employed it for dramatic and narrative

H

purpo s e s he no longer ca r ed t o bulte it to the b r en nor
, ,

to argue it out to a fair c onclu s ion ?

o w di fcult it i s t o generali z e co n cerning C haucer s

-

attit ude toward a s trology f r om the evidence furni s hed by

s cattered pa ss age s in hi s tale s i s plainly s een in connection ,

with hi s belief s regarding j udicial a s trology and a s tro

logical magi c We are namely able to c heck up the s e latter
.
, ,

by mean s o f a wor k in which C haucer unque s tionably s peak s

in hi s own per s onhi s Tr ea tis e on the A s tr ola be .

Judging f rom the re fere n ce s to a s trology apart from

2
I i g n o r e t he phys i cians c it e d
li s t of i n t he P r olog u e ( 430 ff .
) in
c o nne cti o n with t h e D oc t or .

2
J ean de M eu n w h o a l so empl oy s , B oethiu s if
) , i s, in
g en er a l mu ch m o r e m o d e r n
, .
 A s tr o log y i n Gow er and Chau cer 1 49

tho s e in hi s Tr ea tis e on the A s tr ola be C haucer s ub sc ribe d ,

to all the doctri n e s o f the s c ience a s it wa s taught in h i s

day Judicial a s trology in s o far at lea s t a s it un d ertoo k
.
,

to dene the indivi dual s i n clination s according to the con
guration o f the s tar s at birth i s nowhere c ondemned T he ,
.

Wi fe o f B ath a s cribe s her amorou s di s po s itio n to her

horo s cop e :

H
M yn a s cen d nta was T au r ,
and M a r s th er inn e .
2

yp e r m e n es t r a
s imilarly derived her beauty and her char
acter from V enu s and Jupiter ? and owed her death in
pri s on to S aturn ?
C ri s eyde lamenti n g her fated departure ,

f rom T roy accu s e s t he c o r s ed c on st ella ci ou n under
,

whi c h s he wa s born ?
T he a s trological s y s tem o f elec
tio n s i s al s o taken for granted T he lu s ty child r en o f
5
.

V e n u s a r e s aid in the S qu i r e s Ta le to da n ce when that

pla n et i s i n he r exaltatio n ?
T ro ilu s s peed s well in love
be c au s e V enu s i s i n her s eventh hou s e 7
P anda r u s c hoo s e s .

a moment for d elivering a me ss age to C ri s ey d e when the

moon the patro n o f traveler s i s in good p lyt
,
8
T he , .

mi s fortune s o f C on s tance in the M a n of L aw s Ta le are

partly due to the fact that the voya g e wa s un d ertaken un d er

9
an i n f o r t u nat a s cen da n t On the s ubj e c t o f magi c too .
, ,

Chaucer s character s hold opinion s s uch a s one mi g ht

2
Wi f e of B a th s

P r ol og u e 61 3 .

f Good W omen
2
L eg . o 2 5 84 -
8.

Ibi d . 2 5 97 .

Tr oi lu s 4 745 . .

S ee a b o v e p 5 3
2
. .
,

S i qu r e s Ta l e 2 64 -

6; cfwh er e t he mak er o f t he h o r s e
. 1 2 1 2, -

of b r a ss is sai d to h av e aw ai te d the p r op er a s t r o l og ica l moment .

2
Tr oi lu s 2 . 680 6 -

P a l a m on ( Kn i g h t s Ta l e 1 3 5 9 ) g oes t o t he t e mpl e
2
Tr oi lu s
2 .
74 .

of V enu s i n he r h ou r D a mi a n i s s u cces s ful i n hi s l ov e a a i r ,

. -

b ecau s e t he h eav en s s oo t d in a f or tu na t e
con s t ell ac i o n

( M er cha n t s

Ta le 72 5 6 ; cf F r a nkli n s Ta l e

-
.

2
M an o f La w s

Ta l e 2 04 .
1
5 0 M edi e va l A tti t u d e t ow a r d A s tr ol ogy

expect o f medi e val folk T he Par s on d enou n ce s geomancy .

and divination with the u s ual orthodox vehemence althou gh ,

he i s willi n g to mode r ate hi s c o n demnatio n i n the c a s e

o f medici n a l charm s i f they r eally a cc ompli s h cure s ?
,

C hau c er s F ranklin i s likewi s e c areful to guar d him s el f

again s t the po ss ible charge that he would c ountenance

occult practice s In c ommenting upon the a s trological .

magic o f the O r lean s clerk he s eek s s helter with the ortho

d ox doctrine s o f M other Chur c h although he al s o s coff s ,

at s uch thing s a s perhap s not to be taken quite s eriou s ly in

the s e more enlightene d day s :
s w i ch f oly e,
A s in ou r dy
a es is nat w o r th a y e ;
F or h oly chi r ch es f eith in o u r bil ev e
Ne s u ff r et h n o o n illu s i o n u s t o g r ev e .
2

T here i s nothin g truly in any o f the s e re ference s to , ,

practical a s trology that i s s triking l y divergent from the

general tenor o f enlightened opinion in the fourteenth cen
tury A lthough in the per s on s o f the P ar s on and F ranklin
.
, ,

C haucer paid hi s due s to the e c cle s ia s tical ho s tility toward

magic he accept s a mode r ate j udicial as trology an d the
, ,

s y s tem o f election s without prote s t It i s therefore s ur , .
, ,

pri s ing i n turning to the Tr ea tis e on the As tr ola be to n d

, ,

H
2
P a r s on

s Ta le 600 -

10 . Ima g e s m a d e u nder f o r tu n a t e h eav en ly

as p ect s f o r m a l s o a p ar t o f the D oc t or s
s t o ck i n t r a d e ( P r o l .

