You'll be interested in rastern these other “Bevo rditions ENGINEERING MECHANICS : St and Dynamics, 2nd Ed. init Edition) ty of New York at Buffalo. ind rigorous vectori revised edition of E G approach to ineering Mechanics single com3ined volum2. A format espzci provide ease in reading, features improvad i ynes and contains over 1,500 problems. Institute of Technology, end nia, Berkeley. computer ‘numerical procedures are interpreted physice re solved in detail to demonstrate princi Discusses many techniques used in the comp\ “DYNAMICS, NONSAP and ADINA. DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES, 2nd Ed. “4 a bY SM.A. Kazimi, Department of Applied Mechaies idteh lnstituts Technology, Delt, and B.S. Jindal, Chief Engineer, DD Wem This revised ‘examples covering aif the aspects of design have bee alongwith 350 sketches and drawings, making it spec tudy.‘This Thirteenth Indian’ 65.00 (Orginal U.S. Edition—Rs, 1945.00) FOUNDATION DESIGN by Wayne C. Teng, NTICE-HALL INTERNATIONAL, INC,, Englewood Cliffs. -HALL INTERNATIONAL INC, London. of the Bock Teay be reproduced nary fore ‘other means, without permission. in writing from 1SBN-0-87692-033-4 Thirteenth Printing wee we Fobrusry, 1992 Printed by C.D. Makhija farun Offset Printers, New Delhi-110064 and Published by Pron i of India Private Limited, M.97, . ‘This book is written primarily for two groups of men: practicing engineers who frequently or occasionally design and supervise the construction of foundations and advanced students preparing guidance. The purpose of the book io privde cena at fr 3 foundation designciples of soil mechanics is included. As a text book for the course of foundation design, some portion of Part 1 may be omitted. Parts 2 and 3 deal with common types of foundations and retaining struc- tures. All pertinent data pertaining to one type of foundations or retaining structures are presented in one chapter, and, generally, a complete design ‘procedure is itemized near the beginning of the chapter. When considered helpful to the reader, numerical examples are given which are designated thus DE 8-2, indicating Design Example 2 in Chapter 8. Although the material in this book generally covers the more commonly used foundation practice, exception has been taken in presenting the treatise on combined footings and mat foundations. In addition to the con- ventional methods of design, highly theoretical analyses are also included. ‘The reason for this is that the coaventional methods do not furnish all tho necessary information regarding the internal stresses of the footings ‘and mat foundations: The anthor is dedicating this book to his wife for her encouragement and “Assistance in prepafing this work. WAYNE c. TENG — CONTENTS PART ONE GENERAL PRINCIPLES Gioncing Properties of Sedioaury, Rost Ground Water ‘and Associated Phenomena, 2: 2-15: Example of a Soil oo Roa 0!3 soso sean carscy, ao scan = 1: Tapes of Lond 53, 3-2: Cueto of Lond, 56. 38: Settlement Cracks, 66. 3-9: Improving Bearing Ca- pacity by Compaction, 67. A sos resis 4: Baie Concepts, 73. 4.2: Earth Pesce There, 93. A132 Other Lateral Forces, 95 5 rowan oeamce ano wartaoorNe 6-1: Use of Spread Footings, 113, 6-2: Common Types of Footings, 11 DesignPART THREE RETAINING STRUCTURES 8 mus eunosnons 8-1: Une of Peg 193. 2: Types of Piles, 19, V1 seranine waus 11-1: Common Uses of Retaining Walls, 311. ‘Timber Piles, 196. 84: Precast Concrete’ Piles, 198, Principal Types of Retaining Walls, 313. SS: Castin-place Concrete Piles, 200. %-6: Componite Retaining Walls, 313. 11-4: Pro Piles, 202. 8-7: Susel Piles, 203. 8-8: Design of Pile Foundations, 209. $-9: Determination of Type and Length : Design of of Piles, 210. 8-10: Pi ‘Spac- Structural Components, 325. 11-8: Backfill Drainage, ing and ‘Strata, 332, 11-9: Settlement and Tiling of Retaining Walls, 28. 813: i Design of 333, 11-10: Construction of Retaining Walls, 334, Load, ' H1-11: Design Example, 337. les, 227. 8-18: Negative Skin Fric. Piles, 240. 8-20: Construction of 8-21: Damage, Alignment. and 12 swermune waus 13 sasceoconaoans = 13-1: Common Uses of Braced Cofferdams, 389. 13-2: Com , 390. De- ethod, 301. 10-8: Pneumatic Caissons, 303. 10-9: Box Cais, Cofte ‘s0ns (Floating Calssons), 307. 397. 13-9oer GENERAL PRINCIPLESA Profile of the Earth's Crust ene art's erst ie made of natural materials ranging from {Ref and inoberent sis to massive and hard ote Wee eta wide range there are innumerous vaicis of oon, ‘materials, each of which differs from the o Sarees. The physical properties of earth materials snc ounlered should be determined. This chapter summaring gmat Sisniicant properties involved ih the comma’ foundation practice, SOILS, ROCKS, AND SOIL MOISTURE 1-1 Components of Soils Soil contains three ‘components, namely, air, water, and solid matter: {- The air content ofa soil hgs lite engineering significance; therefore it ‘8 not commonly dette 2 The water content ¢ér moisture content) of between the weight of water and the weigh latter is equal to the weight of oven-dried soil. influences the engineering properties ofa soil. 5 Ths sold matter of «sols primarily composed of mineral aggregates (Goil grains). Tn some cases the soil also contains orpani ‘mineral aggregates are derived ftom rocks as are ‘The intergranular space which is occupied alone when saturated) I. The water sible, and pervious. The relative amous saturation which is Voids. A soil is are filled with wa the voids is defined by the degree of tio between the volume of water and the volume of turated, or at 100 per cent saturation, if all the voids4 sons, ROCKS, AND 30M MOSSTURE cur. 1 [2 Relationships between Vold Ratio, Water Content, cand Unit Weight ‘Equations relating the void ratio, water content, unit weight, and other terms are very useful because in practice it is often necessary to compute one if the others are known. These relationships can be readily detived by definition of the terms. Notations to be used inthe equations tre: ¢ = void ratio = volume of voids/volume of solid matter, expressed as 8 decimal; G = specific gravity of solid matter = 2.65 (average for common soil minerals); n = Porosity = volume of voids/total volume, expressed as a decimal; 'w = water content = weight of wates/weight of solid matter, expressed as a percentage; ¥ = volume of soil sample; V, = volume of voids in the soi sample; V, = volume of solid matter in the soil sample; 1%, = saturated unit weight of soil if water fills up all the voids; ‘Ya = dry unit weight = unit weight of oven-dried sample; Ye = unit weight of water = 1 gloc = 62:5 pef (65 pef for sea water); Yo = unit weight of solid matter = Gy,; 7, = buoyant weight, also known as effective weight, y, = y, — ye. By definition, (lela) (leiby id matter is unity, the volume of by definition, The total volume of the sample is then 1 + e, me 13 NOREERNG PROPERTES OF sous 5 The weight of the slid matter is equl to ‘the volume of the solid matter x ‘specific gravity X unit weight of water = 1 x @ x Y~ = Gyy By the same reasoning, the ‘eight of water in the sample equals ye Drywnitncibt yg te. is Saturated wit weight», SE, a6 oO =e) an Buoyant unit weight” y/ = y, — y, G-1 Tre” (1-8) ‘The properties of soils are comp! application, certain properties are mor Compressibilty: Seepage: Compaction characteristics: (Sec. 3-9)Coy ‘mt Cy sm sn ‘US. Siocon save + Ta Forefoot EE + > Pig. 2 Grain sie distribution. Toe it na are recente a ¥ TASH ‘me sec. 1 RAIN Size OF sous 7 ‘The engineering properties pertaining specifically to granular soils, co- hesive soils, silt and loess, and organic soils are discussed in Sec. 1-7 to 1-10. 1-4 Grain Size of Soils ies of grains ranging from large boulders, y,and colloids. The dividing lines between In the upper part of Fig. 1-2, the grain size classifications used by different agencies are tabulated for ready comparison, The following ranges are typical: Boulders, cobbles Greater than 3 in, Gravel « Retained on No. 4 of No. 10 sieve Sand Retained on No. 200 sieve* Silt and clay Passing No. 200 sieve* ‘The engineering properties of soil depend largely on the proportion or distribution of the various grain sizes, Soils composed entirely of sand, or larger grains, possess markedly different characteristics than those containing Sk and clay parle, Foran seas caifcaon te proportion of gin sizes should be determined by laboratory tests. Results of such generally ploted on a semilogarithmic graph as illustrated in Fig. 1-2 However, the approximate proportion of grain sizes can be estimated by the following methods: Gravel vs. sand: Graelis larger than the sizeof ead in the ordinary pencil ‘The exact differentiation of these two sizes is seldom important. ‘Sand vs, sit: Dry samples of fine sand and silt appear like dust. They may ‘be differentiated by dispersing a spoonful of sample in a glass of water and measuring the time required for grains to settle. Sand grains will setle in a matter of one-half to one minute, whereas silt grains take one-quarter to one hour. Silt vs. clay: These two soils may be differentiated by one of the follow- ‘No. 200 sieve ia about the asallest particle visible to the naked eye.8 fond, Rs, Aw son nome our. + in, diameter) if mixed with a proper amount of water. Dry strength test. A. small sil sample is thoroughly dred in $a oven ‘ot in air and tested for breaking strength. It contains no clay particles the sample breaks readily into powder. 145 Shear Strength Engineering materials may be subjected to tension, compression, shear, or to combinations of these. Soils and rocks, however, are almost never required to resist tension. A compression failure of a mass of soil or rock, in reality, is a shear failure along a certain rupture plane or zone. Therefore, the structural strength of soil and rock is basically a problem of shear strength. ‘The shear strength of a given soil or rock may be expressed by Coulomb's ‘equation: sectofmcto tng as) where s = shear strength or shear resistance, psf; ¢ = cohesion, psf; o” = intergranular pressure acting perpendicular to the shear plane, psf; = (@ =), in this case @ = total pressure, and w= pore water ‘p= angle of internal friction of the soil, degrees. In the preceding equation the first term ¢ represents the portion of shear strength which is independent of the normal stress. The second term represents the frictional resistance between soil grains which is approximately og = 4 @ cc} 7 a 6 19 Shar sgt proportional to the normal pressure, o', on the surfaces. This eq plotted by a graph shown in Fig. 1-3(a) in which the shear strength, s, strength depends solely on the internal friction between grains. + s=cto'tang. the factor of safety. ‘However, there are cases in which a decrease in shear strength takes place with time, Some of the factors that cause such decrease are: 1, Unloading. When the ground is excavated and hence the load on the underlying clay is reduced, there is a tendency for the clay to swell and slowly become soft. 2, Increase in pore pressure. in ground water condition or in seep- ater pressurein the voids (pore pressure) process is often very slow and the reduction often large. several decades the average shear strength of so [Norwegian stiff fissured clay was reduced to zero cohesior months. 1-6 Permeability10 soms, ROCKS, ANO Som MOISTURE cuar, I ‘= hydraulic gradient = hil; h being the hydraulic head; J, the + ength of sample. oy oo ie Io Schematic diagram ilustating the seepage of wale through sil ‘Tho empirical equation above is known as Darcy's law. The value of k may be determined by laboratory methods or in the field by pumping tests. For ‘ordinary foundation problems, the range of k values given by Peck, et al. (1953) may be useful. Type of soll Permeability ky emlsce Drainage quay (Clean gravel 10 to 10" Gean sands 1 Good (Glan sand and gravel nntores 10 0 10+ ‘Very fine mands 1 ‘Organic and inorganic silts, mixtures of Poor ‘und, ult and clay, glacial til stratified lay deposits 0+ Impervious soi, e., homogeneous caye below zoce of wesibering 10-7010 Very poor 1-7 Engineering Properties of Granular Soils Granular soils are sand, gravel, cobbles, or mixtures of them, Fine sand is an exception, because its engineering properties are on the borderline see. 1-7 [ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF GRANULAR sons 11 between the granular and the fine-grained soils. A granular soil has the following significant engineering properties: 1. It is generally excellent foundation material for supporting structures the best embankment material, because it has high shear strength, easy to compact, and it is not susceptible to frost detic the best backfill material for retaining walls, basemer because it exerts small lateral pressure, it is easy to compact, easy to drain. 4, It cannot be used alone in earth embankment for dikes, reservoirs, etc., it are largely influenced by the following factors: compactness, gain sie and rain size distribution, are most intimately related to the compactness described as loose, medium (firm), or dense (compact). Quant ‘compactness is expressed in terms.sf relative density: dye ton 2 56 109 on = ea DoulD ~ Dau) t Dy = Pat = Das). 1 . DiDaus = Dai) where D, = relative density expressed in per cent, void ratio in loosest state, fain = void ratio in most compact state, fe D = incplace dry density. ‘The compactness of a man-made fill is commonly expressed in terms of ‘maximum unit weight under -place unit weight is equal Per cent of the maximum weight obtained in the laboratory, the fills said to42. soMS, ROCKS, AND SOM MOISTURE our. 1 the so-called standard pene consists of counting the nu shown in Table Teble Il nELArive DENSITY OF GRANULAR Som ) Compociness Very loose Looe Medium Dense_—_Very dense ooo Relative density Dg 0 Bx By 6% sy 100%, Standard peoetra- 0 4 10 0 30 tion resistance, N=n0. of blows per foot # (egreesy* Bw 4 Unit weight, pol ‘moist 10 submerned =o |s565 | «70 315 eatifcation in reinforcing ‘eld rod can be ‘pushed into soll feveral fet De for granular sol containing more than 5 percent fine sand and silt. p= 304015 D, standard penetration resistance NV change only slightly upon saturation, Ai wc. 18 ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF CoMESIVE sons 13 B. Grain size and strength of granular shearing force the Is wedge against each other. are said to be well-graded, pending wp the rine da ings being equal, the shear Poorly-graded (or uniform): Containing predominantly one or two sizes. Gap-graded: Containing coarse grains and fine grains but lacking inter- mediate sizes. Ina well-graded soil the small grains tend to fil the voids between the large rains, therefore the soil is generally more compact and stable, and less ‘permeable. CC. Shapes of grains. The shapes of sand and gravel grains can be examined bby naked eye or with the aid angular, subangulas, subrout illustrates these general shapes. ‘grains have g-values several degrees larger than ones contait Subanguor ery rode frets Grin dap of ued and pr 1-8 Engineering Properties of Cohesive Sols14 sos, noces, 2 son, worsens omar. 1 6: I shrinks upon drying and expand upon wetting, Seasonal changes is very poor materia for baci because oflare lateral pressure. tis poor material for embankment because it has low shear strength and is more dificult to compact. 