Circuit Fundamentals My Notes and Calculations

Chapter 2

Circuit Fundamentals
Objective
Electrical components function when they are connected in a circuit. In this section
you will learn what an electrical circuit is and how to recognize different sections
of a circuit. You will also learn some of the laws governing voltage and current
throughout a circuit. These concepts are essential in understanding and analyzing
electrical systems.
Overview
Heaters, lighting equipment, and power lines are resistive circuit elements. Motors
and transformers contain coils of wire that have inductance. Batteries and
generators are voltage sources.
When various electrical components are networked together, an electric circuit is
formed. Each component in the circuit is diagrammed with its respective symbol.
The magnitude of current in the circuit is limited by all components that oppose
the flow of current.
Elements
The circuit elements shown in Figure 2.1 include a power source, a switch, a
resistor, a capacitor, and an inductor.

Figure 2.1 A list of circuit elements with schematic illustrations

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Circuit Fundamentals My Notes and Calculations

Any device that passes a current can be modeled or represented in a diagram by a

circuit element or symbol. By connecting this group of elements together end-to-
end, a circuit is formed.
Circuit
Batteries or generators are sources of electrical energy. They supply current to a
load.
Components of a circuitsuch as resistors, inductors, and capacitorsare passive
circuit elements that consume or use energy.
DC batteries are active circuit elements because they supply energy. Switches are
also considered active because they start and stop current.
Node
There are other useful terms and concepts that we use to describe circuits. A point
is any location along the path of current in the circuit. A node is a connection point
in an electric circuit.
There are two types of nodes. A major node, also called a junction, is made up of
three or more wires. A minor node, sometimes called a point, is made up of only
two wires.

Figure 2.2 Major and minor nodes

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Circuit Fundamentals My Notes and Calculations

Loop
A loop is a path that begins and ends at the same point in a circuit. The circuit
shown in Figure 2.3 contains three loops.

Figure 2.3 A circuit with three loops

In loop one, the current passes through the battery, V, and resistors R1 and R3.
In loop two, the current passes through resistors R1 and R2. In loop three, the
current passes through resisters R2 and R3.
Often, loop currents are used to solve for unknown values in more complex
circuits.

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Circuit Fundamentals My Notes and Calculations

Branch
Branches are used to describe distinct paths of current. Branches begin at a junction
point and terminate at another junction point. The circuit shown in Figure 2.4 has
three branches.

Figure 2.4 Circuit with three branches

Each of the three currents branch down from junction one, then pass through a
series of elements and eventually end at junction two.
The current I1 defines branch one and includes resistor R1 and battery V. The
current I2 defines branch two and includes resistor R2. The current I3 defines
branch three and includes resistor R3.
When we refer to branches and loops we are simply making reference to a collection
of components in a current path. The actual direction of current does not need to
be known to discuss the loop or branch. We can arbitrarily choose a direction for
the discussion. Even in the analysis of circuits, the direction of current is simply
assumed and once the circuit is properly analyzed the actual direction of current
becomes clear.

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Circuit Defined
A circuit is a complete path of electric current. Although the definition may
seem obvious and simple, when carefully applied, it will give deep insight into
understanding how circuits work.

Figure 2.5 Schematic illustrations of electrical circuits

Open or Closed
Figure 2.6 illustrates a simple electric circuit. The components include a battery,
V, a switch, S, and a load. A current, I, will exist depending on the status of the
switch.

Figure 2.6 Circuit with switch open, no current is present

Switches are used to control whether a current exists in a circuit. The following
terms are used to define the status of switches and their respective circuits.

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Circuit Fundamentals My Notes and Calculations

Open circuit means there is no current. This renders the circuit devices to be
inactive. The circuit under this condition is said to be OFF and no current exists.
A closed circuit means there is a current present. All devices in the circuit
become active when this condition occurs. The circuit is now said to be ON, and
current is present.

Figure 2.7 Circuit with switch closed, current is present

Short Circuit
Short circuit describes what happens when electric current takes a shortcut to
complete the circuit. Just as water seeks the lowest level, so also electricity usually
seeks the path of least resistance.

