Factoring

FactoringPolynomials
FactoringPolynomials
Polynomials
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=(2)(2)(5) and
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AAmonic
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x4x 2x2x
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Carl
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+ 100100== 5050.
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are:
In In
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1799,a grown-up
a grown-up Gauss
Gaussproved
provedthethe
following theorem:
following theorem:

Any polynomial is the product of a real number,

Any polynomial is the product of of
a real number,
and a Any polynomial
collection of monicis the product
quadratic a real
polynomials number,
that
and a collection of monic quadratic polynomials that
do not have roots, and of monic linear polynomials. that
and a collection of monic quadratic polynomials
dodo
notnothave roots,
have and
roots, andof of
monic linear
monic polynomials.
linear polynomials.

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This result is iscalled
result called the Fundamental
thetheFundamental Theorem
Theorem ofofAlgebra.
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results Fundamental Theorem
ininallallofofmathematics, of
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thethe most important
mostinimportant results
results in all mathematics,
of mathematics, though
though from the form
from theitsform
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written above, its probably difficult totoimmediately understand
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scopeofofthis thiscourse.
course.WellWellhave
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is beyond the scope of this course. Well have to accept it on faith. acceptit itononfaith.
faith.
Examples.
Examples.
Examples.
2 2
4x4x 12x ++ 8 8can be factored into a aproduct of a anumber, 4, 4,and
4x2 12x 12x +8

can
canbebe
factored
factoredinto
into product
a productof of number,
a number, and
4, and
two
two monic
moniclinear polynomials,
linear polynomials, x x 1 and
1 x
and x 2. That
2. Thatis,
is,
2 two monic linear polynomials, x 1 and x 2. That is,
4x4x 2 12x + 8 = 4(x
4~2_ 12x + 8 = 4(x 1)(x
12x+8=4(x1)(x2).1)(x 2).2).

157130
130
 x5 + 2x4 7x3 + 14x2 10x + 20 can be factored into a product
of a number, 1, a monic linear polynomial, x 2, and two monic
quadratic polynomials that dont have roots, x2 + 2 and x2 + 5. That
is x5 + 2x4 7x3 + 14x2 10x + 20 = (x 2)(x2 + 2)(x2 + 5).
(We can check the discriminants of x2 + 2 and x2 + 5 to see that
these two quadratics dont have roots.)

2x4 2x3 + 14x2 6x + 24 = 2(x2 + 3)(x2 x + 4). Again, x2 + 3

and x2 x + 4 do not have roots.

Notice that in each of the above examples, the real number that appears
in the product of polynomials 4 in the first example, 1 in the second,
and 2 in the third is the same as the leading coefficient for the original
polynomial. This always happens, so the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
can be more precisely stated as follows:

If p(x) = an xn + an 1 xn 1 + + a0 ,
then p(x) is the product of the real number an ,
and a collection of monic quadratic polynomials that
do not have roots, and of monic linear polynomials.

Completely factored
A polynomial is completely factored if it is written as a product of a real
number (which will be the same number as the leading coefficient of the
polynomial), and a collection of monic quadratic polynomials that do not
have roots, and of monic linear polynomials.
Looking at the examples above, 4(x 1)(x 2) and (x 2)(x2 + 2)(x2 + 5)
and 2(x2 + 3)(x2 x + 4) are completely factored.

One reason its nice to completely factor a polynomial is because if you do,
then its easy to read o what the roots of the polynomial are.

Example. Suppose p(x) = 2x5 + 10x4 + 2x3 38x2 + 4x 48. Written

in this form, its difficult to see what the roots of p(x) are. But after being
completely factored, p(x) = 2(x + 2)(x 3)(x 4)(x2 + 1). The roots of
158
this polynomial can be read from the monic linear factors. They are 2, 3,
and 4.
(Notice that p(x) = 2(x + 2)(x 3)(x 4)(x2 + 1) is completely factored
because x2 + 1 has no roots.)

* * * * * * * * * * * * *

Factoring linears
To completely factor a linear polynomial, just factor out its leading coeffi-
cient:

b
ax + b = a x +
a

For example, to completely factor 2x + 6, write it as the product 2(x + 3).

Factoring quadratics
What a completely factored quadratic polynomial looks like will depend on
how many roots it has.

0 Roots. If the quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c has 0 roots, then it can

be completely factored by factoring out the leading coefficient:
b c
2 2
ax + bx + c = a x + x +
a a
b c
(The graphs of ax2 +bx+c and x2 + a x+ a dier by a vertical stretch or shrink
that depends on a. A vertical stretch or shrink of a graph wont change the
number of x-intercepts, so x2 + ab x + ac wont have any roots since ax2 + bx + c
doesnt have any roots. Thus, x2 + ab x + ac is completely factored.)