9. Ivis practically impervious, 10, Clay slopes are prone to landslide, - For a given job, where cohesive soils are encountered, the following properties should be determined: should be used. The penetration test, however, shold always be made as a sguide and in comparison with the unconfined compression tests. Toble 1-2. suman easvors oF coxesve sous Unit weight, void ratio, and water content Shear strength Consistency Very aft Soft Medlum— Sui Very sf Hard Plastic | oor or or — | u= confined 0 0250) 10200400 Compreesibiity | ‘compression Sensitivity ) | strength, tons welling ware ft Sweling properties ; Sundar peretae 0 > 4 § 6 2m To adequately define the important engineering properties of a given Mon esse, cohesive sol all the items above should be inciuded. ‘An example is given | re } sit weit pot too-20 [110130 | 120-140 10+ aly af cg: Ye = 125 pot | (caturated). | | w = 25.5 per cent — ecitenion Eras lind Molded Inteted nde, ‘oconfined compresive strength, 416 s0Hs, ROCKS, AND SOrL MOISTURE the liguld limit of the sol; that from plastic state to laste limit ofthe sol. Liquid limit and plastic li Poche Atterberg limits. The meaning of these limits are illustrated diagrain- matically as follows: alloid state Higuid state 5 big tnt LL) Plastic state Plasticity index, PI = LL ~ PL — Plastic limit PL) + Sold state Since the soil changes from one state to the other gradually, there is sharp demarcation or abrupt change as the definitions may imply. There these limits are arbitrarily defined by certain test procedures, Sec. 2-15. ‘The difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit is called the index (Pl). The plasticity index represents the range of water in which the soil remains plastic. A plastic soil has a large value of ‘general, the plasticity index represents the relative amount of clay jected to compression, f the soil. The voids in fine-grained soils are very small, / Consequently, the process of compression continues ‘often many years. This slow process of compres ‘As opposed to the compression of granular soils, cohesive soil Tong time to consolidate. The total compression due to con: considerably larger than that caused by other factors and, hence, must be ‘The amount of compressior the compression index, C_ and other f “. where $= total compression of a tional pressure 4p; ¢y is the original void ratio of the soil and py the existing a mec. 18 [ENOMEERING PROPERTIES OF CoMEsIvE sons 17 soil pressure For further discussion and a numerical example of this ‘equation see See. 3-5. "The value of C,of a givensoil maybe determined tion test. For the purpose of approximate caleulation, relations may be used for plastic normally consolidate C, = 0.009 (LL — 10) where LL = liquid limit of the soil expressed in percentage not in. eek, et al, 1953) oF boratory consolida- llowing empirical ~027 often loses a portion of its shear strength strength loss due to thorough disturbance ‘An undisturbed sample and a remolded unconfined compression tests. The ratio sensitivity = >8 => 16 greater than 100, periphery of newly not subjected disturbance, howe will be relatively short tim E, Expansion and shrinkage. Some clays exhibit large volume changes: ‘Where damages due il samples should be18 9008, ROCKS, AND son. MotsTUnE cnn. ‘ested to determine the shrinkage limit, free swelling, and swelling pressure. ‘Asq wet cobesive sol is dried out, the volume of the soil decreases with the ‘decreasing Water content, At a certain water content, however, the volume does not decrease upon further drying, and this water content is known as ‘the shrinkage limit of the soil. The amount of expansion (or free swelling) is determined by admitting water to the soil sample and measuring the volume increase. Usually the measurement is made on a sample which is laterally ‘confined and subjected to a normal pressure of 1.0 psi. Ifa normal pressure is applied to prevent expansion of the soil, this pressure is known as swelling pressure. Swelling pressures measured on some expansive clays exceed 10 tons per square foot. Foundations on expansive clays often require unusual designs based on intelligent interpretation of skillfully conducted laboratory tests, sound ‘engineering judgement, and local experience. Some local experiences have been reported in technical publications (e.g, Baracos and Bazozuk, 1957; ‘Salas and Serratosa, 1957). 1-9 Engineering Properties of Sitt and Loess A. Silt is material with grain size passing No. 200 sieve but possesses no cohesion and plasticity. Its engineering properties are essentially those of fine sand. Because of the fine particle size, this soil has the following un- desirable characteristics: 1. Low shear strength immediately after load application, 2. High capillarity and frost susceptibility, 3. Low permeability, 4. Low relative density-difficult to compact. Furthermore, it is diffcult to simulate test data on silts which would correspond to the field conditions. For medium to large jobs where founda- tions must be supported on silt deposits, the engineering properties should be determined by adequate laboratory ield tests conducted by Specialists, For advanced study, reference is made to a report by K. Akai 1960). commonly a loose deposit with dry unit weight as low as 65 pef. Bec: use of the presence of cementing ‘exhibits moderate to high bearing cay me. LL ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF ROCKS 19 2. It subsides upon saturation due to loss of cementation. Structures »ported on loess should be guarded against such danger. is capable of standing on nearly vertical bank. cementation is destroyed by innundation or redeposition, the is called modified loess which has all characteristics of silt. 1-10 Engineering Properties of Organic Soils Jina very small percentage (up to 100 per cent) organic Generally a relatively small percentage (as low as 2 per ceat in some cases) will contribute sufficient undesirable characteristics. In some special applications (e.g. soil-cement), only a fraction of one per cent may lesirable, derived principally from terrain consisting of swamp, bog, or other peat deposits. Soils containing high organic matter will, evidently, have the following undesirable characteristics: preferably not be used to support founda- I-11 Engineering Properties of Rocks Engineers refer to the rock formation at some depth beneath a mantle of soil as bedrock, and the soil above the bedrock as overburden. In common420 poms, ROCKS, AND SOM, MONETURE cur. 1 | (oundation practice, the properties of bedrock fall into the problem of "bearing capacity and permeability. + As Factorn affecting the engineering properties of rocks. “A, Mineral consents: Rocks sre made of one ot more minerals, ach nding foes, Rooks Soutng o sof sd weak nals hae ow ‘bearing capacity. "2 Texture and structure: The texture of a rock is described as coarse- ‘mained and fine-grained. The structure may be massive, dense, porous, " or visecular (full of holes). The structure of an igneous rock may be columnal; limestone may be cavernous. 4. Joints, bedding planes, and foliations: Joints exist in every type of rock. weakly comented rock may lose pat oral ofits cementation, sc. 1-12 ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF IONEOUS AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS 71 3B. Bearing capac of rocks. The bearing cpactis of of rocks are often Samples for22 sons, ROCKS, AND Som. MoKSTURE cua. tes ate exceptions to the statement above. In the engineering sense, how- Syer they are not considered as rocks. samples are sawed sec. 28 ‘THINSWALLED Tune (SHELBY TUBE) SAMPLING 4 into short lengths, not longer than 6 in, The samples are ¢j tubes and subjected to unconfined compression tests, Atte frequent intervals for the full depth, The is used hand in hand with the unconfined compression data, However, the latter is considered more reliable, through hole in piston rod. After Engineering Record, April 24, 1952. ty develope: Fig. id by Oster Qn. sampl les whereas the open sampler fails to do so, and (2) the sample bed. ~42 son EXeLORATION aue.2 29 Vone Test A vane tester consists of a pair of shaft, Fig. 24. The tester is pushed ides connected to torque 7 required to shear the soil along the cylindrical surface with diameter d and height h is (Skempton,1950) ” it rool +3) where ¢ = cohesion of clay. Fie.24 Vane tester, This testis most usefal in determining the in-place shear strength of soft i ich lose a large part of their sampling operation. It is unsuitable for stiff and hard clays and for clays containing gravel pieces. Another disadvantage of this test is that it does not take soil samples for vvisuel and other examinations and tests, 2-10 Number of Borings Table 2-3 may be used as a guide in planning the preliminary exploration Program. As a few borings (usually deeper ones) are completed, the prelimi- ‘ary program should be adjusted to suit the subsoil condition, A sufficient Teble 2.3. cucossren sunran oF nomINos Distance berween borings (f0) Horizont! satiation of soil Minivwm no. of —————— "borings each Uniform Average Braile structure 0 10 4 2m «1 50. 3 1S L-2 foreach foundation wnt 1000500100 Barrow pits (for compacted ff) 1000-500 $00-200 100-50 number of soil borings should be taken so th with reasonable accuracy to serve as the basis soil is extremely erratic, there is no need to necessary to ascertain this fact. see, 212 ‘onouND WareR sezasuneMENT 43 2-11 Depths of Borings Highways and airfields. Minimum depth of borings is 5 ft but should extend betow organic soil, muck, artificial fill, or compressible layers such as soft clays and silts, Retaining walls and quay walls. |, or any compressible layer; sand Embankments and cuts. 1. Below organic 2. Deeper than possi 3. Equal to the , oF any compressible layer; surface of sliding; and t bottom of cuts. and the type of 1. If no preliminary soi it and determine the number and depths of should be carried to: , muck, artifical fill, (Footings, piles, cass ° (6 Suficiently det for chetking the pos greater depth, which may settle under the sustained load. 2-12 Ground Water Measurement jets and a steel lowered to the hole for measur- ing the watecur, 2 consecutive time intervals. The final water level may be estimated by the method shown in Fig, 2-5. (0 Dotermie ise o et ot eae or lowering. The true water level is one that lies between a rising. and a lowering level. sestioed cap 3. In more impermeable soils, an observation pipe (piezometer) with ventilated cap or with a special pressure £i.2-4 Piezometer fo observing ground water level. After Hvorsev, 1989 1 vertical scale is usually made rings along the profile are borings drawn to a con- a ee es es profile,Ab Som, EXPLORATION cuar. 2 The reliability ofa geologic profile as compared tothe actual soil condition depends upon the nature ofthe ground andthe spacing of the borings. W the compression strength, etc, are indicated on the profile, as shown in Fig. 2-7. 2-14 Common Soil Tests Standard methods for testing soils for engineering purposes have been ‘established by the American Society for Testing and Materials and the of State Highway Officials. They are included in the Procedures for Testing Sols (ASTM, 19 Highway Materials (A. 1s standard procediires but which reflect the current development. ‘The basic concepts of the more common tests are presented below. For more detailed discussion, see ASTM and AASHO standards and the Laboratory manual by Dawson (1960). = assumption tall grains are spherical. ‘conmon sou tests 47 smple is determined by sn under controlled temperature. Liquid limit. The liquid the water content at the boundary The standard equipment for liquid s recorded. The liquis close the + in groove. secured by means of a in a manner similat iype of unconfined compression mact inducted by means of a shear box mp! and the 5: es, The amountsec, 215 [EXAMPLE OF A SOUL EXPLORATION PROGRAM 49) dial micrometer, Fig. 2-8(4). The results of this test are plotted in the form of e-p of e-log p graphs, p being the consolidation pressure and e being the corresponding Void ratio ofthe soil Sec. Compaction test. The pur determine the moisture densi when compacted in a mold dropping a given height, Several alternative procedures = Bic each conepondng to a eats §] nnn compactve efor. f Sovral samples ofa scare prepared F ‘at different water contents. Each sample © S compacted secrding tothe specied & morro procedures. The unit dry weight and the Optimum in % ory wot Pacreonatofeach compacted sample Sat lire determined, and the results are plot Fig. 24 Moisture-densty relationship. ted in a graph similar to that shown Fig. 29. This relationship is very useful in controling artificially compacted fills (Sec. 39). 2-15 Example of o Soil Exploration Program co completely unkno of planning the soil exp no hard and fast rule for planning these programs. Any program Should be adjusted as soon as part of the boring and test is done. ing discussion and Design Example 2 illustrate @ common case of soil forced concrete floors were ture with an intention of ted to heavy equipment50 sort EXPLORATION Fines Haute the lea! people and discovered that basements of the hhouses had been flooded during heavy rains due to the water back: the floor drains. Since some of the houses in the ‘appears probable that the subsoil was capable of supporting large foundation pressure. samples and standard penetration tests were required through= tion, thin-walled tube samples were required for of spread footings and the allowable ‘of the exploration indicates the samples should be added. To preclude the possibility of inadequate design due to a compressible layer at greater depth and to provide information for comparison between shallow spread footings versus deep foundations, two deep borings were take 5 ft core samples from the bedrock. It was generally, area thatthe bedrock was sound and competent for supporting, hneavy foundation load, Should these two core borings indicate large difference rocks elevation, additional core samples may be desirable, ht the proposed basement would not require exesive cone ided that and immediately below the ba: for measuring ground water LL OEE Sei Eibrn ® SOT Sai Sins a: al cs \ 3 || Feet I & “ iS &. Bll owe #1 "oe (88 i 3 oy [| d ie 6 A aa on a HE-7'4 be agg 02 te) m. Taylor St. Plan of Soil Borings ‘ing operations shall be done under the supervision of engineer Depth of borings DH2, DH3, DH4, = 25' each, ‘DH and DHS = 5" into bedrock Type of sampling. One Shelby tube sample from each strat ‘Stiff clays in borings DH and DHS. Standard pene of borings a Stondord penetration metpod 2" 0 LD. split spoon driven by 14018 falling '30™ One sample from each soil stratum but nat farther apart thon 5" intervals. Preserve one jor sample for each stratum, seal jars with paratin ond submit them to engineer ‘Shelby tube somples. 