T he r e f e r en ce t o m agy k e n a tu r e l i n t he ou s of F a m e ( 1 2 65 ff )

.

i s n o n c o m m itt a l o n t h e qu es ti on o f r i g ht a n d w r ong
-
.

T h e F r an k li n h a s j u s t b een s p eak i n g
2
F r a n k li n s Ta l e 403 6 -

o f t h e e m pl oym en t b y t h e O r l ean s c l e r k o f t h e tw en ty e i g ht man s i on s -

o f t h e moon P r o f es s o r T a t l ock ( Ki t tr edg e A nni ver s ar y P aper s

'

.
,

p 3 48 ff ) ha s s h ow n th a t th es e s t o o d in ba d o dor with the Chu r ch

. . .

In a s m u ch a s th e y b e l ong e d t o t he s y s t em o f e l ec ti ones ( c f ab o v e .
,

p. th ey c o ul d with e a s e be put t o ill eg iti m a te u ses T he c l er k .

c a n p r ob ably b e a ccu s ed o f d abbli ng i n th e bl a ck ar t s on o th e r

g r o u n d s a s w e ll ; s ee T a tl ock ( op ci t p C h a u cer s

and c f
j
. . .
, .

o wn r e f e r en c e s t o t h e c l e r k s a r t a s a p es a n d w r e cc h dn e s s e

e
illu s i ou n s s up e r s t i c io u s cu r se dn e s s e

an d

-
1 5 2 M edi e val A tti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr ol og y

did not intend that he s hould thu s be put to a logical te s t .

B ut the pa ss age s ho w s u n mi stakably that ma n y o f the

a s trological doctrine s whi c h he freely accepted in the r ole
o f poeti c na r r ato r he w a s fo r c ed to c all impiou s whe n
,

w r iti n g in c old p r o s e ?
P e r h a p s he wa s p arti c ula r ly c a re
ful to di s claim a belie f in the more doubt ful portion s o f the

s cie n ce becau s e he wa s writing to ly t e Lowys my s one
,
.

I n any c a s e it i s i n tere s ting to ob s erve that all o f

,

r


C hau c e s critici s m s o f magic and a s trology i n the F ra n k
li n s Ta le the P ars on s Ta le and the Tr ea tis e on the

, ,

A s tr ola be obj e c t to it on religiou s ground s T he s tate .

me n t o f the M a n o f L aw that men s wit s are too dull to

r ead the language o f the s tar s and the F ranklin s s co ff ,

at a s trology a s s omethi n g whi c h might have been well

enough in pagan time s but which in our day i s nat worth ,

a ye do imply a certain s cept ici s m o f the a s trologer s
,

art s Y e t the main argume nt i s s till a religiou s one The

. .

a s trologe r s notion s are called rite s o f pagan s in the Tr ea tis e

o n th e A s tr o la be Holy Chur c h not the s ceptical s c ienti s t

.
, ,

i s app ealed to in t he F r an kli n s Ta le in oppo s itio n to the

magician s practice s T he c onclu s ion in d eed s eem s i nevi t

.
, ,

able that C haucer wa s s till under the s pell o f the con

s e r va t iv e attitude towa r d a s trology whi c h wa s cha r a c te r i s ti c

o f the early M iddle A ge s and which in E ngland a s we , ,

have s ee n wa s s till fully alive a s late a s the fourteenth

-

century .

A ny attempt therefore to cite C haucer s c o n demnation

, ,

o f a s tro logy a s proo f that he wa s o f a s c epti c al turn o f

mi n d mu s t be viewed with s u s p i c io n
2
The te n dency .
,

indeed to c on s ider early opponent s o f a s trology a s fore

,

run n e r s o f modern enlightenment ha s long fo s te r ed a mi s

under s tanding o i medi e val s cience F rom our point o f .

2
W e h ave t
n o ed a im sil a r c on t r a s t b etw een t he pi n i o n
o of t he
ar ti s t an d th a t o f t he phil osoph er i n Cicer o an d P e t ra r ch .

Lo u n s bu r y s C ha u cer ( N ew Y o r k
2
S ee ,
1 892 ) 2 .
49 7 8
-

.
 A s tr o l og y i n Gow er an d Chau cer 1 53

V iew o f cour s e critic s o f a s t r olo g y s u c h a s C i c ero

, , , ,

P etrarch and P ico della M i r andola appear ema n cipated in

, ,

an age o f g r o ss s uper s titio n s F rom the point o f vie w .

o f the M iddle A ge s ho w ever before the d a y s o f the

, ,

C operni c an a s tronomy the s e j ud g ment s de s e r ve in ma n y

,

ca s e s to be reve r s ed C i c ero and S extu s E mp i r i cu s oppo s ed

.

a s trology not becau s e they wi s hed to r ep lace it with a more

,

pl a u s ible theory o f the univer s e but be c au s e they happene d ,

to be follower s o f t he N ew A c ademy a n d we r e s c epti cal ,

o f all s c ien c e ?
P etrar c h s atta c k upon a s trology though

it de s erve s all prai s e for it s clever s atire o f the Italian

necromancer s con s i s t s o f little mor e than piou s argume n t s
culled f rom A ugu s tine On it s s cientic s ide it can not
.
,

endure c ompari s on with a defen s e o f a s trology s u ch a s that !

o f R oger B acon F rom the point o f view o f tradition and
.

eccle s ia s tical di s c ipline the c hampio n s o f a s trology rather

, ,

than i t s oppo n e n t s de s erve to be called moder n T he s p irit

, .

that enabled C ecco d A s col i to face execution wa s far more

emancipate d than that which animated hi s inqui s itor s .