Example. The discriminant of 4x2 2x+2 equals ( 2)2 4(4)(2) = 4 32 =

28, a negative number. Therefore, 4x2 2x + 2 has no roots, and it is
completely factored as 4(x2 12 x + 12 ).

2 Roots. If the quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c has 2 roots, we can

name them 1 and 2 . Roots give linear factors, so we know that (x 1 )
159
and (x 2 ) are factors of ax2 + bx + c. That means that there is some
polynomial q(x) such that
ax2 + bx + c = q(x)(x 1 )(x 2 )
The degree of ax2 + bx + c equals 2. Because the sum of the degrees of the
factors equals the degree of the product, we know that the degree of q(x) plus
the degree of (x 1 ) plus the degree of (x 2 ) equals 2. In other words,
the degree of q(x) plus 1 plus 1 equals 2.
Zero is the only number that you can add to 1 + 1 to get 2, so q(x) must
have degree 0, which means that q(x) is just a constant number.
Because the leading term of ax2 + bx + c namely ax2 is the product of
the leading terms of q(x), (x 1 ), and (x 2 ) namely the number q(x),
x, and x it must be that q(x) = a. Therefore,
ax2 + bx + c = a(x 1 )(x 2 )

Example. The discriminant of 2x2 + 4x 2 equals 42 4(2)( 2) = 16 + 16 =

32, a positive number, so there are two roots.
We can use the quadratic formula to find the two roots,
p but p
before we do,
its
p best to simplify the square root of the discriminant: 32 = (4)(4)(2) =
4 2.
Now we use the quadratic formula to find that the roots are
p p
4+4 2 4+4 2 p
= = 1+ 2
2(2) 4
and p p
4 4 2 4 4 2 p
= = 1 2
2(2) 4
Therefore, 2x2 + 4x 2 is completely factored as
p p p p
2 x ( 1 + 2) x ( 1 2) = 2(x + 1 2)(x + 1 + 2)

1 Root. If ax2 + bx + c has exactly 1 root (lets call it 1 ) then (x 1 ) is

a factor of ax2 + bx + c. Hence,
ax2 + bx + c = g(x)(x 1 )
for some polynomial g(x).
160
 Because the degree of a product is the sum of the degrees of the factors,
g(x) must be a degree 1 polynomial, and it can be completely factored into
something of the form (x ) where , 2 R. Therefore,
ax2 + bx + c = (x )(x 1 )
Notice that is a root of (x )(x 1 ), so is a root of ax2 + bx + c
since they are the same polynomial. But we know that ax2 + bx + c has only
one root, namely 1 , so must equal 1 . That means that
ax2 + bx + c = (x 1 )(x 1 )
The leading term of ax2 +bx+c is ax2 . The leading term of (x 1 )(x 1 )
is x2 . Since ax2 + bx + c equals (x 1 )(x 1 ), they must have the same
leading term. Therefore, ax2 = x2 . Hence, a = .
Replace with a in the equation above, and we are left with
ax2 + bx + c = a(x 1 )(x 1 )

Example. The discriminant of 3x2 6x+3 equals ( 6)2 4(3)(3) = 36 36 =

0, so there is exactly one root. We find the root using the quadratic formula:
p
( 6) + 0 6
= =1
2(3) 6
Therefore, 3x2 6x + 3 is completely factored as 3(x 1)(x 1).

Summary. The following chart summarizes the discussion above.

roots of ax2 + bx + c completely factored form of ax2 + bx + c

no roots a(x2 + ab x + ac )

2 roots: 1 and 2 a(x 1 )(x 2 )

1 root: 1 a(x 1 )(x 1 )

161
 * * * * * * * * * * * * *

Factors in Z
Recall that the factors of an integer n are all of the integers k such that
n = mk for some third integer m.

Examples.
12 = 3 4, so 4 is a factor of 12.
30 = 2 15, so 15 is a factor of 30.
1, 1, n and n are all factors of an integer n. Thats because
n = n 1 and n = ( n)( 1).

Important special case. If 1 , 2 , . . . n 2 Z, then each of these numbers

are factors of the product 1 2 n . For example, 2, 10, and 7 are each
factors of 2 10 7 = 140.

Check factors of degree 0 coefficient when searching for

roots
If k, 1 , and 2 are all integers, then the polynomial
q(x) = k(x 1 )(x 2 ) = kx2 k(1 + 2 )x + k1 2
has 1 and 2 as roots, and each of these roots are factors of the degree 0
coefficient of q(x). (The degree 0 coefficient is k1 2 .)

More generally, if k, 1 , 2 , . . . , n 2 Z, then the degree 0 coefficient of the

polynomial
g(x) = k(x 1 )(x 2 ) (x n )
equals k1 2 n . That means that each of the roots of g(x) which are
the i are factors of the degree 0 coefficient of g(x).
Now its not true that every polynomial has integer roots, but many of the
polynomials you will come across do, so the two paragraphs above oer a
powerful hint as to what the roots of a polynomial might be.