2" diometer seamless 16 goge steel t ‘cutting edge to be pushed into clay. Seal both ends wit them to 0 designated soils lab. for ‘Noturo! moisture conten, liquid i Core borings. Standard diamond drill method to obtain continuous core samples in off rocks, use split spoon to obtain sample as much os practicable Ground woter levels, Use casing if W level 241 after completion of each boring 2) in 1 bore hole and dewa och sure the water the te 9. The true water lv 8) In clBuilding Cracks Caused by’ Excessive Foundation Settlement this chapter. 3 LOADS, BEARING CAPACITY, AND SETTLEMENT 31 Types of Loads A structure may be subjected to a combination of some oF all of the following loads and forces. Dead load includes the weight of the structure and a attached to it, such as Permanent and fixed electric feeders, ‘usually considered as part of the dead load, supported by elements of the structure rial permanently and fireproofing. ads that are not a permanent part of the expected to superimpose on the structure during a part or life. Vertical loads due to wind or snow are not considered as The values listed in the American Standard Building Code Reguirements For Minimane Design Loads in Buildings and Other Siracares (New York: American Si represent the most current data and should be consulted in establishingSA LoADe, meaniNo CAPACTTY, AND SETTLEMENT owe. 3 traffic must be designed to suit each specific truck loading. Reaction from adustral cranes sometimes consttutes-a large portion ofthe live load. ‘The live loads due to human occupancy including furniture and appliances ‘are often reduced for the design of long girders, columns and foundations. ‘The amouat of reduction varies floor area and number of floors. At any given time a large area is to be subjected to the full load stipu- lated in the codes. ‘highly improbable that every floor int multi- story building will ull load at the same time. In each case, the local uilding codes should be consulted regarding the permissible reduction in live load. It is generally considered unnecessary to add the impact effect to the foundation loads unless they are transmitted directly to the foundation. ‘Wind loed acts om all exposed surfaces of structure. Overhanging parts are subjected to uplift pressure. The magnitude of design pressure is usually stipulated in local building codes." ‘Soow load acts on ordinary roofs, ither flat, pitched, or curved. The design load per square foot of horizontal projection of the roof is given in local building codes.* Earth pressure is a lateral force acting permanently against the portion of substructure below ground surface. It should be treated.as a basic load, similar to dead load. The calculation of earth pressure against basement In the cases where the grou - siderably higher than the other side, the stability of the structure due to ‘unbalanced earth pressure should be analyzed. The principle of analysis is very similar to that of retaining walls. ‘Water pressure may act laterally against basement walls and vertically ‘against base slabs. Considering the substructure as a whole, the lateral ut the hydrostatic upii ite may be dewatered to a I load. such that the 1 are also subjected 10 forces due to current flow, ice floe, . See Chapter 4 for discussion. ‘In the absence of such information, consult the American Standards Assocation, work cited, ‘Tvmts oF Loans 55 id undergoes readjustments from sudden movements known as, The readjustments structure constrvet (inertia force) due to this motion. This in any horizontal di in accordance with Building Officials, 1961 Uniform Building Code (International Conference of Vm ZKCW M=JBF hy where V = base shear or the total lateral force at the base of the structure. ‘M = base moment or the overturning moment at the base of the structure, Z = coeficient depending on the severity of earthquake;* = 0 for Zone No. 0, = 4 for Zone No. 1, = } for Zone No. 2, considered. The value of ted by technical data. In the load (including 25 per cent of the floor live load in ge and warehouse occupancies), * See Earthquake Zones Map and accompanying Maps of Continental US.A. atthe end of this book156 LOADS, BEARING CAPACITY, AND SETTLEMENT cor, 3 J= 05)4/7%, The required value of J should be not less than 0.33, nor more than 1.00. ‘Fy « lateral forces applied toa level designated as x, as computed by the following formula: Wah f= vile * Wh - where W, = the portion of dead load which ux hz = height in feet above the base to the level designated as x. ‘The total base shear is assumed to distribute to the various resisting elements in proportion to their rigidities considering the rigidity of the horizontal bracing system as well as the rigidities of the vertical resisting elements. “Horizontal torsional moments due to an ect mass and the cener of rigidity should be taken ito consideration. Tndividual pile or caisson footings of every structure should be inter- connected by tes. Each te should be designed to carry a horizontal tension Sreompresson equal to 10 percent of the larger pile cap (or caisson) loading, located at the level designated iy between the center of 32 Calculation of Loads ‘Total loads acting on the foundation are calculated in three categories: 1. Normal load = dead load + snow load + live load (after reduction according to building codes) + vertical reaction due to pressure* — buoyancy (if below permanent ground water and {snot lowered by subdrains). Traffic load is considered in the live load group. computed by tributary ‘area method, carries all the Toad in & floor area which is enclosed by points at equal distance between adjacent columns. This assumption is considered sufficiently accurate for ordinary building frames. If long cantilevers, exceptionally unequal or other unusual framings are used, a more accura Toad due to crane = buoyancy In earthquake zones the force se that due to wind. This unbalanced earth pressure, (below high water level or 1g from earthquake motion should «+ For example, vertical reaction against the bottom of a retaining wall due to lateral earth pressure. sec. 33 eARING caPacrry 57 assumes that the maximum wind pressure and the maximum earthquake ‘motion do not occur simultaneously. 43. Horizontal load = wind pressure + horizontal force from traveling crane, etc. + unbalanced earth pressure. In earthquake zones, forces arising ctor. The relative amount of nds on the method of framing. horizontal load carried by each c 3-3 Bearing Capacity ‘The conventional method of foundation design is based on the concept of bearing capacity, of allowable bearing pressure, of the soil. The bearing capacity is defined as the load or pressure developed under the foundation ‘without introducing damaging movements in the foundation and in the superstructure supported on the foun movements ‘may result from foundation failure (collapse) as well as from excessive settlement, the following criteria must always be used in evaluating the bearing capaci 1. Adequate factor of safety agait 2. Adequate margin against excessive settlements. ‘Although failures or collapses of foundation have been reported from ions arises from and careful factor of safety of not less than 2 should be used for the maximum to be expected, ‘Theories of bearing capacity are developed on the p used by Terzaghi in his classical work on shi extended by Meyerhof to deep foundations, foundations on slope, and loads. The validity of spiral “The spiral surface reduces to a s =o) Terzaghi bearing158 LOADS, BEARING CAPACITY, AND SETTLEMENT ccuar. 3 Movement i resisted by the weight of the sol in the sliding wedges aede and ode and by the shear resistance of the soil along the slip surfaces ede. For ech set of assumed slip surfaces we can compute the corresponding load Q aasgtet | apa ewe Sagoo x “% o ‘ig. 31 Terzaghi bearing capacity theory: (2) ‘capacity factors in Eqs. a) and G-1b), p surface; (b) bearing that is necescary to cause the failure. The set of true slip surfaces is one that has the least resistance or requires smallest load Q. Terzaghi has expressed the bearing capacity values in the following general approximate equations (Terzaghi, 1942; Meyerhof, 1951). Continuous footings: Gn = g. CN, + yDN, + 05yBN, Gta) Square end circular footings: Qa 2 = 13eN, + yDN, + 0.6yBN, Gb) where guy = ultimate bearing capacity, psf Q = ultimate bearing capaci A = area of footing, sq ft; ¢ = cohesion of soil, p y= moist unit weight of soil if above the wate level; 500,33 BEARING CAPAcTIY 59 = buoyant weight (submerged unit weight) if below the water level D = depth of foundation measuring from low side of the ground surface to bottom of footing; B = width of footing (for rectangular footing B = the smaller side, for circular footing B = diameter); No,Nq Ny, = Terzaghi’s bearing capacity factors, see Fig. Research has extended Terzaghi bearing pressure formula: effect of the shape and the depth of footing as well as th (Hansen, J, Brinch, 1957). + yonfi+028) (12012) (1-238) aa limitations: BSL, D<15B, and H< Vtang For cohesive soils: ($ = 0): va S(t 4024) (1 4022)(1-138) 47> om limitations: B SL, ,- S 25B and H 3 04P ‘where qq = ultimateearing capacity = V/BL, psf; 1 = unit weight of soil, pet: BL = width x length of footing, ft; H, V = horizontal and vertical components of the load acting on the footing, Ib D = depth of footing measuring from ground surface to bottom of footing, ft the case of saturated clays loaded quickly. However, this method is extremely inaccurate for pure granular soils.62 LOADS, BEARING CAPACTTY, AND SETTLESOENT cue, 3 4, = consolidation pressure = net additional pressure, coefficient depending upon the percentage of con- Fig. 33). 1 time required to reach a certain percentage of consol percentage of consolidation is the ratio of the am: pression at a certain time during the process of consolidation to the total calculated compression S, G, = coelicient of consolidation to be determined from the results of ‘the consolidation tests. Fig. 23 Time factor as 4 © function of percentage of consolidation. and records can be of great value to practicing engineers these cities. 3-6 Differential Settlement ‘Theoretically speaking, no damage will be done uniformly asa whole regardless of how large the set wee. 36 damage would be stand different degrees of and prefabricated curtai ‘masonry. Differential settlement between foundations are causes. Soil characte if soil deposit. The actual wal bony tae dp iui uo aout tcequrers ft = rierofplce °y Ame mesma tena n) on nd iti als r Sooitaee ti } Warchouses Special machinery foundations ‘As required by manufacturer (eften Jess than 0.02 in.) Based on the same reasoning, the 1955 U.S.S.R. Building Code permits 4 Settlement of perfect ‘exible foundation.GA LOADS, BEARING CAPACITY, AND SETTLEMENT cuar. 3 Tobe 34 Pomassite serruman-1955 Us... puTLDONa CooE* hen Kind of building and typeof foundation Average settlement (er) fe 1, Buildings with plain brick walle on contiouous and separate foundations withthe wall length. tothe wall bight M (H counted from the foundation footing) L L 8 £ es Ges Esis a 2 Buildings with brick walls, reinforced with reinforced concrete or reinforced brick belts (not depending on the ratio of 1H) is 3. Framed buildings 10 4 Solid reinforced concrete foundations of blast furnaces, smoke stacks, silo, wate tower, ee. Py estimate the actual average settlement if the settlement is calculated by assuming either a perfectly rigid or a perfectly flexible founda- s tion, } Although itis often sufficient to design the id foundation for the permissible total settle- u { ment, an understanding of the nature of Lenatviniatwon inn dilerential settlement is helpful, and occa- Fi.24 Permisible diterentil tellement of rickwal After Polhin and Tokar, 1957 ate ot terri Soe led by the hi ‘The maximum differen Building Code are shown in Table 3-3 * From Polshin and Tokar, sec. 37 ‘CALCULATION OF LOADS FOR SETTLEMENT ANALYSIS 65 3-7 Calculation of Loads for Settlement Analysis Teble 32. MaxanoM DIFFERENTIAL SEITLIMENT PERMUTED BY USER. BUILDING CObE* Subst fem Description of standard vole Ne. ‘Sond and Plastic hard clay 1, Slope of crane way a5 well as tacks for bridge crane truck 0.003 0.003, 2. Difference in settlement of civil and industil building oot 002 0007E — o0oe cose 0008s 3. Relative defection of plain brik walls: ) for muitestory dwellings and ‘0.0003 0.0004 ‘0.0005 0.0007 ~66 LOADS, BEARING CAPACITY, AND SETTLEMENT expected to occur at a reasonable to reduce the diffe Dead load + Maximum live load Allowable bearing pressure Dead load + Maximum live load Allowable bearing capacity of pile A= N= 2. Compute for this same column the design bearing value: Service load Service load 4 ua Service load % Bearing area, or number of piles = 3.8 Settlement Cracks | 2 the judgement of best informed eagiesrs: In cases, whe 20.3.9 IMPROVING BEARENG CAPACITY BY COMPACTION 67 A} GaN w & Fig. 25 Diagrammatic sketches showing the relationship between the nature of diferentie settlement and cracks, should be analysed, Fig. 3-6. In extreme cases an expansi necessary at the boundary of the different foundatic ‘ment and hence are extended to the edge of the w. types of cracks may be irregular or may terminate be of the wall, Fig. 3-7. 