C haucer wa s a bol d er s ceptic when he e s pou s ed a s trologi c al

fatali s m than when he denou n c ed the s cien c e o f j udgme n t s
a s rite s o f pagan s L ike mo s t i n telligent men o f hi s time
.
,

Chaucer probably had hi s d oubt s regarding the ability o f

the p ro fe ss ional a s trologer to accompli s h all that hi s s c ience
boa s ted B ut he wa s concer n ed chiey about the que s tio n
.

whether it s p ra c tice wa s right o r whether it wa s w r ong .

T hi s fact alo n e would prove that C hau c e r in h i s pe r s o n al ,

attitude towar d a s trology wa s s till a man o f the M iddle ,

A ge s .

T he re ference s t o a s trology in the literature o f the

fteenth ce ntury are o f minor inte r e s t T he poetic po ss i .

b ili t i e s o f a s trology had been la r gely exhau s ted by Gower

and C haucer and the writer s o f the following decade s
,

C f F B o ll , i n S i tz u ng s ber d er P hi l os P h i l o l C la s s e d er Ka is er
2
-
. . . . .

li che n B ay er i s che n A ka d em i e d er Wi ss ens chaf t en ,

1 899 , p . 1 03 .
1 54 M edi e val A tti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr ol og y

me r ely imitated their ma s ter s I n fact the allu s ion s to .

,

a s t r ology i n the literature o f the fteenth century are

imp orta n t for little more than their frequen cy T hey indi .

cate that the p opulari z ation o f A rabian s cien c e which had ,

begun with A delard o f Bath wa s a fter three centurie s , , ,

virtually completed .

T he di s s emi n ation o f a s t r ologi c al learning wa s aided at ,

the turn o f the century by s uch work s a s T r evi sa s tra n s

,

lation o f the D e P r opr i e ta tibu s R er u m o f Bartholom e u s

A nglicu s and by the s eve r al vernacular ver s ion s o f the
'

1
,

S ecr e tu m S e cr et or u m ?
A s trological not i on s were at time s
s till taken quite s eriou s ly P ecock s R ep r ess or cite s the fact
.

that the s tar s produce varietie s o f talent s in the clerg y a s

well a s in laymen a s an argume n t for an e cc le s ia s tical
hierarchy corre s ponding to that o f a s e c ular government ?

I n the R a ti s R avi ng a youth i s a dvi s ed to con s ult a ma s ter

,

o f a s trology regarding hi s inborn abilitie s and incli nation s ?

R obert Henry s on the S cotch poet s till hark s back to the

, ,

ea r ly prej udice again s t a s trology a s a divi n atory art but ,

hi s s tri c ture s are plainly meant o n ly for that a s trology

which prophe s ie s with a denite yea or nay regarding con
tingent a c tion s ?
A lthough Lydgate in d ealing with the ,

s torie s o f A mphiarau s and M edea al s o in dulge s i n a ,

2
T he Eng li s h v er s i on w as compl et e d in 1 398 ( c f W ell s p .
,
.

The e i g hth b ook o f t he en cyc l op e d i a c on t a i n s a n o utli n e o f a s t r o l

ogy a n d i s b a s e d up on M e ss aha l a
, A lbu m a s ar an d o th e r s A , ,
.

con v en i en t s u mm a r y i s g iv en by L ang l o i s i n L a C onnais s a n ce d e ,

la N a t u r e e t d u M o n d e a u M o y e n A g e ( P a r i s pp 1 42 8 ; , .
-

see B a tma n u pp o n B ar t ho l om e Lo n d on 1 5 82 f o l s 1 1 8 41
b a
-
.
, , , .

B es i d es th e th r e e p r o s e v e r s i ons p r i n te d by S t e e l e ( EE TS E S
2
. .

th er e i s e xtan t Ly dg a t e a nd B u r g h s S ecr ees of Ol d P hilos o

r es ( e d S t eel e B E TS E S
.
, . .

The R epr es s or ( e d B a bi n g t on R o ll s p 45 0
2
. . .
,

R a tis R avi ng 1 8 99 ( E E TS 43

M
. . .

eu s a nd
E uryd i ce 571 ff .
( ed . G . S m ith , S co tti s h T ext
S oci e ty, W }: 85)
 1 56 M ed i e val A t ti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr olog y

de s c r ibing the s ea s on s o f the year Li n de say ? Henry s on ? 3

and the late roma n ce s the author o f the S cotch L a n cel o t

r
4
of the L a i k i s pa r ticularly c hara c te r i s tic exhibit an
abu n da n ce o f meani n gle ss a s trological learning Lydgate .

ve r itably revel s in a s t r ological d e s cription s borrowing f r om ,

C hau c er s u c h trick s a s the mingling o f a s trology with

mythology i n hi s refe r e n c e s to the p agan god s ?

A s we approach the E ngli s h R enai s s ance the belles ,

l e t tr es c ea s e more and more to furni s h evidence regarding

what men actually thought on the s ubj e c t o f s tellar i n u
ence A lthough a s trology s till found c hampio n s in ple nty
.

among the learned o f t he s ixteenth and s eventeenth c en

f urie s it w a s already beginning it s de s ce n t i n the i n tellectual
,

s c ale and wa s becomi n g the monopoly o f the maker o f

,

almana c s I n polite literatu r e at any rate the que s tion o f

.
, ,

s tellar inuen c e w a s s eldom s e r iou s ly debated F o r S hake .

s pea r e and t he othe r E li z abethan dramati s t s a s trology wa s ,

principally a c onvenie n t s ou r c e for gu r e s o f s pee c h .