162
 When searching for roots of a polynomial
whose coefficients are all integers,
check the factors of the degree 0 coefficient.

Example. 3 and 7 are both roots of 2(x 3)(x + 7).

Notice that 2(x 3)(x + 7) = 2x2 + 8x 42, and that 3 and 7 are both
factors of 42.

Example. Suppose p(x) = 3x4 + 3x3 3x2 + 3x 6. This is a degree 4

polynomial, so it will have at most 4 roots. There isnt a really easy way to
find the roots of a degree 4 polynomial, so to find the roots of p(x), we have
to start by guessing.
The degree 0 coefficient of p(x) is 6, so a good place to check for roots is
in the factors of 6.
The factors of 6 are 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 6, and 6, so we have eight
quick candidates for what the roots of p(x) might be. A quick check shows
that of these eight candidates, exactly two are roots of p(x) namely 1 and
2. That is to say, p(1) = 0 and p( 2) = 0.

* * * * * * * * * * * * *

Factoring cubics
It follows from the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra that a cubic poly-
nomial is either the product of a constant and three linear polynomials, or
else it is the product of a constant, one linear polynomial, and one quadratic
polynomial that has no roots.
In either case, any cubic polynomial is guaranteed to have a linear factor,
and thus is guaranteed to have a root. Youre going to have to guess what
that root is by looking at the factors of the degree 0 coefficient. (There is
a cubic formula that like the quadratic formula will tell you the roots of
a cubic, but the formula is difficult to remember, and youd need to know
about complex numbers to be able to use it.)
Once youve found a root, factor out the linear factor that the root gives
you. You will now be able to write the cubic as a product of a monic linear
163
 factors of 3 are 1, 1, 3, and 3. Check these factors to see if any of them
are roots.
After checking, youll see that 1 is a root. That means that x 1 is a factor
of 2x3 3x2 + 4x 3. Therefore, we can divide 2x3 3x2 + 4x 3 by x 1

to get another
polynomial and polynomial
a quadratic polynomial. Completely factor the quadratic and
polynomial
then you willand
havea quadratic polynomial.
completely Completely
factored the
2x33x2+4x3 cubic.
2
factor the quadratic and
then you will have completely factored the =2x x+3
cubic.
Problem. Completely factor 2x3 3x2 + 4x 3.
Thus,
Problem. Completely factor 2x3 3~2 + 4x 3.

Solution. Start 2x33x2+4x3=(x1)(2x2x+3)

by guessing a root. The degree 0 coefficient is 3, and the
Solution. Start
factors of 3 are 1, by guessing
1, 3, anda root. The these
3. Check degreefactors
0 coefficient
to see ifis any
3,ofand
themthe
factors
are of 3 are 1, 1, 3, and 3. Check these factors to see if any of them
roots.
are roots.
After checking, youll see that 1 is a root. That means that x 1 is a factor
of After
2x checking,
3
3x2 + 4x youll see that 1 we
3. Therefore, is acan
root. That2xmeans
divide 3
3x2that
+ 4x x 13 isbya xfactor
1
of 2x3 3x2 + 4x
to get another polynomial
3. Therefore, we can divide 2x3 3x2+ 4x 3 by x 1
to get another polynomial 3 2
2x
3x + 4x 3
2x33x2+4x3 = 2x22 x + 3
The discriminant of 2x2 x x +1 3 equals=2x
(_1)2x+34(2)(3) = 1 24 = 23,

a negative number. Therefore, 2x2 x + 3 has no roots, so to completely

Thus,

factor 2x2 x +32xwe

Thus, 3 just2 have to factor out the leading
3x + 4x 3 = (x 1)(2x2 x +coefficient3) as follows:
2x2x-1-3=2(x2 ~x+~).
2x33x2+4x3=(x1)(2x2x+3)

2x3-3x1 ~~+z-3
/\
(x-l) (zx2_x+3)
/N
The discriminant of 2x
The discriminant
a negative number. of
2

Therefore,
a
x + 3 equals ( 1)2 4(2)(3) = 1 24 = 23,
2x2 x +2x32 equals has no4(2)(3)
x + 3(_1)2 roots, so
1 completely
= to 24 = 23,

a negative
factor 2x number.
2 Therefore,
x + 3 we just have to 2x2
factor xout
+ 3thehas
no roots,
leading so to as
coefficient completely
follows:
factor
2xThex2x2
2
+3=
final x +3
2 x weis just
answer2 1 have to factor out the leading coefficient as follows:
3
2x + 2 .
2x2x-1-3=2(x2 ~x+~).
2(x_1)(x2_ ~+~)
2x3-3x1 137
~~+z-3
/\
(x-l) (zx2_x+3)
/N
a
The final answer is
The final answer is 1 2 3
2(x 1) x x+
2(x_1)(x2_ 2 164
2 ~+~)
137
 3x33x215x-I-6 = (x+2)(3x29x+3)

Problem. Completely factor 3x3 3x2 15x + 6.