3-9 Improving Bearing Capacity by Compaction Compaction may be utilized to improve the bearing capacity of natural ‘soil deposits or man-made fills.68 LOADS, mEARINO CAPACITY, AND SETTLING cour. 3 1, When soft or loose soil deposits are encountered, the deposits may be removed and replaced by a new compacted fill or may be compacted by various in-place compaction methods. Some of the more common methods ae: Flooding. Only very loose sand can be affected by flooding-with water, ‘The degree of compaction is very limited. Vibration, Heavy vibratory rollers and compactors may compact a layer of granular soils to a depth of several feet. Vibroflotation. A commercial method which combines the effect of vibration and jetting. A heavy cylinder, known as vibroior,is inserted in the ‘ground while the cylinder vibrates due to a rotary eccentric weight. A water Jet on the tip ofthe vibroflot supplies a large amount of water under pressure. ‘As the vibroflot sinks, clean sand is added into a crater that develops on the surface. (D’Appolonia, etal, 5.) water out (consolidation) from the voids amount of consolidation can be determined by laboratory test. To compact by preloading the ground is loaded with earth fil. The load is removed when. the desired percentage of consolidation is reached. ‘Sand drains, To accelerate the consolidation process, vertical sand drains may be installed at uniform spacing (Christie, 1955). Holes of 12 ia. or ‘greater diameter are bored and are filled with clean sand. The top of these drains are interconnected by sand trenches or blanket, Fig. 3-8. Sartore compensate Bates Etoniment Fie Monet bien doe percentage of compaction. Representative samples of the soil are tested in the laboratory to determine its maximum dry density under a specific compaction mc. 3.9 IMPROVING BEARING CAPACTTY BY COMPACTION 69 Procedure (Sec. 2-14). The maximum dry density, say 110 pcf, is used as a basis for comparison. If the same soil is compacted in the field to a dry optimum water content for a given soil. Therefore, when specifying the percentage of compaction, itis necessary to state the laboratory procedtre tg be used. Generally 95 per cent to 100 per cent compaction is specified for fils supporting foundations and floor slabs. In areas where settlement is of ‘ess cmmportance, such es landscaped areas, 90 per ceat compaction may suffice. ‘The percentage of compaction is a convenient, relative measure of the Compactness, not & quantitative measure of the shear strength of any soil, although for a given soil the shear strength generally increases with the Percentage of compaction. Obviously the propertcs are practically identical is compacted to the same percent ‘compaction at the same water content, set Compaction of earth fill is accomplished by spreading fill materials at a moisture near the optimum water content, Fig. 2-9. Ifthe sol taken from the borrow pit is too dry, ‘fiitonal water can be provided by sprinkling and 1. Rollers compact the soil by the between the rollers and the soil. is mainly a steel drum filled with water or san may be towed by a tractor or © Sheepsfoot roller has series of tampit ‘and compact them by the high foot pressure. (© Gri rts an ope al covered with ao cing of te, The id cn breakup hd ehks of sol uadcmae ee70 LOADS, BEARING CAPACITY, AND SETTLEMENT cone. 3 (© Sexmented whee! roller is self-propelled and compact clays with the tamping action of the feet. +. Mechanical tamper is wed to compact soils in areas inaccessible to the | lage les or where the heavy rollers are prohibited to avoid damage tothe Uebel or underlying sutures and ulits. Tampers are powered by aeresed ai, gasoline, or electricity, and vary in weight front about 30 to several thousand pounds. +3 Vithatory compactor is a cylindrical roller whose Gompactive effort is snp by vibrating weight within the rller drum. The weight revolves at spit speed powered by a gasoline engine mounted on the unit. This {ype of rollers very effective in compacting granular soils. 44. Barth moring equipment may be used for compaction purposes but is ot considered very satisfactory.4 LATERAL PRESSURES Al Baste Concepts ion of the earth pressure ya depends largely upon the Motion of Sand Grains at the State of Failure: (eft retaining wal is perm the soll (active pressure): ‘forced to move against the soll (passe pressure) in this cate Substructures and foundations, such as retaining walls and If the retaining structure is permitted to move away from the soil allowing ‘basement walls, are subjected to Tateral pressure where the a lateral expansion of the sol, the earth pressure deereases withthe increasing ground level on one side differs from the ground level on the jon. Further expansion will cause & shear failure of the ther side, Lateral pressure can also be caused by vertical and downward, Fig. 41 Toading (surcharge) applied adjacent to the substructure. The tthe minimum val ‘magnitude of such lateral pressure depends largely upon the characteristics ofthe soil and the type of structure. ‘This pressure must be calculated with sufficient accuracy in coder to achieve the most economical design with an appro- | priate margin of safety. In addition, substructures and foundations may be subjected ‘to lateral pressures resulting from unbalanced water head, ice thrust, earthquake motion, and other external forees such a8 impact and mooring pull from vessels on water front structures. 1g wedge is formed, Fig. 4-1(b). This wedge s backwards and upwards with respect to its original position. At this state of failure the earth pressure is at a maximum value‘ig. 41 (a) Active pressure; (¢) passive pressure. known as passive earth pressure or passive resistance. After this stage, no greater force is required to introduce further movement of the wedge. ‘The amount of movement of the retaining structure is sometimes called the yield, The relationship between the yield and the magnitude of earth pressure of sand is shown in iF 4-2. In this figure, the unit earth pressure it the late Pip 42 Influence of wall movement on intensity of is the minimum value to which a given structure will be subjected, It can be pile wall which is anchor embedded in the soil. The l due to lateral deflection of tf - [B, Wall friction and adhesion, med to consist of two parts, namely: 5, =e + otand where s, = shearing resistance along the back of wall, ‘concurs76 LATERAL PResoUREs ¢_ = adhesion between the soil and the wall, 8 = angle of wall friction, © = component of earth pressure normal to back of wall, For design purposes the follow = € (Cohesion of 8 = 30° steel ple coa = 20° concrete or brick walls, ‘= 15° uncoated steel sheet pile, = O° if the wall tends to move downward together with the soil, = OF shectpiting with small penetration or penetrated in soft or loose soil, = 0° if backfill is subjected to vibration. C. Hydrostatic pressure. When a part or the entire depth of soil behind the retaining structure is submerged, the lateral pressure is considered to comprise of two components: one due to the hydrostatic pressure and the ‘other due to the buoyant weight of soil. The buoyant weight of soil below Water level is equal to the weight of soil particles in the atmosphere minus the weight of water displaced by these particles.’ The combined pressure is shown, in Fig. 44, A “| “by naa If the water level is equal on both sides of the ‘retaining structure, the net hydrostatic pressure is zero, of course. 42 Earth Pressure Theories Earth pressure theories may be classified into four categories: 1. The theory of elasticity which is commonly used to calculate the vertical ‘and lateral pressures within a mass of soil due to su loads; 2. The theory of plasticity which was utilized in the Rankine theory; 3. The wedge theory which was frst developed by Coulomb and later extended to more general conditions; sc. 43 RaNKINe THEORY 77 4, Empirical rules which have been derived for the design of highly indeterminate substructures such as anchored sheet piles and open cut bracings. 43 Rankine Theory Rankine theory deals with earth pressure within a soil mass under the following conditio (horizontal or sloping surface). led Ran} rupture surfaces interrupted by the back of retaining wall or re surfaces will bea series of straight lines making an angle i with the horizontal: Active earth pressure: gf "im 45 4% ao ? @) Paste cath presses = 45-8 ‘When the state above exists, the soil is said to be in the Rankine state, and the Rankine theory is applicable: Pa = 9K, — 2K, 42) Pp = 9K, + 2K, ay where p, and p, = unit active and passive earth pressure, respectively, at a depth Z; q = vertical pressure or load due to the weight of soil above submerged weight for the portion below ground I; € = cohesive strength of the soil; K, and K, = coefficient of active and passive earth pressure, respec- tively. ~weno: misony 81 sc. 44 Toble 41 wanrt prsssune Courncins,* Ke “055 ia 050 om 18 we os 163 8s 4 a4 oe 2 3s readily determined by graphical method as shown in Fig. 476). woe oe ‘51 For every assumed position of sliding surface there is a corresponding ae a8 possible to determine the most “ ” critical surface of sliding ¢f which requires the largest value of P,. This value We 04 "isthe active earth pressure. A number of short-cut methods have been © M8 developed and discussed in textbooks on soil mechanics. ‘Although the illustration above is made for active earth pressure, it cam be woo applied to the case of passive earth pressure. The only difference is that the icc moves straight line but a logarit line. The equation for the som Chil and Sica Design (IVA Pri) bo rare t ¢ = angle of internal friction.where p, and p, ~ active and passive earth p 1 = usit weight of soil, p = angle of internal friction, Bare Passsunes aur. 4 where Pand 0 = variable in the polar coordinate system, line whereas the siding surface for pasive earth cannot be approximated by a straight line alone, alues of K, computed by the wedge theory assuming ugh seldom justified in pes the values of X, should be determined by the general wedge theory assuming spiral surface of rupture. ‘The general wedge theory is most useful in engineering practice because it is applicable to any configuration of ground surface and any slope of the back of wall. In cantilever walls where surface of rupture ab according to Rankine theory is interrupted, Fig. 49, the earth pressure acting on the line ‘ac connecting the heel and the top of the wal is determined instead. In all ‘cases, the direction of the earth pressure must be assumed before the wedge theory can be started, ‘The wedge theory gives the total lateral earth pressure but docs not directly furnish the information concerning the distribution of the pressure, respectively. From these values, the stepped fashion as shown in Fig, 4-10. Ifthe ground surface is plane and the soil is granular (c = 0), the following ‘equations may be derived from the wedge theory assuming plane surface of sliding: alte al pressure may be dist cost (pF = «s cost 8 eon 0 8) [1 Content of pout aa pence o ig. 48 Passive earth prssore; ssight line vreus apical surface of en Fig. 410 Approximate pressure distibution (wedge theon). re 61 Meo eta 49, ~‘2c. 4-6 DETERMINATION OF SOUL PROPERTIES FOR EARTH PRESSURE COMPUTATION 85 ‘Often some of the trial wedges can be made in equal dimensions to reduce the computation work. The student may follow the example readily by referring to the discussion at the beginning of Sec. 44. After the lateral pressure Py, Py... are determined for five trial wedges, the maximum value is obtained by drawing a line parallel to the line con- necting the points of intersection between C, and Py, Py, etc. This value, 81, isthe active earth pressure whose magnitude is scaled off from the force are listed. Several trial wedges, afl, af2, .. are drawn, The weight of each pobgoa. of these wedges is computed by scaling off the dimensions from the profile. GewhinlDaterinaon of ctv Earth Pras q 45 Hansen Theory Realizing the fact that earth pressure depends largely on the type of lateral ‘movement of the soil, J. Brinch Hansen has developed a general method to account for the various types of possible movement of retaining structures. He has proved by theory and experiments that the correct earth pressure can bbe determined if a compatible sliding wedge or rupture surface is used in the computation. The rupture surface may be a straight line, an a, or a more complicated composite curve. In his extensive study entilled Earth Pressure Calculation (J. Brinch Hansen, 1953) tables and graphs are included to facli- tate the use of the theory. Reference is made to the original publication for advanced students, 1 em wtf t= 1 C= cohesion = 200 psf = 27 seo internal fton = 307 44 Determination of Soll Properties for Earth Pressure Computation ‘The values for the unit weight y, the unit cohesion c, and the angle of internal friction ‘used in earth pressure computation should be determined by tests carried out on representative samples of the material i ions which will exist after construction, It is96) LATERAL PRESSURES cur. 4 44 Overcompaction ‘since loosely placed backfill material will eventually settle under its own weight and will not be capable of supporting structures, floors, and roads, it Js common practice to compact the backfill in layers. Unfortunately the coiapaction may bring about ill effects, namely excessive lateral pressure due fo the heavy weight of compaction equipment. To avoid excessive lateral pressure, the compaction work adjacent to a retaining structure should be Gone with light weight tampers. If heavy equipment is allowed to operate lose by, the stresses and stability of the retaining structure should be {nvestigated. Tests have indicated that against a rigid wall the lateral pressure ‘due to an overcompacted backfill may be several times that due to a loose packfill (Sowers et al., 1957). For this reason, overcompaction by heavy equipment should be avoided within the area approximately equal to the sliding wedge. 448 Seepage Pressure During a rain storm the soil behind the retaining structures contains a large amouat of water. If no drainage is provided in the backfill, the water percolates through the backfill in a downward direction, continues under the ‘base of the retaining structure and rises through the oil in front as shown by sec. 48 sexrace passsuns 87 solid lines and arrows in Fig. 4-13(a), The seepage water affects a retaining structure in several ways: 1. Increase in weight of soil due to saturation or partial saturation. Earth pressure is increased due to increase in weight of the sliding wedge. In silty and clayey soils the design may have to be based on the assumption that the entire backfill is fully saturated because of the tendency of these types of soll to retain water fora long period of time, 2. Uplift on the surface of sliding. 