S ee Ki ng i s Q u ai r s t a nz a 1 ( e d L aw s on, 1 9 1 0 p
2
F low er
,
.
, .

a n d th e L eaf 1 ff ( Cha u cer ia n a n d o ther P i eces e d S k ea t, O xf o r d,

.
,
.

p 3 61 ) H en r y s o n Tes ta m en t of Cr es s ei d 5 ff ( e d G S m ith
.
, . . .

3 . Ly dg a t e T e mp le of Glas s 4 ff ( e d S c hi ck, B E TS E S
, . . . .

60 I ) S ay i ng of t h e N i g h ti n g a l e I ff ( M ac Cr a ck en , M i n or P oems :
. .

E E TS E S 1 07 2 2 1 ) .Li n d e s a y , Tes t a m en t of t he P apy n g o 1 22 3 5

. .
-

( E E TS 1 9 L a n ce lo t of t he L a i k 2 47 1 ( B E TS 6
. . cf . . .

S c hi ck ( p C X X I I ) f o r fu r th e r r e f er en c e s
. .

M on ar che
2
Li n d e s ay , P r o log t o the B u ke f
o th e 1 53 ff .
( B E TS .

11 . Thi r d B u k e o f t he M on ar c h e 3 5 82 ff .
( pp . 1 17 D r em e
3 86 ff .
( E E TS . 19 .

8
H en r y s o n , T es t a m e n t o f Cr es s e id 1 48 ff .
( ed . G
S mith 3 . .

L a n c e lo t f
o th e L ai k 3 3 5 if , 445 if .
(a p a s s ag e r em i n i s cen t
a pp a r en tly of G ow er ; cf . C onf . Am .
7 . 1 45 0 if ) , 5 1 7 ff .
( E E TS .

6 . 1 1, 1 4,

E x a m pl es found bu n d an c e f Glas s
5
c an be in a i n t h e T e mple o

( 3 26 , 3 2 8, 449 , 7 1 5 , 7 1 8, 83 5 , 885 , 1 09 7 , 1 2 3 6. 1 33 0, 1 3 41 . 1 348,

cf . l
a so A ve M a r ia 9 if ( M a c C r a ck en, M i n or P o ems :
. B E TS . ES .

1 07 S i eg e of Th ebes 2 5 5 3 ( B E TS E S 108
'

. . . .
 B IB L IO G R A P H Y
T he ma i n pu r p o s e o f thi s bibli og r aphy i s t o g iv e a r ep r esent ativ e
li s t o f s u ch b o oks a n d a r ti cl e s a s d ea l d i r ectly with me d i e v a l -

a s t r o l og y M a ny o f th es e a r e o f a g en e r a l n a tu r e an d h av e n ot
.

b een c it ed i n t he n o te s .

TE X T S

AN C I EN T
F I RM I C U S M A TER N U S J U LI U S J u lii F i r m i c i M at e r n i M a the s eos , ,

L ib r i V III E di de r u nt W Kr o ll et F S kut s ch 2 v o l s L e ip z i g
. . . . .
,

1 897 1 9 1 3 -
.

PTOLE M ZE U S , C LAUD I U S , Clau di i P t ol eme i O mn i a q u e ext an t Op e r a .

E d it a ab E ra s mo O s w a l do S chr ek en f u chs i o B as el , 1 5 5 1 . .

H
MED I E V AL

A B DE L

A z i z B EN
O T M AN B EN
A Li ( A LC A B ITI U S ) , L i bel lu s Y s a g o g i

H
cu s A b d ila z i , i d es t S e r vi Gl o r i o s i D ei, qui d i c i t u r Al chab i t iu s ,
ad M ag i s t er iu m Iu di t i o r u m A s t r o r u m i nt er p r et at u s a ,
J oh ann e
i sp al en s i s c r ip t u m q u e i n e u n d em a J oh a nn e S ax o n i c . V en i c e ,

1 485 .
( S ee H ai n C o p i ng e r , N o
-
.

B O NA TTI , GU IDo ,
D e c em C o n t i n e n s T r a c t a tu s A s t r o n om i e . V en i c e,

A Li
1 5 06 .

B EN A B I R IJ AL A BU H A S AN ( A LB O AZ E N H ALY FI L I U S A B EN
-

RAG EL ) P re cla r i s s i mu s L ib er Co mpl etu s i n J u dic ii s A s t r o r u m

L -
H
.
,

V en i ce 1 485 ( S e e H a i n C
,
O p i n g e r N o 83 49 ; W a lt
. e r s p -

, .
, .

J A FAR B EN M U H AM MED E L B AL CH I AB fI M A S AR ( A LB U M A S AR ) D e
-

M ag n i s C onju n ct i o n ib u s A nno r u m R evol u t i on i bu s ac coru m

P r o f ec t i o n ibu s A u g s bu r g , 1 489 ( S ee H a i n Cop i n g er , N o

. .
-
.

Int r o d u c t o r i u m i n A s t r o n o m i a m A lbu m a s a r i s A ba l a chi A ug s .

bu r g 1 489 ( S e e H a i n C 0 p i ng er N o
, .
-

, .

C UM O N T ,
F .
, Ca tal o g u s C o dic u m A s t r olog o r u m Gr e co r u m . 11 v ol s .

B r u s sel s, 1 898 1 9 1 2 -
.

H IS T O RY O F A S T R O LO G Y
AN CI EN T
B O LL F , S tu di e n fi b er C l au d iu s P t ol em e u s : E i n B e it r a g z u r
.
,

G eschi cht e de r G r i echi s ch en Phil o s ophi e u nd A s t r o l og i e ( J ah r

bii che r f ii r P hil o l og i e u n d P ad ag og ik S uppl em en t 2 1 49
-

, .

Leip z i g 1 894 , .