Figure 2.8 Short circuit and warning symbol

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Circuit Fundamentals My Notes and Calculations

A short circuit happens when two exposed wires or other conductors touch
each other, or when another conductor, such as water, makes a bridge between
conductors or component connections. The current then bypasses the load and
returns to the source.
Use extreme caution in a short circuit situation. Short circuits cause current to
almost immediately rise to hundreds of times higher than normal. The extreme
heat can melt many materials, or cause fire, or an explosion. By contacting a short
circuit, you could be shocked, burned, or even killed.
To locate a short circuit in mobile equipment you will need a digital multimeter,
and the wiring schematic.
First, make sure your digital multimeter is working properly, and set it to ohmmeter
mode.
Second, disconnect the positive wire to the blown circuit protection power strip.
Third, connect one ohmmeter probe to a good ground, and the other to the circuit
side of the OCPD, or overcurrent protection device.
Fourth, take a reading. If your digital mutimeter then reads zero or close to zero,
that indicates low resistance and that the circuit is shorted to ground.
Fifth, use the wiring schematic and follow the circuit from one component to the
next. Disconnect each component in order and test each one with the ohmmeter.
When a component is disconnected and the resistance reading jumps to infinity or
an excessively high reading, that component is the probable cause of the short.
Disconnect
A disconnect is a cutting off of the electrical
passage. A disconnect can be intentional or
accidental. A disconnect can be a cut or
broken wire between components or within
devices.
Disconnect can also mean a disconnect
switch. A disconnect is used to manually
apply or remove power from a circuit.
Generally, manual disconnects are required in Figure 2.9 Example of a broken
circuits with large loads. wire disconnect and a disconnect
switch
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Ground
Generally, in electricity, a ground is an electrical connection to the earth. An
electrical system is grounded when all exposed, non-current carrying metal parts
have a connective path to the earth or another conductive body. This provides a
direct path for faults, or unwanted current, to pass to the earth without harming
people or equipment. Power tools, machines, vehicle components, and delivery
systems are grounded in order to prevent hazardous electrical shock.
In mobile equipment, grounding means that the chassis is part of the circuit. One
of the battery terminals is connected directly to the chassis. Today, that is generally
the negative terminal. This allows components to be connected to the circuit by
being connected to the chassis and one other wire back to the power source, such
as the battery.
Of course, there are also
other components in the
circuit, such as switches
and fuses.
When a switch in a circuit
is closed, there is electron
flow between the chassis,
the components, the
switch, and the positive
terminal of the power
source. Figure 2.10 The chassis as part of the ground

Sometimes in mobile equipment, wire insulation breaks, or some other abnormal

connection is made between the circuit and the chassis.
The current then takes a shortcut between the chassis and the power source,
bypassing the load of the components. Since there is minimal resistance in this
short circuit, excessive current flow and overheating result. This type of short
circuit is called a ground fault, a grounded circuit, or a line to ground fault. These
terms distinguish this type of fault from other types of short circuit.

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Circuit Protection
Since electricity can be powerful and dangerous, all electrical circuits must have
circuit protection. Mobile equipment circuits can have both fuses and circuit
breakers. Older equipment may use cylinder fuses. More modern equipment will
probably use blade fuses.
There are many types of fuses and circuit breakers, such as slow blow fuses and
fusible link breakers.
For more information on circuit protection, see chapter 5, Circuit Components

Figure 2.11 Various types of fuses used in mobile equipment

Kirchhoffs Laws
Current Law
Kirchhoff provided us with two laws for
analyzing electric circuits. Kirchhoff s
Current Law deals with current in an
electric circuit and Kirchhoff s Voltage
Law deals with voltage in a circuit.
Kirchhoff s Current Law has been expressed
several ways depending on the level of
mathematics being used. We will use the
simplest form, which says, The sum of
currents going into a node is equal to sum Figure 2.12 Currents entering
of the currents going out of the node. and leaving a node

In Figure 2.12, there are six branch currents stemming from a single node a.
Notice that I1 and I5 are going into the node. I2, I3, I4 and I6 are going out of the
node. By applying Kirchoff s Current Law, we get Equation 2.1.

