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AC Performance Steady Flight (Part 2)
AC Performance Steady Flight (Part 2)
As the airplane slows down may encounter stall before reaching the minimum velocity
We need to ensure that we could safely reach the minimum velocity in steady level flight
Lift does not become zero beyond stall but the lift-to-drag ratio diminishes
2
The lift may increase after stall (even after first max) but the drag becomes too large
3
1 2 W 1 [5.66]
L W V2 S C L V
2 S CL
Then
Vstall [5.67]
Since Vstall decreases with CL max high-lift-devices, such as flaps, slats etc. can
If the natural value of CL max for an airplane is not high enough for safe takeoff and
landing it can be increased with the high-lift devices shown bellow
7
8
9
10
Dividing by q c Cl * (5.70)
dCl *
Differentiating wrt : (5.71)
d
Example 5.12
Calculate the min velocity for the Golfstream IV at sea level for (a) the thrust
curves and (b) the min stall speed; Fowler flaps, =27.40
T / S 76.84 lb / ft 2 ,T /W 0.3795 , C
D ,0 0.015, K 0.08, 0.002377slug / ft3
Vmin=
Vstall=
13
T D W sin 0 [5.75]
L W cos 0
[5.76]
The equilibrium of forces expressed by Eqs. [5.75] and [5.76] corresponds to the
R/C [5.77]
TV DV [5.78]
V sin R / C
W
TV DV [5.79]
L [5.81]
because part of the airplane weight is supported by the thrust and less lift is
L [5.82]
CL
q S
W cos
2
D q S CD ,0 K
q S
W cos
2
or D q SCD ,0 K [5.84]
q S
Combining Eqs. [5.78] and [5.85] obtain
T 1
W
1
[5.84]
V sin V V 2 CD ,0
W 2 S
There is no closed form solution for Eq. [5.84] and can be solved numerically
18
T 1 W
1
W 2K [5.86]
V sin R / C V V CD ,0
2
2
W 2
S S
V
sin [5.87]
1
T 1 W W 2K [5.88]
sin V 2 CD ,0
W 2 S S V 2
22
T D [5.89]
V sin V
W
And the rate of climb increases with thrust and reduction of drag and weight
T D [5.90]
sin
W W
but from Eq. [5.76]
W [5.91]
T
sin [5.92]
W
23
T 1 [5.93]
sin
W L/D
Considering a jet-propelled airplane (thrust constant with velocity) maximum
T 1 [5.94]
jet propelled airplane sin max
W L / D max
T [5.95]
sin max
W
24
The flight velocity corresponding to the maximum climb angle max can be
found as follows
1 [5.96]
L W cos V 2 S CL
2
1 [5.97]
W cos max Vmax 2 S CD,0 / K
2
and V max
for jet propelled airplane is
1/2 [5.98]
2 K W
Vmax cos max
CD ,0 S
pr P [5.48]
TA
V
The power available PA is assumed constant with velocity and the climb
angle for propeller driven airplane is obtained from Eq. [5.88] for TA pr P / V
pr P
1 W
1
W 2K [5.100]
sin V 2 CD ,0
VW 2 S S V 2
Differentiate with V Eq. [5.100] and set the derivative equal to zero ( V V )
max
d sin pr P W
1
W 2K [5.101]
2 V D ,0
C 2 0
dV V W S S 0.5V 3
26
4
In Eq. [5.102] the magnitude of the last two terms are much larger than V max
Vmax [5.103]
27
Consider jet-propelled airplane where the rate of climb is given by Eq. [5.86]
Differentiate with V Eq. [5.86] and set the derivative equal to zero ( V V( R/C ) )
max
1
d (R / C) T 3 W W 2K [5.104]
V 2 CD ,0 0
dV W 2 S S V 2
Divide by 3 (W / S ) CD,0 / 2
1
3Q 2 [5.109]
V 2 2 T
2 Q V
2
0
L / D
2
W
max
T [5.111]
V 2
Q 1 1
3
L / D max (T / W )
W 2 2
The minus sign corresponds to negative value of V 2 and it is discarded the