B O U CH E LEC LERC Q A Hi s t o i r e de l a D ivi n ati o n d an s l A nt iq u i te '

-

. .
, ,

4 vol s P a r i s 1 87 9 82 .
,
-
.
1
5 8 M e di e val A t ti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr ol og y

BOU CH E LECLE -
G r ecqu e P ar i s 1 89 9 RC Q , A .
,
L A s t r ol o g i e

.
,
.

i n P a uly W i s s ow a s R eal E ncy cIOp adi e de r C la s s i schen

R IE s s E , .
,
- -

HAl t e r thu m s w i s s en s cha f t 2 1 802 2 1 S tutt g a r t 1 896 -

.
. .
,

S C M E KE L A D i e P hi 10 5 0 p h i e d e r M ittl e r en S t oa i n ih r em Ge
, .
,

s chi cht l i ch en Z u s a mmenh ang e B e r li n 1 892 .

,
.

G ENERAL MED I VAL E

G , P er c h f u C n d nn t 1 Fu l A st r ologo Cecc o

B or r rr o ,
. o a a o a oco

d A s co l i ? ( S tu d i D oc u m e nti di S t or i a D i r i tt o 2 0 3 70

e e .

B O NER, E G , La P o es i a d el C i el o d a
. . Guitt on e al P et r a r ca . M e s s i na ,

1 904 .

B UR C K H A RD T , J .
,
D ie Kultu r de r R en a i s s an ce i n It a li en . l ot h e d iti on .

L e ip z i g , 1 908 .

D IETERI CI , F .
,
D ie N atu r an sch auu ng Na t u rp hi los Op hie d er u nd

A r ab e r i m 10 . J ah r hu n der t 2 d e iti on L eip z i g , 1 876

. d . .

D IETERICI , F .
, D ie N a tu r phil o so phi e d e r A r ab er im 10 J ahr hu n de r t . .

DU H P o sen
EM , P
,

.
,
1 864 .

L e S y s t em e du M o n d
Hi s t o i r e des D oc t r i nes Co s
e :

molog i q ues d e P l a t on a C o p er n i c 5 v o l s publi s h e d . P ar i s . .

,

1 913 -

7 .

GA B OTTO Q u a tt r o c en t o ( R ivi s t a d i F i lo s o a

, F .
, L A s t r o l og i a n el

S c i en t i ca 8 3 7 8 .

GRAF , A , La F a ta lit a n ell e C r e

. d nze e d el M e di o E vo ( N u ov a A n t o
l o g i a T hi r d S e r i es 2 8 20 1 . .

G RAF A M iti L egg en de e S up er s ti z i on i d el M e di o E vo 2 v ol s

,
.
, , ,
. .

T u r i n 1 892 3 ,
-

H AN S EN J Z a ub er w ah n In qui s iti on u n d H ex enp r oz es s i m M i t

, .
, , ,

t el a l t e r
LAN G L OIS C
M u n i ch an d L e ip z i g 1 900 .

H
V La C onn a i ss an ce d e la N atu r e e t du M on d e au
M oy en A g e P a r i s 1 9 1 1
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LA V ILLE DE M IR M O N T H EN RI DE L A s t r o l o g i e c h ez l e s G a ll o

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.

d e a ux 1 904 ,
.

LEA H C Hi s t o ry o f the In qui s iti on o f th e M i dd l e A g es 3 4 1 9 5 49

, . .
, .
-
.

N ew Y o r k, 1 888 .

LE BE U F , J .
, Co u r s s o u s C h a r l es V , e t d e s
D e l A s t r o l og i e

qui a v a it
plu s F ameu x As tr ol og u es de c c T emp s ( Leb e r , J M C , C ol . . .

l e c ti o n d es D i s s e r t a ti o ns, V 0 1 P a r i s, 1 83 8 . .

M AURY, A , C r oy an ces et L g en de s d u M oy en A g e P a r i s, 1 896

. . .

M AURY, A , La M a g i e e t l A s t r o log i e d an s l A nt i qu i t et a u M oy en
.

A g e, on Etu de sur l es S up e r s titi on s P ai enn e s qui s e s on t P er

p et u e s ju s q a n o s J o u r s 3 d ed iti on P a r i s 1 864

. .
, .

M EYER , C .
,
D e r Ab er g l a ub e d es M itt e l a lt er s u n d d e r N achs t f ol
g en d en J a h r hu n d er t e B a s el 1 884 .
, .
1 60 M e d i e val A t ti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr olog y

R UD I GER , G, . Z aub e r u nd Ab e rg l aub e i n den Eng li sch -

S ch o tti s ch en
V o lk s b a ll a d en H a ll e, 1 907 . .

S CH R ODER R , Gl a ub e u nd A b erg la ub e
, . in d en A l t f r anz ii s i s ch en
D i c htu n g e n : ein B e it r ag zu r Kultu r g eschi c ht e d es M itt e l a lt er s .

GOt t i ng en , 1 886 .

S TEELE ,
R .
,
i n T r a i ll

s S oc i a l E ng l an d 2 .
74 82 ;
-

3 .
33 0 1 -
. L on d on ,

I 894 -

5 .

TA T LO C K J S P A s t ro l ogy a n d M ag i c in Ch a u cer s F r ank li n s

,
. . .
,

T a l e ( Kitt r e dg e A n n iv er s ar y P ap e r s pp 33 9 B o s t on 1 9 1 3 , .
, .

T A T LOC K J S P T he S c en e o f t he F r ank li n s T a l e V i s i t e d

. .
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( C h a u c er S o c i ety Publi cati on s S econ d S er i es V ol Lon .

, .

d ou ,
-
1 9 14 .

Z ENDER , R .
,
Di e M ag i e i m E ng li sc h en D r am a d es E li s ab eth a n i sch en
Z e i t a lt er s . H all e ,
1 907 .