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Circuit Fundamentals
Equation 2.1
I1+I5=I2+I3+I4+I6
Voltage Law
Kirchhoff s Voltage Law has also been expressed many ways depending on the level
of mathematics being used. We will again use the simplest form, which states: The
sum of voltage rises going around a loop is equal to the sum of voltage drops.
Figure 2.13 Electrical circuit illustrating Kirchhoff's Voltage Law
In Figure 2.13, we have a circuit where the current, I, passes through all devices in
the circuit.
There are two active elements, V1 and V2, whereas V3, V4, and V5 are all passive
elements.
The direction of current goes from negative to positive through the batteries and
therefore both batteries cause a voltage rise. The three passive elements will have a
voltage drop. By applying Kirchhoff s Voltage Law here we get Equation 2.2.
Equation 2.2
V1 + V2 = V3 + V4 + V5
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Circuit Fundamentals
Thus, if V1 equals 6 volts and V2 equals 4 volts, V1 plus V2 has a rise of 10 volts.
Therefore, V3 plus V4 plus V5 must have a drop of 10 volts.
SUMMARY
Components such as resistors, inductors, and capacitors are passive circuit
elements that consume or use energy.
Batteries are active circuit elements because they supply energy. Switches are also
active because they start and stop current.
A node is where two or more circuit elements meet.
A loop is a path that begins and ends at the same point in a circuit.
Branches are used to describe distinct paths of current in circuits.
A circuit is a complete path of electric current.
Open circuit means there is no current and the circuit is OFF.
A closed circuit means there is a current present and the circuit is ON.
Short circuit describes what happens when electric current takes a shortcut to
complete the circuit. Just as water seeks the lowest level, so also electricity usually
seeks the path of least resistance.
A disconnect is a cutting off of the electrical passage.
Generally, in electricity, a ground is an electrical connection to the earth. An
electrical system is grounded when all exposed, non-current carrying metal parts
have a connective path to the earth or another conductive body.
Since electricity can be powerful and dangerous, all electrical circuits must have
circuit protection.
Kirchhoff s Current Law states, The sum of currents going into a node is equal
to sum of the currents going out of the node.
Kirchhoff s Voltage Law states: The sum of voltage rises going around a loop
is equal to the sum of voltage drops.
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Circuit Fundamentals Circuit Fundamentals

FORMULAS 8. This schematic represents a(n) _____.

a. inductor
12. A disconnect is always accidental.
a. True
b. capacitor b. False
Kirchhoffs 1st Law/Current Law c. switch
Currentin = Currentout d. resistor 13. Generally, manual disconnects are
required in circuits with _____.
Kirchhoffs 2nd Law/Voltage Law a. large loads
Short, Disconnect, Ground, b. small loads
Voltagerise = Voltagedrop Circuit Protection c. Both of the above.
9. Which does NOT cause a short circuit? d. None of the above.
QUESTIONS a. two exposed wires touch each
other 14. An electrical system is grounded when
Circuit Components 4. Generators and batteries are power
b. another conductor, such as all exposed, non-current carrying metal
_____. parts _____.
1. Elements of a circuit that consume or water makes a bridge between
a. sinks a. have a connective path to the
use energy are _____. conductors
b. consumers earth or another conductive
a. passive c. exposed wires are close to each
c. sources body
b. active other
d. None of the above. b. are connected to each other
c. Both A and B. d. None of the above.
c. are separated from current
2. A point where two wires connect is Circuit Defined 10. A short circuit can cause high voltage carrying metal parts
called a _____. but not extreme heat. d. None of the above.
5. A circuit is one or more branches or
a. major node a. True
loops that contain devices that have
b. minor node b. False 15. Which is NOT a name for the type of
the ability to pass a current.
short circuit between the chassis and
a. True
3. This circuit has _____ branch(es). 11. What is the second step in locating a power source in mobile equipment?
b. False
short circuit in mobile equipment a. ground fault
(after you have set your DMM to b. grounded circuit
6. A circuit that is not carrying a current is
ohmmeter mode)? c. chassis fault
said to be _____.
a. Connect the ohmmeter probe to d. None of the above.
a. a non-current circuit
a good ground and the other to
b. open
the circuit side of the OCPD. 16. Most modern mobile equipment use
c. currentless
b. Disconnect the positive wire to _____ for circuit protection.
d. None of the above.
the blown circuit protection a. cylinder fuses
a. two power strip. b. blade fuses
7. This schematic represents a(n) _____.
b. three c. Take a reading on your DMM c. Both of the above.
a. resistor
c. four d. Use the wiring schematic and d. None of the above.
b. capacitor
d. one follow the circuit from one
c. inductor
component to the next.
d. switch

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Kirchhoffs Laws 20. In this circuit, what is the voltage drop

at V5?
17. According to Kirchhoff s first law, the
sum of the currents going into a node
is equal to the sum of the currents
going out of a node.
a. True
b. False

18. In this diagram, what is the sum of

a. 5 V
currents I2, I3, and I4?
b. 6 V
c. 4 V
d. 3 V

21. In this circuit, what is the voltage rise

at V2?

a. 14 A
b. 13 A
c. 15 A
d. 5 A

19. In this diagram, what is the current in a. 10.98 V

I1? b. 11.02 V
c. 10.05 V
d. 13 V

a. 35 A
b. 40 A
c. 47 A
d. 50 A

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