1/2 [5.112]
(T / W )(W / S )
1 1
3
V( R / C )max
3CD ,0 L / D max (T / W )
2 2
29
3
Set Z 1 1 [5.113]
L / D max (T / W )2
2
1/2
(T / W )(W / S )
Then V( R / C )max Z [5.114]
3CD ,0
1/2
(T / W )(W / S ) Z T Z T K CD ,0 [5.115]
R / C max
W 6 W 6
3 C
D ,0 (T / W ) Z
K CD,0 3T / W
but ( L / D)max then 6
(T / W ) Z
2(T / W )2 ( L / D)ma
2 then
xZ
Z
1/2 [5.116]
(W / S ) Z T
3/2
3
R / C max 1
3CD ,0 W 6 (T / W ) L / D max Z
2 2
30
Then from Eq. [5.41] the flight velocity for maximum rate of climb for a
propeller-driven airplane is
31
1 [5.118]
2 W K 2
V R / C
max
S 3CD ,0
From Eqs. [5.86] and [5.118] and taking into account that TV
1
pr P
2 W
1
W 2K [5.119]
R/C V V CD ,0 2
W 2 S S
V
pr P 1 W
1
2 W K W 2K
R / C max V R / C
2 S D ,0 S
C
W max
3CD ,0 S 2 W K
S 3C D ,0
which simplifies to
32
pr P K [5.119]
R / C max V R / C 3KCD ,0
W 3C
max
D ,0
but since
K 1
3K 3CD ,0 3 KCD ,0
3CD ,0 3
1 4 KCD ,0 1/ 3 3 1 1.155
3
3 2 2 L / D max L / D max
pr P 1.115 [5.121]
R / C max V R / C
W max
L / D max
Use Eq. [5.118] for V R /C max
to obtain
1
2 W
pr P K 2
1.115
R / C max
W S 3CD ,0 L / D max
[5.122]
33
Example 5.13
For the Golfstream IV find max, (R/C)max and the corresponding velocities at sea
R/C =
(R/C)max V(R/C)max =
34
35
36
37
T/W =
W/S =
max=
from eq.
Vmax =
From eq.
(R/C)max =
38
From eq.
V(R/C)max=
Note 2: Thrust varies with altitude for turbofans, gives lower values
39
L [5.123]
D [5.124]
sin 1 [5.125]
tan
cos L/ D
The glide angle is small for high L/D and the smallest glide angle is at (L/D)max
1 [5.126]
tan min
L / D max
41
42
The equilibrium glide angle does not depend on altitude wing loading etc. and
In order, however, to achieve a specific L/D the airplane must fly at specific
1 2cos W [5.127]
L V2 S CL V
2 CL S
For an aircraft both CL and L/D vary with the angle of attack
The equilibrium glide velocity as altitude reduces along the glide path
43
44
For L/D = 15 from [Eq. 5.126] obtain = . Then cos and from Eq. [5.30]
L 1 [5.30]
D max 4 KCD ,0
The velocity for which L/D becomes maximum was given by Eq. [5.34]
Eq. [5.34] was found for L=W (consistent with the assumption cos )
1/2 [5.34]
2 W K
V L / D
S CD ,0
max
Thus for glide with min given by Eq. [5.126] the equilibrium velocity along the
Example 5.14
For the Golfstream IV at 30,000ft assume a total loss of thrust. Calculate the
min and the maximum range and the corresponding equilibrium speed at
30,000ft ( 8.9068104 slug / ft3 ) and sea level ( 0.002377 slug / ft3 )
From eq.
min
From
At sea level,
46
Positive downward
Assuming cos=1 in eq. [5.129] DV is the PR for steady level flight plotted
C L3/2 / C D
is maximum
1/ 2
2 W K
V (min sink rate)
S 3CD ,0
47
1
W cos L V2 SCL
2
V [5.130]
2cos W
Vv V sin sin
CL S
[5.131]
D C
sin cos D cos
L CL [5.132]
48
2cos3 W
Vv
(CL3 / CD2 ) S
[5.133]
Assuming cos=1
2 W
Vv
(CL3 / CD2 ) S
[5.134]
Example 5.15
For the unpowered Golfstream IV at 30,000ft calculate the sink rate at min and
Service Ceiling is defined the altitude where R / C max 100 ft / min and it is a
more useful measure because it represents the upper limit for steady level flight.