W O R KS C IT E D F R E Q U E N T L Y B Y S H ORT T IT LE S
A RC H 1v = A r chiv f ii r d as S tu d iu m d er N eu er en
L it e r a tu r en
S p r ach en u nd

, ed . H er r i g . E ber f el d un d Iser l o h n , 1 846 B r aun

sc hw e ig ,
1 849

BOU
H CH E L A G r ecqu e P a r i s 1 899

-

E C LER C Q , .
,
L A s t r ol o g i e .
,
.

DU EM ,
P .
,
Le S y s t em e du M o n d e : Hi s t o i r e d es D o c t r i n e s Co s
mol o g i q u e s d e P l at on a Cop er n i c 5 v o l s p ubl i s h e d Par i s . . .
,

1913 -

7 .

EETS . : E a r ly E n g li s h T e xt S oc i e ty O r i g i n al S er i es . .

E ETS . E S : E a r ly E ng li s h T e xt S oc i e ty
. E xt r a S e r i es . .

M I G NE J . P .
,
Pa tr . Gr . C u r s u s C o mpl e tu s . S er ies
G r e c a 1 66 v o l s P ar i s 1 85 7 66
. .
,
-
.

M I G NE J P P a t r La t
, . P a t r o l o g i e Cu r s u s C o m pl etu s
.
, . . : . S er i e s
La ti n a 2 2 1 v o l s P a r i s 1 844 65
. .
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-
.

W EL LS J E A M a n u a l o f t he W r iti ng s in M i dd l e E ng li sh
, . .
,
. N ew
H av en 1 9 1 6 ,
.
 IN D E X

A B en v e n ut o d a Im o l a , 82 , 87 .

A b el a r d, 3 5 , 1 1 7 .
B e r n a r d S i lv e s t r i s 3 3 5 , 4 7 , 1 4 ,
-

A b en r a g e l, 5 2 , 5 4, n o t e , 9 5 .
1 47 8 -
.

A d e l a r d o f B a th , 3 9 , 49 50 , 60, 9 1 , - B o c c a c c i o , 7 8, 83 4 86, 88, 1 43 4 -

,
-

1 54 .
B o ethiu s 2 6, 46, 1 48 , .

A e l f r i c, 45 6, 1 1 3 , 1 1 9 -

.
B o n a tti , Gui d o , 7 8 9 , 90 , 9 5 -

A l a nu s d e In s u li s , 62 .
B r a d w a r d i n e, 9 1 , 1 2 4 8 -

A lb e r t t he G r e a t , 5 8, 63 7 , 89 , 1 1 8 , -

121, 132 .

A lbu m a sa r : 4 I 2 C a b a l a 5 2 87
5 5 9 2 62 , , , .
-

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A l cha b i t i u s , 5 1 2 , 1 48 -
.
C a r n ea d e s , 6 2 o 40 n o t e 2 86 , , , , .

C ec c o d A s c o l i 7 5 7 , 7 9 1 3 6 7 1 4

A l c h em y , 9 9 , 1 2 1 , 1 3 0, n o t e 3
- -

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A l ex a n d e r r o m a n c e s , 1 03 5 , 1 2 0 -

.
I 47 , 1 5 3

A l m a n a c , a s t r o l og y o f , 42 , 1 1 3 1 5 6 .
C e lt s p r i m itiv e a s t r o l ogy o f 43
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A r a bi a n a s t r o l o g y, 4 9 5 9 , 7 6, 7 9 , 89 mag i c o f 10 5 8 ,
-

Cen ti l o q u i u m a tt r i but ed t o P t o l em
-

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t i st s , 60 3 ; c h a r ac t e r i s ti c s
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5 1 9 ; c on t a mi n a t e d with m a g i c ,
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5 2 3 , 1 7 , n o t e 2 ; f a t a li s m o f , 5 9 , , ,
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- - -

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A s t r o l o gy , C h a l d e a n , 1 ; et h n o l og C h r ti en d e T r oy e s 1 00 1 06 , , .

i ca l a s t r o l og y, 1 3 , 2 0 , 1 3 3 ; c o n C h r i s t , empl oy e d a st r o l og y 7 9 n ot , ,

d em n ed i n c an o n la w , n ote 3 ; h o r o sc o p e o f 7
30 1 ;
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c o nn ec t e d with e m on s , 1 6, 2 3 , 69 d ,
7
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7 0, 8 1 2 , 1 2 2 ; i n D a r k A g e s 2 5
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-

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2 , 1 1 3 , 1 1 9 , 1 3 2 , 1 43 , 1 5 4 ; l e a r n e d ,
C o p er n i c u s 89 , .

n o t p o pul a r s c i en c e , 25 42 , 4 5 , ,

1 08 , 1 18 ; m ed i e v a l a ttitu d e t o D
w a r d , s u mm a r i z e d 8 1 2 87 9 .
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o utli n e d , 8, n o t e ; s ubj e c t of D e m o n s , c o n n ec t e d with a s t r o l o gy

s a ti r e , 1 1 , 1 4, 82 4 87 1 08 1 23 -

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pa s s i m .
D r ui d s , 4 3 .

B
E
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,

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no e 2, 1 54 . F a t a li s m 7 . I 9 22 3 5 3 7 3 9 5 5 5 9
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9 , 44, 46 . 66, 7 6. 1 1 5 1 2 5 7 1 3 4 ff . I 4s 8 .
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 1 62 M e d ie va l A tti tu d e t ow ar d A s tr o l og y

F a vo r i n u s 6, 7 , 1 2 , . L eg e n da A u r e a 1 02 , .