3, Uplift against base of retaining wall. 4, Reduction in passive resistance. The seepage, pressure exerted by the rising water in front of the retaining structure tends to uplift the soil grains and hence reduce the passive resistance. In extreme cases wheré the hydraulic head of this seepage flow is so high that it cancels out the weight of the soil grains (quicksand condition, Sec. 1-14), the passive resistance becomes zero. In general, it is more economical seepage pressure than designing the This can be done by using similar to those shown in Fig. ‘The seepage pressure in a soil stmined by the use of flow net is a graphical representation of seepage in soil. As shown in (b) and (CY, tHe slid lines (A potent88 LaTmRAL Presume our. 4 {cota ines at various points, At point J, for example, it intersects equipo- teatial line 2, hence the pressure 4 Pu = She With the pressure atthe various intersections knows, as shown on the right hand side of Fig. 4-13(a), the total pressure P, acting at right angle to tne sliding susface ab, can be computed. 1s computing the earth pressure during a rain storm, the wedge theory (Gee. 44) is used. The computation should include the total hydraule 49 Surcharge Load ‘The lateral pressure introduced on a retaining structure may be classified into four types for convenience of computation, A. Uniform load. When the ground sur- face is subjected to a uniformly distributed load, the earth pressure computation : is often made by substituting the load by an equiv. ‘alent surcharge layer. The thickness of this Surcharge layer is equal to the distributed load divided by ‘the unit weight of the under- ying soil 14 Lateral preture due 10 fore surcharge P= Ke P= GKy OF py = 4K, +6) Where the earth pressure coefficient Ky Ko, or K, is & constant within any soil ‘Stratum having a constant @ value, Fig. 4-14, 0.49 SURCHARGE LoD 89 Contrary to the uniform surcharge, the lateral pressure due to applied on a limited area of the ground surface is dificult to dete effect ofa strip load or a in the trial wedge meth widely used. However, t B. Strip load. Highways, railroads and continuous wall footings are stip loads when they are parallel tothe retaining structure. Refer to Fig. 4-15 end Tet: 2, = horizontal pressure at poi B= angle of a = angle between vertical 4 ~ stip load, pst, ‘The actual lateral pressure against a rigid wall is twice the value deter- mined by theory of elasticity: ny AG + sin Sate + 24 — sina) cont « 4 ive ofp Urarea wit 8s shown in Fig. 4-15, thevalue of p,'varies with depth. ‘line load when located paral ‘case of strip load, the lateral90 LATORAL PRESSURES cur. 4 we. 410 renmust 1 zero at a greater depth, Fig, 416, The unit horizontal pressure may be ‘computed by the following equation (Terzaghi, 1954): = 17g y= 1a (m> 04) (4-80) P= ODF ae ae Om < OH) D. Point load. A wheel load or any load ain Qt > aa lIG (m> 04) (450) (m <0.) (4 Ae 02s 8 ae (m <04) (9b) ‘The unit horizontal pressure on any other points on both sides of ab is smaller than p, at the same depth, and may be calculated by the following equation. Pa = Px cost (1.19) (4-90) ‘The notations used in the equations above are self-explanatory in Fig. 4-17. 410 Ice Thrust, . Substructures are subjected to ice thrust where the ground water or ‘rushing strength of the ice sheet. In practice the horizontal ice thrust acting.92 LATERAL PRESSURES cur. 4 the backiil is often effective in reducing or eliminating the possibility of frost 4 Earth Pressure during Earthquakes the lateral pressure against a retaining structure 0 the vibration ofthe ground. The increase Fig. 418 Earth pressure during earthquakes. Ext of the mormal design pressure, In the ease of high retaining walls, Wwever, combined pressure may be determined approximately by the trial wedge method. ‘The procedure of analysis is exactly the same as in the normal cases except 20, 412 wave paussune 93 that the sliding wedge is subjected to a horizontal force in addition to all the fother forces. The magnitude of this horizontal force depends upon the fundamental period of the system and the horizontal acceleration during the earthquake, which should be established by examination of t records of the locality. The TVA engineers assume that the ho is equal to 18 per cent ofthe weight ofthe sliding wedge whereas the Japanese neers use one-third of the gravity. The TVA standard is reproduced in imple case of a uniform soil with a pl static pressure is found to be base, and the center of dynamic pressure top of ground. For this reason the differentiated. The static pressure is subtracted from the combined lateral pressure and the difference is considered as the dynamic pressure, The dis- ‘tribution of the static pressure may be hydrostatic or stepped whereas the ‘dynamic pressure may be assumed to vary linearly from zero at the base to a ‘maximum at the top of the soil (TVA). Tt should be pointed out that the retaining wall itself may be also subjected to an acceleration during the earthquake and these two forces (acceleration of the sliding wedge and that of the wall) may act simultanuously. Therefore the retaining wall should be designed to resist both these forces. surface of ground, the ie pressures should be 4-12 Wave Pressure - 2 Waves are usually geeated by wind, and occasionally by moving vessel, earthquakes, tides, and barometri s. Structures obstructing the propeeaton ofthe wave moton are subjected to lteral pres. ‘Waves generated by wind over a large body of water produces an undulat~ ing surface consisting of’ crests and troughs, 19. The horizontal disanc rom crest to ees or from trough fo trough is known asthe wave Iength The veal distance fom erest to ough io known a the wave eight. The me required forthe wave form to travel a distance equal to he H=O1SVF+25-YF (F< 3) ‘Molitor: H=O011VVF >»A LATERAL PRESSURES H=O1VV,F+25-YF (<2) where H = wave height, ft; F = fetch = distance over which the wind acts, miles; ¥, = wind velocity, miles per hour, The wave lengths are, according to Gaillard, 9 to 15 times the-wave height for inland lakes and 17 to 33 times the wave height for ocean‘Waves. Molitor derived an empirical formula for the wave length L for inland lakes: ig. 419 Wave pressure theories. After Hudson, 1953, moc. 413 omer LATERAL ronces 95 ‘A more accurate computation of wave height may be made by the theory of Sverdrup and Munk (Mason, 1953). The relationship between the wave height, wind velocity, and fetch is shown graphically in this reference. 413 Other Lateral Forces Substructures and foundations are often subjected to some other lateral forces which must be established in each particular job prior to the design. ‘The following lateral forces are often encountered. Swelling pressure. Any structure that retains an expansive clay may be subject to a large swelling pressure when the upper layer of the overlying soil. The amount of swelling pressure is difficult to determine.* In practic, itis almost invariably mote economical to eliminate the possibility of swelling pressure against the retaining structure than to design the structure for the full pressure. The most economical way is to use granular backfill. not available, provision should be made to prevent the tnd drainage shoud be provided to direc the sepage water flow, Sex. 44, ‘hres doe to thermal expason. When the structure expands or contacts ‘a5 a result of temperature fluctuation, tubjected to lateral mowgnent or tliminatd if roller begs rocker, or other 3 ed. In the case ofa bride span reiting on fiction bearings, the lateral thrust i equal to the vertical reaction times the coefiient of fistion of the sliding urice 1958 and June 19, 1958). " ~Drainage of a Construction Site by Means of Well Points ‘method of dewatering will not only require large expenditure, bbut may also Yntroduce difficulties and damages to the foundation soil. ri ‘permanent drainage are discussed. The methods of damp- roofing and waterproofing are also presented. 5 FOUNDATION DRAINAGE AND WATERPROOFING 5-1 Introduction Prior to the design and const water level at the site, must be high, some of the following pro! ion of a given foundation, the ground 5:2 Methods of Dewatering ‘When constructic dewatered for the is made below the ground wi ing purposes (Swiger, 1960): _ level, the site must be9 FOUNDATION DIAINAGE AND WATERPROOFING cane. 5 1, To provide a suitable working surface at the bottom of the excavation. 2, To stabilize the banks of the excavation thus avoiding the hazards of slides and sloughing. 43, To prevent disturbance of the soil at the bottom of excavation caused by boils or piping. Such disturbance may reduce the bearing power of the soil. ‘The amount of water to be removed from the site varies from’a trivial ‘quantity to large volumes, depending upon the height of water head, the permeability of the soil below the water level, and the size of the area to be dewatered. Extensive dewatering is necessary for deep excavation in permeable soils (sand, gravel, or soils containing such seams) whereas little ‘dewatering is required for shallow excavations or excavations in impervious soils lays). ‘A successful dewatering job depends upon the proper selection of the ‘method and the constant vigil on the operation. The surface water should be diverted away from the excavation. Furthermore, the possibility of piping or boil should be analyzed, Sec. 5-3. The dewatering may be done in one or 1 combination of the following methods: ‘A. Samps. A sump is merely a hole in the ground from which water is being pumped for the purpose of removing water from the adjoining area. This method is most commonly used for removal of surface water but is also useful where the amount of water to be removed is small. ‘One sump may be sufficient for a small area, whereas several sumps with ditches leading to them are necessary for dewatering a large area. If the soil vapor to guard against the danger of rom granular soils. As fine particles are tarred away by the Rowing water, the bearing capac of the voll may be particles carvied away by pumping can be of the water discharged from the end of bucket of discharged water should be lowed to set for several hours. The amount of soil particles settled at the bottom of the bucket can be observed visually. B, Well points. A well point is a two to three inch diameter pipe two to four feet long which is perforated and covered with a screen. The lower end of the pipe has a driving head with es for jetting. Figure 5-2 shows 1 photograph of one ofthe eo ‘well points. Well points are connec ch diameter pipes Known as, riser pipes and are inse4100 FOUNDATION DRAINAGE AND WATERPROOFING uae. 5 sec. $2 rHo0s oF DewareRING 101 centerline of the header. Under ideal conditions and using special high ‘vacuum equipment, the depth of lowering has been increased to as much as 25 ft (Werblin, 1960), For towering water level to a greater depth, the multiple stage system of well points must be used which employs two or sore tiers of well points. Under average conditions, any number of stages can be used, each stage lowering the water level 5. A typical setup for a two-stage system is shown i requires additional footage of header pipes and additional pumps. increases the width of excavation due to the berms required for headers, Therefore, for dewatering a large head of water, other methods should be considered, The selection of dewatering method should be made on the basis of total cost including intial cost and the cost of operation. Fes soe hese ne mah aad : = : Fig. 5-4 Typicatfwo-stage well point system, Afte? Griffin Wellpoint Corp. water; @) jetting tip. Courtesy of the Moretreach Corp. ips may be augmented by the use of vacuum, Fig. 5-5(a), which increases the yield of water from the sol to the well, but simultaneously Fig. $3 Well point system,© fib roost mance warn cus. ‘dhoes the capacity of the pump due to the reduction of net suction head. jctors are used, two parallel headers are requred-one forthe pressure ‘and the other asthe collecting main, The motive force in this system is eens water under pressure, Fig. 5-5(b). The space between the ‘and the retum pipe may be used for the pressure supply, hence a single pe is required inside the well. Single pipe gjectors are made for 2 in. to fa. diameter casings and have larget pamping capacity than two pipe units. an ‘Fig. $5 Deep well pump: (8) submersible turbine pump, 4 to 12 in; (b) ejector, 20 8 in, double pipe. CH = collecting header: P= pump; = vacuunt; F = o (0) filter material; $= screen. AftecB.J.Prugh. D. Other dewatering methods. Among other methods occasionally em- cathode is a well point, the water collected at the point can be removed by mee. $3 STABILITY OF BOTTOM OF EXCAVATION 103, ‘pumping. This method is used advantageously in fine-grained soils (primarily silts) where the eficiency of ordinary well points is low. While) the electro- ‘osmosis method has been used occasionally on large dewaterjng jobs, the freezing method is even less developed. If such methods are contemplated, ‘expert guidance should be employed in the design, installatiga, and super- vision of the system. ‘The amount of water inflow in the excavation may be ripen by sheet- piling walls or grout-curtains: foundations of adjacent structures; 3. The space is not sufcient for open excavation, impervious stratum (clay or bedrock) is encountered ata shallow depth, unt of tion can often be cut off or greatly reduced by a grout cut the site, Small holes are bored inthe ground and grout mix is injected in the holes. Cement, clay, asphalt, chemicals, or a combination of two of these materials may be used as grout material? 