Problem. Completely factor 3w3 3w2 15w + 6.

Solution. The factors of 6 are {1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 6, 6}. Check to see that

Solution. TheThen
factors
2 is discriminant
a root. of 6 arex{1,+ 21,2, 2,3, 3,6, 6}. Check to see that
The ofdivide
3w2 by 9w +3 to find
equals 45,that
and thus 3w2 9w +3 has two
2 is a root. Then divide by 2x +2 to find that

roots and can be factored

3x3 further.
3x 15x + 6 2
3w3 of
The leading coefficient 3x23w2 15w9w++6 3 is= 3,3xand
9x +
we 3 use the quadratic
can
x+2

= 3w29x+3
formula
so x+2of 3w2 9w + 3 are ~ and ~ From what
to check that the roots
so learned above about
we 3x3 3xfactoring
2
15x +quadratics,
6 = (x + 2)(3xwe know
2 that
9x + 3)3w2 9w + 3

3(w~~~)(x~ 3x33x215x-I-6
Vs) = (x+2)(3x29x+3)

3x3-3x2-15i
/\
(x+2~ (3x2_cbc.

// 3+S\ /
2 c~2
The discriminant of 3x 39x + 3 equals 45,,~i a positive number, and thus
3x2 discriminant
The 9x + 3 has two of 3w2
roots 9w

and+3canequals 45, andfurther.
be factored thus 3w2 9w +3 has two

roots
Theand can becoefficient
leading factored further.
of 3x2 9x + 3 is 3, and we p can usepthe quadratic
The leading
To summarize, coefficient of 3w2 9w + 3 is 3, and we can use the quadratic
to check that the roots of 3x 9x + 3 are 2 5 and 3 2 5 . From what
2 3+

formula
formula to check
we learned
that
above
the roots
about
of 3w2
factoring
9w + 3 are
quadratics, we
~ and ~2 From what
know that 3x 9x + 3 =
we learned3w3 3w2 15w
p

p
3+ 5above 3about
+ 6 = (w + 2)(3w2 9w + 3)
5 factoring quadratics, we know that 3w2

9w + 3

3(x 2 )(x 2 ).
3(w~~~)(x~ Vs)
I 3+~/~~i 3Vg
=(w-i-2)3~w 2 )w 2
3x3-3x2-15i
/ 3+vg~,i 3~./~
/\ =3(w+2)~w 2 )k~X 2
(x+2~ (3x2_cbc.

// 3+S\,~i /
3 c~2
To summarize,
To summarize,
3x3 3x2 15x + 6 = (x + 2)(3x2 9x + 3)
3w3 3w2 15w + 6 = (w + 2)(3w2 9w + p3) p
3 + 5

3 5
= (x + 2)3I x 3+~/~~i x 3Vg
=(w-i-2)3~w 2 2p )w 2 2p
3 + 5 3 5
= 3(x + 2)/ x
=3(w+2)~w
3+vg~,i x
2 2 )k~X
3~./~
22
165
Factoring quartics
Degree 4 polynomials are tricky. As with cubic polynomials, you should
begin by checking whether the factors of the degree 0 coefficient are roots. If
one of them is a root, then you can use the same basic steps that we used
with cubic polynomials to completely factor the polynomial.
The problem with degree 4 polynomials is that theres no reason that a
degree 4 polynomial has to have any roots take (x2 + 1)(x2 + 1) for example.
Because a degree 4 polynomial might not have any roots, it might not have
any linear factors, and its very hard to guess which quadratic polynomials
it might have as factors.

* * * * * * * * * * * * *

166
 Exercises
Completely factor the polynomials given in #1-8

1.) 10x + 20

2.) 2x + 5

3.) 2x2 12x 18

4.) 10x2 + 3

5.) 3x2 10x + 5

6.) 3x2 4x + 5

7.) 2x2 + 6x 3

8.) 5x2 + 3x 2

9.) Find a root of x3 5x2 + 10x 8.

10.) Find a root of 15x3 + 35x2 + 30x + 10.

11.) Find a root of x3 2x2 2x 3.

Completely factor the polynomials in #12-16.

12.) x3 x2 + x + 1

13.) 5x3 9x2 + 8x 20

14.) 2x3 + 17x 3

15.) 4x3 20x2 + 25x 3

16.) x4 5x2 + 4

17.) How can the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra be used to show that
any polynomial of odd degree has at least one root?
167