F i r m i c u s M at e r n u s , 3 2 3 , 40, 47 , 61 , L eg e n d of M i c ha e l, 6

H
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.

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68: 7 9: 84: 1 1 5 : 1 2 4: 1 3 5 a I 47 8
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267, 3 2, 34
-

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.

, , , 7 2 , 88 .
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-

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8 , 1 07 .
1 05 -

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-
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, , , , , 1 1 6, 1 22 , M a r i e d e F r a n c e 1 06 , .

I32 -

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R ob er t 1 5 4 , ,
1 56 .

H es i o d I , .
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7 .

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man cy 5 3 69 7 2 7 8 8 2 12
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1 3 1, no e t .

I mag e d u M ond e, 61 , 1 09 1 0, -
1 15 ,
0
1 1 8, n o t e 1

Ima g es , a s t r o l og i c a l , 69 , 7 4, 1 5 0, O f fi s m e, N i c o la S 9 6, 1 18
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.
,

t
no e 1 .
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In d i an a s t r o l ogy , 5 4, t no e 2 .
9 6: a n d no 5 99 : 150

Inqui s iti on , 7 5 7 -

.
O V I d : 1 43
In t er r og a ti on es , a s t r o l og i ca l sy s t em
0f: 53 4 -

P ec ock , 1 5 4 .

I s i d o r e, 2 7 8, 3 0, 3 6 7 , 5 0, 61 , 64 , - -

P et r a r c h 6 4 1 , 82 7 , 1 1 8, 1 3 1 , 1 5 3
, ,
-

1 18 9 -

.
P hillipp e d e M ez i er e s , 9 5 6 -
.

P hy s i o g n o my , 7 8 , 1 2 6
J
.

P i c o d e ll a M i r a n d o l a, 6 87 , 1 1 8, 1 3 1 , .

J ew i s h a s t r o l og y 1 7 n o t e 2 5 2 , , , , 76 . 153 .

J o h n o f S a li s bu r y 3 2 3 5 3 6 4 1 P i e r r e d A i l ly , 1 1 7

47 ,
-

, , , , .

60 67 84 , 9 6, 1 1 7 8
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-

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-

J oh n o f S ax ony, 88, 1 3 6 . P l a t o , 1 2 , 34 8o -

, .

Ju d i c i a l a s t r o l ogy , 1 1 , 5 3 , 65 68 , ,
1 3 0, P li n y , t he E l d e r , 2 8 .

I 49 , 1 5 5 P l oti n u s, 1 9 , 22 , 3 8, 5 7 .

Juv en a l , 1 4 . P og g i o , 88 .

K P on t a n o , 89 .

P t o l emy, C l a u d iu s , 4 8 , 13, 65 6
Kepl er t
-

4, n o e 2, 88 ,

a n d p as s i m
, .

L Q
L ac t a n t i u s 1 7 n o t e 1 2 3 , , , .
Q u a dr i par ti tu m , of P t o l e my, 5 1 , 9
L eechd oms, s ee C o ckayn e . 1 29 .
 Y A LE S TU D I E S IN E N GL I S H

A L B ERT S . C OO K , E D I TO R .

I . T he F or e i gn S ou r ces of M o de r n E ng li s h V e r s i ca t i o n .

C H A LT O N
R M . LE WIS , P h D . .
( O ut p r i nt ) of .

II . E l f r ic : A N e w S tu dy of hi s L if e and W r iti ng s CA ROL I NE .

LO U IS A W H ITE , Ph D . .

III . T h e L if e of St . C ec ili a ,
f r o m M S A s h m o l e 43 a n d M S . .

C o tt o n T ib e r iu s E V II with In t r o d u c ti o n V a r i an t s a n d
.
, , ,

Gl os s a r y B ERTH A E LLEN LOVE W ELL Ph D

.
,
. .

D r y d e n s D r a ma ti c T h e o ry a n d P r a cti ce M AR G ARE T S H ER

IV . .

WOO D Ph D , . .

S tu d i e s i n J o n s o n s C ome d y E LIS AB E TH W OO D BRI DGE P h D

. . .
,

VI . A Gl o s sa r y of t he W es t Sa x on G o s p e l s La t i n W e s t ,
-
S a x on
and W es t S a x o n La ti n -
. M A TT I E A N S T I CE H A RRI S ,
Ph D . .

V II . An d r ea s : T h e Le g e n d of St t r a n s l a t e d f r om t he
. A n dr e w ,

O ld E ng li s h , with an Int r o d u cti on R OB ER T KI LB URN R OO T.

,

Ph D .
$0 5 0
. . .

V III T he C l a s s i ca l M yth o l ogy M ilt o n E n g li s h P o em s

. of s .

C H AR E S GROSVEN OR
L OS G OOD ,
Ph D . .

IX . A Gui de t o t he M i ddl e E ng li s h M et r i c a l R oman ces d ea li ng

with E n g li s h a n d G e r ma n i c L eg en ds a n d with t h e Cy c l e s ,

of C h a r l em ag n e a n d o f A r thu r A NNA H UN T B ILLI N c s .

,

Ph D . .

T he E a r li e s t L iv e s of D a n t e, t r a ns l a t e d f r o m t he It a li a n o f
Gi o v a nn i B occa cc i o a n d L i o n a r do B r u n i A r eti n o J AME S .

R OBI N SO N S M I TH .

XI . A S tu dy i n E pi c D e v e l op m en t . IRENE T . M YE RS ,
Ph D . .

X II . T he S h o r t S tor y H ENRY S E I D EL CAN B Y P h D

.
,
. .

H
X III Ki ng A lf r e d s O ld E ng li s h V e r s i o n o f S t A u g u sti n e s S o l ilo

. .

q u i es ; e d it e d w i th In t r o d u cti o n N o t e s a n d Gl o s sa ry
'
.
, ,

H ENRY LEE AROROVE P h D ,

. .