5-3 Stability of Bottom of Excavation In order to provide a dry working surface with an adequate supporting power, the water level in the excavation must be lowered at least to a depth of ‘two to three feet below the bottom of excavation. When sump pumps are * See any standard textbook of toll mechanics and Sec. 4-8, 1 For further information on grouting, reference is made to the "Symposium on Cement ‘and Clay Grouting of Foundations” and “Symposium on Chemical Grouting of Foundations" Proceedings ASCE (1958).ik inion vance so wxrmncone curs sed, the danger of boil or piping caused by uplifting pressure due to upward seepage flow in the soil must be avoided. The of piping in geocral was presented in Sec. I-14, andthe an in cofferdams js discussed in Sec. 13-7. ‘When well points or deep wel to dewater the site, generally there is no uplifting foree causing ing because the seepage water flows essentially in the downward ards the screened portion of * the wells. However, when well points are used in stratified soils which contain one or more strata of impervious material, Fig. 5-6, the stability of bearing stratum below the line aa. If the pervious layer below the line aa is horizontal and is subjected to a hydraulic pressure equal to the height h + 2, then, the uplift pressure on the soil above the line aa at failure becomes equal to the total weight of the material. Thus, Osht)=% bottom of an excavation, the height h should be equal to z divided by a factor of safety, say 1.3. If this rule cannot be satisfied, the impervious layer below the line aa should be also drained by well points, deep wells, or by vertical sand drains which permit water to flow from this layer into the excavation (Swiger, 1960) 0c. $4 FOUNDATION Damme 105 $4 Foundation Drainage ‘When a substructure is carried below groundwater level, provisions must be made to keep the floor area dry. This can be accomplished by one of the 1s Fwndatio dae The water eat i lowered to depth blow tha foo 2 Wateprning, ‘The substructure is made watertight by waterproofing. ee erupt Weta (os awn) oe Sone gelgetune niin ‘Sparen cance oe Baling Foundation drainage is generally accomplished by installation of drain Fig. $8 Cortugated perforated pipe and method of splicing. Photo- araphs courtey of Armco Drainage and Metal Products, Inc.4106 FOUNDATION DRAINAGE AND WATERPROOFING cur. 5 Drain pipes may be corrugated metal or nonmetallic pipes with yy in. perforations or porous concrete. Generally two lines of perforations are reed by gravity into a sewer, possibility of carrying away fine soil particles, the drai should not be ocd ‘below the bottom of the adjacent footings. Also they should be covered with selected filter material so that: 1, The joints or perforations will not become clogged. 2. The fine particles in the surrounding soils will not be carried away by flowing water. Ifthe amount of water isto be small, a4 in. diameter tile or pipe placed in a horizontal position will be sufficient. Otherwise, the tiles should be placed on slope of zs to 4 in. to afoot. The drainage system should be provided with clean-out and rod-out accesses for periodical cleaning. Ifthe drainage system is carried to an ejector pt in the building, a setling basin should be provided twallow any sil particles to settle down inthe basin before going through the Pump. 5:5 Criteria for Selection of Filter Material to be used around the drain pipes should be carefully ill protect the surrounding soil from being carried away ‘and that it will prevent clogging the perforations in the drain pipe or openings in the drain tiles. The following empirical rules -should be used for selection of the filter material (Corps of Engineer) 1. To prevent the movement of particles from the protected soil into or through the filter material, the following conditions must be satisfied: size of filter material s size of protected soil = size of filter material and 2076 sie of Alter snaeeti 509% size of protected soil 225 2, To prevent clogging the pipe with filter material moving through the perforation or opening, the following conditions must be satisfied: For slots: 859% size of filter material slot width > 12 sac. 56 waterrncorNo 107 For eireular holes: 8574 sie of filter material hole diameter For porous conerete pipes, the following criteria may be used: 15% size of aggregate in porous pipe fon the grain size curve, In other words, 15 per size. Generally, concrete sand 5-8 Waterproofing With an adequate foundation drainage system, the foundation base slabs are not subjected to hydrostatic pressure. Therefore, struction cost is generally low. When the soil below water level is perv aan extensive drainage system may be necessary and consequently very costly. In such cases, the substructuge may be designed to resist the permanent hydrostatic pressure, Portion of the substructure is kept dry by waterproofing. Wateproatng « sbsraute may be done in one or a combination of ‘A. Membrane waterproofing. A waterproofing membrane is a continuous barrier for preventing passage of water, Fig. 59 and Fig. 5-10. This barrier{08 FOUNDATION DRAINAGE AND WATERPROOFING cman. 5 the structure, and Both the fabric be of durable type under a prolonged action of free tar pitch is recognized as more durable than frome proofing roof of sidewalk vauk. In order to provide a continuous water barrier, the successive layers of ‘membrane should be properly lapped. The lap, red, ‘4 minimum two-inch overlap is necessary. The membrane should be tended one or two feet above the highest water level. Caution mi yer of asphalt a heavy mopping of asphalt 3. A layer of poured-in-plice coal tar mastic not less than 1} in. thick. 4. A layer of adequately reinforced cement mortar or concrete not less than 2 in. thick. use of hard burned brick not less than 2} in. thick with joints alt except when laid as a vertical wall or on a slope, bricks should be laid in cement mortar. Mastic should not be used on surfaces steeper than 4} vertical to 12 hori- zontal, Membrane method is theoretically the most effective method of waterproof the: ‘to develop large craci embrane material, and terminals are not ec. 5.8 warerstors 109 therefore, is not feasible in cases where the surface is covered wit 10 produce dense concrete but erefore, the effectiveness of thi depends largely on the workmanship and on the po absence of cracks due to shrinkage or other causes. 5-7 Dampproofing Dampproofing is used to prevent sccum condensation. This is achieved by ap ing, brushing, or mopping. yed on. Each coat should at. 1 dumbbell (two-bulb), center- ‘bulb (three-bulb), labyrinth, or similar forms, and may be made of rubber,van 2 FOUNDATIONS Fg. 511 Common types of watestops: (2) metal waertope; (6) rubber ie waterstops; () mastic type watestop. pr, ‘neoprene, or some forms of plastic material. This type is capable of under- ‘going displacement because ofits high elasticity. ‘ment and large pressure is anticipated, this type may not offer the positive ‘watertightness,sec. 64 erTH OF roorwas 115 3 Design of Footings Fig. 62 Minimum depth of footings| 416 sonean Foros cur. 6 1F aatves maybe used depending upon the elatve eonomy andthe tire available: (@) Removing the top soil i Jean concrete Fig. ly under the footing and replacing it with be carried below the depth of frost penetration. In. terior footings are not affected by frost, therefore they may be as high as other requi ‘The minimum depths of f and are stipulated i the local building codes. In the absence of such data, reference may be made to the chart shown in Fig. 63. Fig. 63 Approximate depth of frost penetration for design of Footings. From AREA. ‘The damage of footings, and of the su caused by the volume expansion and cor freezing tempera less than 3 per cent and consequently are to frost heave with the depth of frost penetration, SEC, 6.5 BEARING CAPACITY OF SOILS UNDER FOOTINGS AND MAT FOUNDATIONS 117 is not good practice to place footings on the ground surface e\ 5 where freezing temperatures do not occur because of the pos: have sufficient (minimum 2 to 3 a rosion, Fig. 6-2(¢) 5. The difference in footing elevations should not be so great as to intro- duce undesirable overlapping of stresses This is generally avoided by ‘maintaining the maximum difference in elevation equal to, of equal to one half of the clear distance between two footings, Fig. 6-2(4). This requirement is also necessary to prevent disturbance of soil under the higher footing due to the excavation for the lower footing. 65 Bearing Copacity of Soils under Footings and Mat Foundations A. Bearing capacity of granular soils. The bearing capaci fepends upon the unit weight y and the angle of intern both of which vary primarily with the relative densi of granular bearing capacity. Compact soils are naturally not very compressil fore cause litte settlement. Loose soils, on the other hand, have sr ‘may suffer large settlement. Thjsts particularly true when the soil is subjected fo. density of granular’ soils in test and is generally determined by ions are discussed in Sec. In actual cases the relationship between g and N values has quite a large scatter. The empirical relationship was established generally on the con-448 sPREsD roorovos car. 6 footings are hea = penetration data by loading tests to be per‘ormed in those locations where the standard penetration tests revealed the presence of the loosest and the densest portion Erte subsoil. (Terzaghi, 1957) . Incanvetional design the allowable beating capacity shoul be taken as timate bearing capacity of granular soils can be comput i equations (3-4) and (3-5). However, the following empirical equations are ‘more convenient to use. For square footing: a. = 2N'BR, + (100 + NDR, (ta) For very long footings: ux = 3NIBR, + 5(100 + NDR, 1b) where gu, = net ultimate bearing pressure, psf; = pressure at bottom of footing in excess of the pressure at the same level due to the weight of the soil immediately surround- ing the footing. Nox standard penetration resistance, number of blows per foot. 1 values should be adjusted if the penetration test is made at shallow depth, Sec. 2-7. B = width of footing, ft. D = depth of footing, ft, measured from ground surface to of footing. If the ground levels on both sides of footing are ywable bearing pressure based on 1 allowable bearing pressure has been established empirically (Terzaghi and Peck, 1948) and may be expressed by the equation: aero (21 a, «2 J. = net allowable bearing pressure in psf for maximum settlement of Should be taken as the pressure at the bottom of the footing in excess St, 65 BEARING CAPACITY OF SOILS UNDER FOOTINGS AND MAT FOUNDATIONS 119 of the wei of the soil immediately surrounding the footing. The other notations are identical to those in Eq. (6-1). If the maximum tolerable fettlement is diferent from 1 in., Eq. (6-2) may be modified on the assumption pF aL Boe ass oO OF Oa Os OF to the bearing pressure, The value of g, may th depth of footing up to 100 per cent when the désenan FOOTINGS, uae. 6 |p. Bearing capacity of clay and cayey sols. The ultimate beating capacity " pfhese soils depends primarily upon its consistency (or shear strength). The often can be determined by: consistency of the accompanying CConssteney —_N (Standard Square fotings Continuous footings ‘of soll peneration tonsa ft vesistance) Very sottt o2 0.00-0.30, 02 24 030.060 02-045 nth, N, = bearing capacity factor of clay, see Fig. 6-5, which depends on the shape of the footing, If the clay under the footing (within a depth equal to the width of the ) consists of two layers, the bearing capacity may be determined by lowing equation (Buttons, 1953) g=aNe 6-4 where ¢, = cohesion of the upper layer, tons/sq fi N{ = beating capacity of two-layer system, see Fig. 6-6. SEC. 65 BEARING CAPACITY OF SOILS UNDER FOOTINGS AND MAT FOUNDATIONS 124 J Fig. 65 Ulimate beating capacity of clay. After A. W. Skempton. be [eoeson = e¢ imate cnocty a= ee 92, 04 95 08 by *, aT z OF Gs 05 OA OS OF OF plotted in terms of the following parameters (Sec. s=et(e~wtang where s = sheat u = pore water press g = angle of internal friction. -Pp. wo roomes cue. 6 ‘The triaxial shear tests must be made so that the drainage ci Il resemble that in the field, Unfortunately, « is often a poor foundation soi, 1nd should be avoided for supporting footings. Load bearing tests may be resorted t0 for determining the bearing capacity of silt, In ad shortcomings is Further complicated by the effect of apparent cohesion. Apparent cohesion isa tem- porary cohesive strength of soil produced by surface tension of water in the finy pores among the fine When the water content of silt changes, the amount of apparent cohesion also changes. Upon complete immersion in water, the apparent cohesion di ly. Therefore, if the ground ‘water is very close to the footing elevation, itis probably best to make the the water level. son silt samples are also largely influenced by the effect of apparent cohesion. To obtain reliable information on the shear strength of sit samples, the procedure must be established, the tests conducted and the results analysed by an expert. Loess. Natural deposits of loess in the dry state generally have moderate or low bearing cap: i strength and suffer analysis may give re Bolognesi, 1957). Therefore, load bearing test should be used in evaluating the bearing capacity of such soils. Organic soils, Witen a sil contains a large amount of organic matter wi Visible vegetable matter or organic odor, itis no footings. When in doubt, the orga Ikboratory. Highly organic soils weight. Settlement is due partly to the extrusion of water from the soil (Consolidation) and parily to chemical reactions in the organic ma (Gecomposition). D. Bearing capacity of compacted fills. Soils ra and the degree supporting iy has extremely low bearing. S8C, 65 BEARING CAPACITY OF SOILS UNDER FOOTINGS AND MAT FOUNDATIONS 123, capacity. The bearing capaci or after the placement of the ‘of compacted fill may be determined before Before placement of the compacted fill. we soil is compacted to 90-100 per cent of the maximum density as by the standard or the modified compaction tests. If the soil is s having the desired degree of compaction may be tested to termine the unconfined compression strength (or the ¢ and q value by ial compression tests). From the unconfined strength (or c, valu can be evaluated in the same manner as for nat sranular (noncohesive), samples bi may be subjected to direct shear test ing the desired degree of iaxial tests, of relative value of p from which the bearing capacity can be calculated. Indirectly, the p value may be estimated from Table I-1 ifthe relative density of the fill is determined, Se 2 Determine the bearing capacity after placement of fll. Fills not placed under field control should not be used for supporting footings. Otherwise the condition must be thoroughly explored before being used. In order to determine the bearing capacity of the fill in place, soil borings and tests must ‘be made in the same manner as for natural depos E, Bearing capacity of rocks. Almgst all rocks can thstan 2, Rocks with bedding planes, folds, faults, or joints at an angle with the bottom of footing . 3. Soft rocks often reduce their strength after wetting, Weathered rocks are very treacherous. Shales may become clay or silt in a matter of hours of soaking. ‘The common sandstone that of a poor concrete t metamorphic rocks elasticity. See Sec. 1 very practical. Fortunately, tics of such soils can be readily determined by laboratory tests on the relatively undisturbed samples.424 sentaD roomas Ise. 6 of load bearing tests on granular soils are useful provided that th extreme care. The following are some of the factors ‘that should be considered. 