53
3. Extrapolate to the curve to find R / C max 100 ft/min (p1, service ceiling)
Example 5.16
Graphical Approach
Consider a plot of R / C versus altitude
1
The time to climb to altitude h 2 is the shaded area under the curve
58
Example 5.17
Time to climb =
59
R / C max [5.140]
h2 dh 1 [5.141]
tmin ln(a bh 2 ) ln a
0 a bh b
60
Example 5.18
Use the analytical approach to find the minimum time to climb at 30,000 ft for
the Golfstream IV
5.13 RANGE
W0 gross weight including everything; full fuel load, payload, crew, structure
W W1 W f [5.142]
W decreases during flight because Wf decreases
62
dW dW f [5.143]
Wf
dt dt
Where W f is a negative number
Propeller-driven airplane
Wf [5.144]
c
P
jet-propelled airplane
Wf [5.145]
ct
T
cV [3.43]
ct
pr
63
Consider steady level flight and denote the horizontal distance covered over the
V or ds [5.146]
From Eq. [5.145] obtain
dW f / dt dW f [5.147]
ct or dt
T ctT
Substituting in Eq. [5.146]
V [5.148]
ds dW f
ctT
but dW f dW
V V W dW [5.149]
ds dW
ctT ct T W
64
V L dW [5.150]
ds
ct D W
The limits of integration for s are s= (where the fuel tanks are full and W=W0)
R W1 V L dW
R ds
0 W0 ct D W
W0 V L dW
R [5.151]
W1 ct D W
This equation for range holds for both jet-propelled & propeller-driven airplanes
If L / D, V , ct , and W are known during the flight Eq. [5.151] can be integrated
V L W1 dW
ct D W0 W
R
V L W0
R ln [5.152]
ct D W1
This is the Breguet range equation
It appears from Eq. [5.152] that the range is maximized when we fly at high V
and maximum L / D .
V L W0 pr L W
R ln V ln 0
ct D W1 cV D W1
pr L W
R ln 0 [5.153]
c D W1
Maximum range for propeller-driven aircraft is obtained when
1. Fly at maximum
L / D max is obtained when flying at the velocity where zero-lift drag equals drag
1/2 [5.34]
W CD ,0
V( L / D )max
2 S K
L CL 1 [5.30]
D max CD max 4CD ,0 K
68
maximized (see eq. [5.152] using ct). For steady level flight
1 2W
L W V S CL V
2
2 S CL [5.154]
L C 2W CL1/2 2W
V L
D CD S CL CD S
And the product L / D V is maximized when we fly at maximum value
W0 1 CL1/2 2W dW [5.155]
R
W1 ct CD S W
69
1 CL1/2 2 W0 dW
R
ct CD S
W1 W 1/2
R
1 CL1/2
ct CD
2
S W 0 W1 [5.156]
1. Fly at maximum
1/4 [5.44]
C 3 1
1/2
Example 5.19
Find max range for the Golfstream IV at 30,000ft and the corresponding speed.
W1=W0-Wf=
Ct=
From eq.