X IV . The Ph o no l og y o f t he N o r thu mb r i a n Gl o s s o f S t M a tth e w . .

E M IL Y HOW ARD F OL EY P h D , . .
1 66 Yal e S tu di es i n E ng lis h

XV . E s s ay s tu dy a n d U s e o f P oet ry by P lut a r ch and

on t he S
B a s il t h e G r ea t t r a n s l a t e d f r om t h e G r e ek with a n Int r o
, ,

du c ti o n F REDE RI C K M O RG AN P ADEL F OR D P h D
.
,
. .

XV I . T he T ra n s l a t i on s o f B eo wulf : A Cr i ti ca l B ibli og ra phy .

C H AUN C EY B T I NKER P h D .
, . .

X V II . T he A l ch em i s t by B en J on s o n e d it e d with Int r o du c ti on
, , ,

C H AR LE S M H A TH A W AY J R Ph D

H
N o t e s a n d Gl o ss a r y
, . .
, .
,
. .

C l o th ,

X V III . T h e E xp r e s s i on o f P u r p os e i n O l d E ng li s h P r o s e U BERI .

GIBSO N S H EA RI N P h D , . .

X IX . C l a s s i ca l M yth ol ogy i n S h ak es p ear e R OB E RT KI L B U R N R OO T .

,

Ph D . .

XX . T he C o n t r o v e r s yb etw een the Pu r itan s a n d t he S t ag e E LBERI .

N S T H O M P SO N P h D
. .
, . .

XXI . T he E l en e o f Cyn e wulf t r an s l a t e d int o E ng li s h P r os e , .

L U C I U S H UD SO N HO L T P h D ( Out o f pr i nt ) , . . .

XX II . King A l f r e d s O ld E n g li s h V e r s i on o f S t A u g u s tin e s S olilo

.

q u i e s tu r n e d i n t o M o der n E ng li s h
,
H EN RY LE E H A RGROVE .
,

Ph D . .

XX III Th e Cr os s in t h e Li f e an d L it e r a tu r e of t h e A ng o l S a x on s

H
-
. .

W ILL I AM O S . TEVEN S ,
Ph D . .

XX IV . A n In de x t o t h e O l d E n g li s h Gl os s e s of t he D u r h am y mn a
r ium H ARVEY W C A P MAN
. . H .

XXV . B a r th o l ome w F a i r , by B en J o ns on e d it e d w ith Int r o d u c tion , ,

N o t e s a n d Gl o s s ar y
,
CA RROLL S T ORRS A LDEN P h D .
, . .

XX V I S e l e c t T r an s l a ti o n s f r om S ca lig er s P oeti c s F REDERI C K M

. . .

P ADELFORD P h D , . .

XXV II . P o et a st er by B en J on s on e dit e d with In t r o d u c ti on No t es

, , , ,

a n d Gl o ss ar y H ERB ERT S M ALL O R Y Ph D

. C l oth .
, . .
,

XX V III . T he S t apl e of New s , by B en J on s on e d it e d w i th Int r oduc ,

ti on N o t e s a n d
, , Gl os sar y D EW I NT E R Ph D .
,
. .

Cl o th $2 5 0 ,
. .

XX IX . T he D ev i l i s a n A s s by B en J on s on e d it e d with In t r o , ,

d u c ti on N o t e s a n d Gl os s a r y
, W I LL I AM S AVA GE JO H N SO N
, .
,

Ph D . . C l o th ,

XXX . T he Lan g u a g e o f t h e N or thu mb r ian Gl o s s t o t h e G os p el o f

St . Lu k e M A R G ARE T D U TT O N KELLUM
. Ph D , . .

( O u t o f p r i nt ) .
1 68 Ya l e S tu di es i n E ng lis h

X LV II . T he M a g n e ti c La dy , Hu m o r s R eco n c il e d by B en J ons on
or , , ,

e d it e d with In t r o d u cti on N ot es an d Gl o ss ar y H ARVEY

, , .

W H I TE FIELD PE CK ,
Ph D . .

X LV III . G en e s i s A tt r ibut e d t o Ce dmo n ) t r an s l at e d

( s om e ti mes a ,

f r om t h e O l d E ng li s h LA WREN CE M A SO N P h D .
, . .

X L IX . T h e La t e r V e r s i on o f t h e W y cl ift e E pi s tl e t o th e R om an s ,

co mp a r e d with t h e L a ti n O r i g i na l : A S tu dy o f W y cl i ft e
E n g li s h E M MA C U R T ISS T U C KE R P h D
.
, . .

L . S o m e A cc o u n t s o f t h e B e w ca s tl e C r o s s b e tw e e n t he Y ear s
1 607 a n d 1 861 A L B ER T S TA N B U RROU G . COO K H .

LI . T he R e a dy a n d E a s y W a y t o E s t a bli s h a F r ee C o mm on
w ea lth by J o h n M ilt on e d it e d with In t r odu cti on N o te s
, , , ,

a n d Gl o s sar y E V ERT M ORDE CA I CL A R K P h D

.
,
. .

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Ph D . .

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E L EAN OR N A DAM S P h D .
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W ILLI AM E D W ARD S ELI N P h D .
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L V II. W or dsw o r th s T h eo r y o f P o eti c D i c ti o n : A S tu dy o f th e

Hi s t or i ca l a n d P er s o n a l B a ckg r o u n d o f t he Lyr i ca l B a l
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ti on N ot es a n d Gl o s sa ry : JO H N D RE A P h D
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E ng l an d T H E O D O RE O TT O W EDE L P h D
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