1, The test should be made on the loosest area contemplated to support any footing, 2. The depth of ground water in the test case and in the actual cases should be comparable. Avoid making test on a layer’ affected by capillary water, ° 3. Each load increment is maintained until no further settlement of significant magnitude takes place. ‘The ground is not frozen during the test. . ‘There are many other factors which able to follow the standard test pro- cedure of ASTM Designation D 1194. The results of load bearing tests should be pl iil {ig 61 Graphical presentation of results of load bearing test ves. Therefore, results of load bearing tests require careful and expert texpretation. 646 Footing Size Proportions and other storage floors. This procedure was discussed oullined below for the convenience of the designers. sec. 67 smmess ow Lower smmata 125 Let L;,4 = live load + dead toad for the column which has the largest ive loadidead load ratio; L, = ser load for the same column; = dead load + $ live load for ordinary buildings; 4. = allowable bearing pressure as determined by the principles discussed in Sec. 6-5; gq = design pressure for all footings except the one with largest live load/dead load ratio, Then A = area of footing suppor oad/dead load ratio, = Livalte 4e= bid Area for other footings = 8 the column with the large Service load % 6-7 Stress on Lower Strata funder a footing may be to I horizontal. Thus, a load 9 eo al tooteg = BAL assumed to spread out on a slope of 2 vert @ acting concentrcallyon% fo area of B x Lis assumed to be: buted over an area of (B + Z)(L + Z) at a depth Z below the footing, Fig. 68. f any stratum of s inadequate to sustain this Spread-out, should be reduced. However, for 2 py. 64 approximated two layer system of clays and a niore accurate approach based on elastic theory may be required. Al elastic methods are developed from the Boussines with a single load acting on the surface of a and dept where g = vertical stress at any given point;Smmass ON Lowen srRatA 127 E 5 bo, ye IE | 4 2 t wie | eee mresae. g e i ro | N WS), Ne kas ls { ° 9 Tnmervane 000 {___taneasaeeong Ff a Figs €11 Newmark influence chart for computing vertical pressure. After cal stresses under footing: (a) under a contauous footing: ‘Corps of Engineers. (0) under a cial footing (unde square fog .sec. 68 SETTLEMENT OF FooTINGS 129 senzAp FooTINas cur. 6 gee cent of the applied contact pressurc. These lines of equal pressure are t SHS HSS, 6) aib shaped and consequently e ‘most commonly where S = total settlement, fond pressure bulb is the one jes than 0.2 is often of litle consequence. For circu the pressure bulb is about 1.58 wide and 1.52 deep, footing. computation of vertical pressure by the Boussine Iaborious procedure and suitable only for research w. ution by the Nevimark influence chart, Fig. 5, = immediate el 'S, = settlement due to consolidation of clay, due to a uniform contact pressure g = 4500 psf from & footing shown in Fig. 6-12, The first gifen4 Jee-\0 2/8=05 8x6 tootea step is to draw a plan of the footing and the location of point x on a transparent paper in such a scale that the distance AB shown on the influence chart is equal to the depth 10 ft. Z = notes fea yer 2 amt coins eg chart, $0 that point x lies at chart, and count the number content ual to the number of influence areas (78) times the intensity of footing pressure (4500) times the influence valve (0.001) which equals 350 psf. Both the Boussinesq’s equation and the Newmark influence chart are intended for the case of surface loading. If they are used for computing stresses in the soil due to a deep foundation, the computed stress would be Fig. 613 Coeficient 8 ce haa te. fecampuingsooe oe the actual al ation settlement. From 648 Settlement of Footings thown in Fig. 6-13. three parts (Skempton and Bjerrum, 1957):430. seRexo roonnos cane. 6 5, = settlement calculated by Terzaghi theory of consolidation; =m, dp (68) logit +P oe Pe ty of the clay. This value is etermined by consolidation t 4p = vertical stress due to load on footing. the compressible lay. The clay thickness should be 10 several layers to obtain reasonably accurate 7 settlement of a thick layer. C, = compression index, also determined by consolidation test. Po = vertical effective pressure due to soil overburden, mn of settlement due to consoli sheet 2 DE 6, tample is tested in the consolidometer (or oedometer) decrease checks very closely with the theory. However, when the sample is one hundred per cent consolidated (according to the theory of consolidation) the volume decrease does not stop according to the theory, but instead the sample continues to compress at a reduced and rather constant rate, The mn that can be computed by the theory is called ‘whereas the slow consolidation that takes place secondary consolidation, Sec. 3-5. 69 Eccentric Loading center of the the purpose of ‘moment may be removed by shifting the ver fan eccentricity € = moment/vertical load. In the analysis of an eccentrically loaded footing two separate proble distribution. When the sec. 69 FoceNTRIC LoaDIna 131 Where q = contact pressure at a given point (x,y); Q = vertical load; A = area of footing; xand y= coordinates of the point at which the contact pressure is calculated; 4n 1, = moment of inertia of the footing area about the x and y axes, respectively. Equation (6-9) is valid when one of the following co! (@) The footing is symmetrical about x and y axes, (b) The footing is symmetrical about x © The footing is symmetrical about y For rectangular footings, Eq. (6-9) may be written in a simpler form: Stsetea) allt op a (69a) When ex 6, oF @ ¢ exceed a certain negative value of q which indicates t footing. Unless the footing is weight ‘cannot be relied upon for béAdin, the lead fe a= down by surcharge loads, the soi the footing and offer Eq. (6-9) and (6-9a) are appl a limited area which is known as the '4(a). The procedure for determination imple in principle but laborious. Cases for rectangular and circular footings have been worked ‘out and the kerns are shown by shaded areas in Fig. footings of other shapes, the graphical method of succes ms (Roark, 1954), linearly w axis from zero at the neutral axis to a maximu fon the requirement of pressure should is as follows.eccentmic Loxsina 133 Vober of 4/8 ronmerse ace /th of fing Xt 5 me | Ul i (a) Rectangular footing, load on t 1% Fig. 6-14 Pressure distibution wed for structural design of ecentrically loaded footings |434 seneAp Foonsos cur. 6 sure acting on this stripis equal to (Y/X)g, where gy isthe ressure is equal to (¥/X)ggldy.: The by the shaded strip with a length correct, the centroid of action of the load Q. For practical purposes, the centroid or center of gravity of the transformed ‘area may be determined by balancing the board on a pencil poi ‘engineer to approach the correct location of the neutral axis. 2, For determination of ultimate or allowable bearing capacity of an ‘ecentrically loaded footing, the concept of usefid width has been introduced. By this concept, the portion of the footing which is symmetrical about the load is considered useful and the other portion i simply assumed superfluous for the convenience of computation. If the eccentricities are e, and ¢,, as shown in Fig. 6-15, the useful widths are B — 2e, and L — 22, the eq alent area (B — 2e,)(L — 2) is considered as subjected to a centr: for determination of bearing capacity. load sec, 6:10 mvcuinep Loan 135 be used for design fetermined on the basis is applied at the centroid of the footing. Then, this bearing y is corrected by multiplying with the factor shown in Fig. 6-16. 6-10 Inclined Load ‘The conventional method of Seng opt/or gro 0 nme es Of footings. subieced to determined by the principles discussed in Chi projects, conservative values such as tose shown in the figure may be used, Atshould be emphasized that high values of passive earth pressure P, may not be realized in granular soils unless itis backfilled and well compacted in layers. 4, However, for smaller436 seneaD roonNos cue. 6 @ paar Be ee as fe % cee, £ (oem z a 2% to Te neo Heiye z ry 0, connotexcese 2 5 grein ee | 9 ange terete 19 OI -GF 03 04 O56 OF ON! mg Fig. 6-18 General formula for bearing ‘capacity of continuous footing subjected to inclined load, ter N.Janba. Irenaton a of ood Fie 619 0 horizontal and AREA), oy Pur oF roonNes 137 PANG. Ne 4 yd + Nye 0) ings subjected to They have been dis assumed to 6-11 Footings on Slopes ‘The bearing capacity of footings on sloping ground may be determined by the following equation (Meyerhof, 1957): 9 = Neg + HBN yg are shown in Fig. 620. ‘These factors vary withthe slope of the ground, the relative postion of the footing.and:the angle of internal Before construction of fg6tings an sloping ground, itself must be investigaféd. Fi which are unstable. They should of the superficial m endangered by the ad 6-12 Uplift of Footings The resistance of a footing against uplift is derived from the weight of the footing and the weight of soil above it. For soil below ground water level the submerged weight should be used. As a footing is being uplifted, a prism of soil is carried by the footing, Fig. 6-21(a). The shape of the prism depends upon the characteristics of s above the footing. Due to lack of conclusive data, no rational design rules fever, conventional method assuming a 60 degree For footings subjected to a may be used. Ifa large number ome model tests oF full-sized ally justified the method shown in Fig, 6-21 of footings are subjected to hi field pull-out tests may be econorfr planar. When the load is applied at the centroid of the sec. 613 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF FooTINGS 139 footing area, the unit pressure is equal to the total load di footing area. In case of eccentric load, the pressure may be. procedure described in Sec. 69. Se wo ot tg ® cy foe Fig. 621 Uplit capacity of footing: (#) probable uplift capaci ‘minimum theoretical uplift. width beyond the face of column, bending, bond, and sheat + American Concrete Institute, American Association of State Highvay Offcils, ‘American Railroad ‘Engineers Association, Canadian National Code, British Code of Practice, ofthe local building codes.engin of Bor embesdment Fig. 623 Stresses in pedestaled footings. sec, 6-14 FRITY OF COLUMN DASE AND ROTATION OF FOOTING 141 614 Fixity of Column Base and Rotation of Footing ‘The engineer is sometimes confronted column bases should be fixed or free to rotate. to design the footings for a central load and a momé amount of rotation. Therefore an understanding of the tics of the column base and the footing is essential. ‘When the lower end of a column is subjected to a bending moment, the joint between the column and the footing must be strong enough to transfer the stresses. In the case of concrete columns, this can be readily done by embedding the dowels in the footing, and the column may be considered fully fixed to the footing. The lower end of steel columns may be fixed to the footings by means of anchor bolts. When the anchor bolts are required to resist tension due to column bending, they are generally pretensioned to a ‘minimum stress, Unless this stress is exceeded from actual bending of ‘bases may be considered as fixed to the footings. In either case, the rotation of column base is caused only by the elastic deformation due ‘compression at the toe of the base, which is generally small and In the event when the anchor bolts are not pretensioned and the the base is critical, reference is made to a paper by Salmon, Schenké Johnston (1957). Regardless of the degree of fixity between the column base and the footing, 4 movement from the colups ft ion, Sec. 6-9. not likely to be planar and cannot the rotation of a footing acted by loading can only be estimated on the basis of some is guided by good engineering judgement. For example, footings on sand are prot bbe determined qual a moment or. simple comp jecomes appare Ww footings on granular soils should not be relied upon for the column bases. Contrary to sand, clay and clayey soils resemble elastic material and are 4 concentrated stress at the edge. Furthermore, since a large portion of the settlement of footings on clay is due to consolidation, of time by his probl load may be442 sem2an Foormes cuar. 6 following analysis. The toe ofthe footing will probably not setle more than the amount S, which isthe average: the entre footing is subjected to the maximum toe pressure; the heel ofthe footing probably not more than ‘the amount S, which is the average settlement if the entire footing is sub- jected to the minimum pressure at the heel. The maximum and ‘pressures are computed on the assumption of straight line or planar distribu- tion. The probable amount of rotation, therefore, is equal to or less than (5. ~ Si) divided by the width (or length) of the footing, BIS Construction Footings are the simplest type of foundation in so far as the const special attention, namely: the depth of footings, and the de- ‘The construction of footings for ‘general grading work is co elevation at, or 6 in, below, the bottom is excavated by excavation is carefully excavated to the required depth, the form work for the sides of footing is placed and held by stakes, and the reinforcement placed on cement block supports (and high chairs if top bars are used). Before placing the concrete, anchor bolts or column dowels must be accurately secured on the form work. Short and straight dowels of small diameter may be placed by hand immediately after the concrete is poured. The form work for the sides may not be necessary and the concrete may be poured against the vertical sides of the excavation if the soil does not slough in, A, Inspection of subsoil conditions. Natural soil deposits are seldom truly uniform. An apparently uniform soil stratum often cont properties. It is i boring program. Therefore, itis the responsibility engineer to evaluate the average soil condition based on the soil boring has to make conservative general ‘must be either lowered to a stratum having sufficient bearing power or enlarged to reduce the pressure to suit the beating capacity choice between these two methods depends upon the relative ‘The method for checking the soi ions at the footing excavations consravcnion 143 ious. The soil conditions should be inspected tion but before concreting. For clays ot clayey s unconfined compression tester or by a shear strength can be estimated 2, Sec. 1-8A. The penetration test may be a certain size reinforcing rod with a specific weight dropping example # in, diam rod driven by a 7 Ib hammer locations where the sol known fom the basis for comparisor encounter smaller resistance, the adequacy of the soil for sustaining the design pressure must be carefully investigated by more accurate tests or load Dearing tests. asity (and conseque i borings or tests, and structed at such differe under the lower footing TH éifcu lifference in footing elevations not Fig. 624(a). By so doing idered unaltered. An alternative meth{44 sean roormas Fig. 624 Wall footings at diferent levels backfill. If there is any doubt of the bearing capacity of the backfil, the wall footing should be stepped down as shown in Fig. 6-24(a) or el itself should be designed to span between the basement the original ground at several feet from the excavati mn should be kept dry duris . Excavation in water is expensive and not the quality of concrete placed in water is questionable, larly when the water is not stagnant, ,, To avoid the dificuties mentioned above, excavations below ground water level are kept dry by various methods discussed in Chapter 5. 