R=
72
1
W decreases during the flight but since L W V2 S CL the altitude must
2
increase as the flight is progressed and fuels is consumed in the right manner so
Air traffic control regulations do not allow however the aircraft to constantly
Maximum range can be reached when the number of pounds of fuel consumed
per mile is minimized. However since the flight velocity at this condition could
be too small B. Carson reasoned that a more appropriate condition for both
speed and economy is flight in which the number of pounds of fuel consumed
dW f [5.158]
Wf cP
dt
dW f cPdt
but V and P
1.32V L / D
, Carson'sspeed 1.32V L / Dmax
V C 1/2 / C
and since L D max
max
76
5.14 ENDURANCE
Endurance is the amount of time the that an airplane can stay in the air one load of fuel
dW f
dt
dt [5.164]
For steady level flight L=W, D=T therefore
dW f L 1 dW f [5.165]
dt
ctT D ct W
W1 L 1 dW f W 0 L 1 dW f [5.166]
E
W0 D ct W W1 D c
t W
77
If L / D, ct , and W are known during the flight Eq. [5.166] can be integrated
Assuming that L / D, and ct are constant during the flight Eq. [5.166] yields
L 1 W0 dW f
E
D ct
W1 W
[5.167]
1 L W0
E ln
ct D W1
78
W0 CL pr dW f
E
W1 CD cV W
W0 pr SCL CL dW f
W1 c 2W CD W
W0 pr S CL 3/2 dW f [5.168]
W1 c 2 CD W 3/2
3/2
Assuming that ct , V , and CL / CD remain constant during the flight:
pr CL3/2 [5.169]
2 S W1 W0
1/2 1/2
E
c CD
79
1. Fly at maximum
2. Have the highest propeller efficiency
3. Fly at sea level where has the largest value
4. Have lowest possible specific fuel consumption
5. Carry a lot of fuel
It was shown that CL / CD max
3/2
= and attained when
1 [5.36]
CD ,0 KCL2
3
At a speed
2 W
1/2 [5.41]
K
V C3/2 / C
L D max
S 3CD ,0
80
1 L W0 [5.167]
E ln
ct D W1
1. Fly at maximum
2. Have lowest possible thrust specific fuel consumption
3. Carry a lot of fuel
81
Example 5.20
From eq.
82
5.15.1 Endurance
The smaller the number of pounds of fuel consumed per hour the longer is the
endurance
Propeller-driven airplane
The specific fuel consumption for propeller-driven airplane is based on power
often expressed in inconsistent units as
lb of fuel consumed [5.170]
SFC
(shaft bhp)(h)
Where the horsepower available is HPA pr (shaft bhp)
For level steady flight
lb of fuel consumed [5.170]
(SFC) HPR
hour
83
Jet-propelled airplane
The specific fuel consumption for a jet-propelled airplane is based on thrust
often expressed in inconsistent units as
5.15.2 Range
The smaller the number of pounds of fuel consumed per mile the longer is the
range
Propeller-driven airplane
HPR [5.170]
TR
V
Jet-propelled airplane
WS
1/2
TR 1 1 2W CD
V SCD SCD
V 2 2 VCL 2 CL1/2
[5.176]
5.15.3 Summary
Vg ds [5.177]
Graphical approach
lb of fuel consumed SFC HPR [5.180]
mile prVg
lb of fuel consumed TSFC TR [5.181]
mile Vg
SUMMARY
For steady level flight
T D [5.3]
L W [5.4]
Drag polar
CD CD,0 K C L2
[5.5]
The required thrust TR is
W
TR
L/D [5.7]
The required Power
2W 3CD2 1
PR 2/3
S CL CL / CD
3 [5.56]
95
Vmax (check for drag divergence) and Vmin (check for stall) are determined by
the intersection of TR and TA curves or PR and PA
1/2
(T / W )(W / S ) (W / S ) T / W 2 4C K
V
R R D ,0
CD ,0
[5.18]
L CL 1
D max CD max 4CD ,0 K [5.30]
CL3/2 / CD
Max occurs when
1
CD ,0 KCL2
3 [5.36]
CL3/2 / CD
The value of depends on CD,0 and K
3/4
C 1 3
3/2
1/3
L
CD max 4 C D ,0 K [5.38]
3/2
Min PR occurs when CL / CD is max
97
Max C 1/2
L / CD occurs when
The stall speed at a given altitude depends on (CL)max and wing loading W/S is:
2 W 1
Vstall
S CL max
[5.67]
Values of (CL)max can be increased by high-lift devices.
The rate of climb (R/C) is given by
TV DV excess power
V sin R / C [5.78]
W W
R/C at a given altitude depends on W/S, T/W
The glide angle is determined by
1
tan [5.125]
L/D
Absolute ceiling is the altitude where (R/C)max=0
Service ceiling is the altitude where (R/C)max=100 ft/min
99
Jets:
R
1 CL1/2
ct CD
2
S W 0 W1 [5.156]
1 L W0
E ln
Jets: ct D W1 [5.171]
max range for propellers & max endurance for jets at max L/D
max range for jets (and Carsons speed for propellers) at max CL1/2 / CD