616 Design Example On sheet 1, Plate DE 6, the column loads, walls loads, floor loads, and Pertinent soil data are shown. On the right-hand side of the soil profile, ‘esults of the standard penetration tests are shown for the granular soils, and ‘the unconfined compression strength q., natural void ratio eq, and compres- sion index C, for the soft clay are also indicated. The water level was 25 ft below the finished grade. ‘The first step was to det layer. The WV value was Adjusted value exceeds 2 wed. This gives NV = 28, The stress on the layer of loose sand was analysed by the approximate ‘method discussed in Sec. 6- ‘The total settlement of the footings consisted of three components, namely the settlement due to each of the three layers of soil above the hardpan. The hardpan itself contributes practically no settlement, as indicated by the local experience. The bedrock lies immediately under the hardpan, test value (N') a reduction factor of 2 was sec. 616 DESIGN EXAMPLE 145 According to Eq. (6-2) the medium-dense sand layer will settle 1 in, at a pressure qp = 8600 Ib per sq ft. Since an allowable value of per sq vent is equal to S000/8600 = tlement calculation for the loose lation settlement of the soft clay was computed by Eq. (3-4), with the values of ey and C, determined by laboratory tests. \Eq(2-1) N= 18(z5%5) Col. footing: Eq. (6-10), £q(6-2), WoIt footing: Ea.(6-Ib), £9.(6-2, ‘Boring Capacity Assume borings were token from finish grade. At depth Of BF, pm AxiiO/iI4 6 = 55, - 20luse y= day = 828 #2010060 + 282)2.5 = 5208 + 4400 JS"0 «25 (estimated) = $n = 828-+2.670100+N2ID = 7808 + 4100 om ett Sing Tea fat t=O" sta 20'=0*- aa read Footing Me we es] rt eet a meee ee et a ee! ESERIES EEE EES 5 intersect practically ot the top of nhe lower layer may be 00 + 88.800 613 ps 2 Weight of si removed = 75.110 = 193 Net @ = 670 pst 1) On top of lyer of loose sond, . (1) On top of layer = 670182, = 540 pst ‘oan At mid-reight of clay I (2) At mid-peight of clay layer, 47670 x= 457 pet ana oth of 0 03 ore very low. No pobl ure, Satloment Analysis ae (1) Medium-dunse sondoyors—* ce $000 3-2 -28 -050n (2) Loose sand layer: a= 72019-3(Z2¢¥'05 = 540 ° 2x77) S12 (due to benefit of depth) “ = 1080 pst a£-s02- se $ = 282 -0.50n 8) Coy 89 £4 (8-71, $= 7 Hog (28) GOT ate 20.52) From toborctry tet ap In vartical pressure of mia-eight of layer = 437 psfw @ a ditferentia set Horizontal Thrust Wind = 25 pst 8 submerged loose sond 4" clay, submerged $= 222 (96%09(1+ Layer Toto stlement 0.58" 050" ble for warehous towed. Ye total se 3 greater depths. BES Design of Sprecd Footing ‘Sh Sof 4 = 20115 = 2300 54105 = 525 8x60 = 480 4x60." 240 3545 pst Probable ditferentio! settlement 0.43" 0.25" 027" a9" ough they ore hen as possible 120% of building passive P= ka,H2 > (2001'35)2 = 1225% OK Uplift None ‘Structural Design of Col. Footing For the purpose of @ maximum of 6ft le'-o" A= 240/5 = 4859 ft 8x6" footing 16" x18" col ACI Code is used in this design, indicates 1956 Code value Bearing 9 = 240/48 = Skst DEE Design of spreod'Feoting ‘Sh. 4 of 4 Ty d=18" 022" ong way: Total shear area = £448 10.75 +6'x1 =994" (shaded area) aad V (for shear) = 9.94 x5 = 49.7% = 43,700. _ v= Gaiam" 590s) <75 OK V or bond) = 6.0'x3.25'x5 = 97.5 = 92500 reo! 20 = sa0(7a)Me* 26.0" rea’. 325 m= 975 x 228 259i 1085 =5.2" reg "6 (As =5.26°, D0= 28.8") Short wy V (for bond) = 8.0 x 2.25'x5 = 90* £0000 = 24.0 rg 2 = £9000, 24.0" eat M290 x 228 = gt yj x O85 = 3.21%" reg’ Use 12-"5 (As = 3.72™, £0= 239") Bor placement: 86 X12 =11 short bars in central Uniform spacing OK 1 arPlate Seven ‘A Mat Foundation under Construction ‘The design of combined footings and mat foundations *s a difficult problem in two ways. First the structure is so higtly indeterminate that rigorous analysis based on elastic theory isnot available. Second, the foundation sol isnot elastic and the reaction against combined footings and mat foundations is dificult to predetermine. Because of these dificulties, such foundations are commonly designed by simplified procedures advanced students ~ appropriate, These shi J STRAP FOOTINGS, COMBINED FOOTINGS, AND MAT FOUNDATIONS TI Uses of Strap Footings, Combined Footings, and Mat Foundations ‘Square footings are m ‘economical for supporting square and round into public property. Before doi codes. But when the adjoining be constructed within the propert which are Motrated ina schemats plan showa a Fig: -. Tear alhematives are: 1. Strap footing. A. strap nected by a beam cal footing or a pump-b: rises two or more footings con- ype is also known as a cantilever 2 Jong footing supporting two large footing, usually The choice between these types depends primarily upon the relative cost, As a mule the strap footing is more economical than the combined footing452. FOOTINGS AND MAT FOUNDATIONS uae. 7 where the subsoil has large bearing capacity. However, the required strap. becomes large and deep, the combined footing may expensive. of the cases, mat foundations are used where the soil has Fe, Tel Schematic pan illustrating com- ‘Boa uses of various types of footings ing, whereas the depth of foundation ofthe mat is measured from the exterior ground surface to the bottom of the at, Since the bearing capacity increases with increasing depth and width of foundation, Sec. 6-5A, and the settlement decreases with the increasing éepth of foundation, the advantage of mat foundation is two-fold. i Form wine foo 7 eoneF” [een mae ‘ig. T-2 Depth and width of foundation for individual footings and mat foundations. In localities where the subsoil is very compressible and extends to a great depth, the so-called compensated design is used to the best advantage, Fig. 7-3, In this design, a deeper basement the higher portion ofthe superstructure so pressure (the total building load minus the weight of soil replaced by basement) at any depth in the subs. is relatively uniform, therefore large different ‘ments are avoided. Fig. 7-9. Compensated foundation, encountered, a mat Possibility of being watertight, swe. 7-2 ‘COMMON TYPES AND ARRANGEMENT 153 7-2 Common Types and Arrangement of Strap Footings, Combined Footings, ond Mat Foundations ‘Straps may be arranged in a variety of ways, Fig. 7-4, and their choice depends on the phy sof each specific case, A strap may be ‘column above the footing. In either fap should not be designed to withstand only the ben« and shear stresses but also ion to the footings for columns at both ends. It should be so arranged that it does not require an ‘unusual construction procedure. Fig. 7-4 Common acrangement of strap footings and combined footings. and other els, strap column toads a portion of the slab under the column may be thickened, Fig. 7-5(b), to provide sufficient strength for negative moment and shear494 FOOTINGS AND MAT FOUNDATIONS cur. 7 (Gagonal tension). This may also be accomplished by providing a pedestal Gnder each column Fig. 74(d). If bending stresses become large because of forge column spacing and unequal column loads, thickened bands may be feet along the column lines in both directions Fig. 7S(¢. The empty cells ie formed by the use of sheet metal or paper domes. P35 Common ye of ma found Cellular construction; (0) basement walls a8 rigid frame, Under extremely heavy column loads, a two-way grid structure made of callular construction (Fig. 7-5(¢)] and of intersecting structural steel trusses has been used (Teng, 1949). Basement walls have been also used as ribs or deep beams, Fig. 7-5(9). A mat often rests directly on soil or rock. However it may rest on piles just as well, 7-3 Design of Strop Footings Strap footings are designed on the basis of the following assumptions: 1. The strap is infinitely stiff. It serves to transfer the column loads onto the soil with equal and uniform soit pressure under both footings. 00. 7-3 DESIGN OF STRAP FooTINGS 155 2. The strap is a pure flexural member and does not take soil reaction. To avoid bearing on the bottom of the strap, several inches of the under- ing soil may be loosened up prior to the placeme With the assumptions above, the des procedure. It begins with a trial value Ry and Ry are computed by the prin ateas are equal to the reactions R, and Ry divided by the allowable bearing pressure g. With tentative footing sizes, the value of e is computed. These steps are repeated until the trial value of eis identical with the final one. The Ran Oy to uniform soil pressure and designed as simple spread footings. Under the assumptions given above, the resultant of the column loads Q, and Q., would coincide with the center of gravity ofthe two footing areas. Theoreti- possible that someljmes the Ful 1 building cogesfacts upon one of the columns ted to lite’ live load. In such a case, indesigning the footing under column Q, only the dead load or dead load plus reduced live load should be used on ‘An example of strap footing design is given in Plate DE 7-1.[ACI Code is used inthis design 1% insicates 1956 Code valve [Sa 20fF v= 75 psi* Top bors u = 245 psi* Bottom bars v = 280 psi* ® [0,= 370" 2+ 0's9 ca] Ty & conten footing re 370 ~ 2532 = 3394 (Designed 08 spreading footing) e= 22 TI] ta oemeso wo=p gene! v= 88 seat 12-7 bolt. each woy = 362. a= 333.8 ao" 38, 51, Footing of Col @ Ty D=2-6" 44232-4228" -d=32-3=29" 220 453% Use 610° 7'6" B32 = 416% nese 2 . concen ins va oF vie cos: ton bs bosom sop use 6-6 bot 151.9" f ‘Star a , Lett and: Try 4-0" with R's. d= foster, = 21.4" 2084) =32" OK ase 45) ; J = 362'x Moment we = 8" (x = 325') = 545" (x= 15) use 9-*i1 top. Right end : =18" 0 =26"0K use 3-1 top.{0 FOOTINGS AND MAT FOUNDATIONS cuar. 7 ty others, Fig. 7-70). The elastic constant of the springs is equal to the ‘qvefcient of subgrade reaction of the soil. Further, the springs are assumed fo be able to resist tension or compression. This assumption was first used by: Winkler and therefore t ‘often compared to foundation suppor is equal to the coefficient of suber ‘Among the numerical analyses, the method of successive ‘and the method of finite difference are readily adaptable toa of inertia and a variable coefficient of subgrade reaction. Al analyses for combined footings are discussed in the following sections, ‘A mathematical analysis of plate (mat foundation on elastic foundation) tremely complicated and only few solutions for the most simple cases are available. Rigorous analyses, such as the elastic line method for beams (Combined footings) on foundat Combined footings Rigid method Simplified elastic foundation Une founétion - - DESIGN OF coMmENED FooTINGS 164 extremely simple cases. is a summary of the available procedures for analysis of combined footings and mat foundations. 7-5 Design of Combined Footings ‘A. Design of combined footings by conventional ‘ig. 7-8 Procedure for design of combined footing (conventional method). + With the column loads and the subgrade reactions knovtn, the problem is satcl determinate, Henc, it should not be confosed with the problem of indeterminate stroctures, tuch a8 the moment distibution method.FOOTINGS AND MAT FOUNDATIONS cuar,7 DEE = 5750p . Combined |. Determine the total column loads & me ‘Alton, pressure = 8:5*5° cant LO A+ +O... ShtotZ 1 indicates 1956 ACI Code value and the location ofthe line of action of the resultant 29. If any column bn #1050" puei2iot 375 js subjected to bending moment, the effect of the mi toe $25 ) Ea 6s, 1825 taken into account, is7st =| feast 3200" as 3. Determine the pressure distribution, per lineal foot of footing. 3. Determine the width of the footing. = B23 x 24 #13: Property Relea * 24135 Tine 16.0" le = 2K 16.0 = 32.0° ength Ze" 5.5" IL Wierh= 32% = 14,8 Use 2! 7 if p= 8.53" x12 =100%4 6. Design the footing as a continuous beam to resist the shear and moment, o=5+0" 7. Design the footing for transverse bending in the same manner as for B= 0.33"%*= 100, spread footings. An example of a complete design of a combined footing is given in Plate DET2. Reqs = /-EoEe 42" Try D= 5-0" = 60" =54" 1175000 12) v= inSeRe = (75 psi OK i aes ~ Troneverse stool: Web reinforcing: Mas! 2321 8.535% 2.5 = 3350" as= (= 416" x BBE = 238 1 BB e703" SxS2X8390 ow 3200 “ 2O™ ‘2e0(gr"85 ~ Use y= oorsuenienfiss: Vi = V=Ve= I75-5i5 = 6 sets of 96 4, = 5.28" soocng = a= Mit «S20 spacing V'= 3: Far 12" spacing V's 339 ea5* For 24” spacing V'= 165 38, see. 75 DDESION oF commnveD FOOTINGS 165 B. Design of combined footings by method _y = deflection, in this ease, settlement of footing, V = shear, 4 = reaction at a given point on the elastic foundation, Eaand I = modulus of elasticity and moment of From the basic assumption of elastic foundation: ia of the footing. a= ~yBk where B = width of footing, k = coefficient pf e0bprate reaction. ay E122 = ~yBk at superimposing the (wo moment curves for L/2 and L/ moments are found to be 0.63M and 0.32M, respectively.[oe r=3 | Combined our 7 4 ‘Anolysis by Elostic Line Method a Sa off | | = 1375" y= 1825" a asp Triktese0 2882000 Fer nee son, Tobe 7-1: Ky = 600 pel Eq(7-10) kentrsengucth?= 320 A= Vai = Varape soa STE Te * 00049 L=32'= 384", b= & Use Fig. 7-9 (0) | 25'=h, 5.5%6, superpose curves for ond £ % Ge | LE 063 My = 0.632 = 42,500 0.32MG = 0.32 % = #2620. = 6,018" ‘Note: 6,300! in pote DE7=2 [Rg 14 Elastic lines for Footings of finite gt acted by a concentrated load, From Seely and Saxth.Anolysis by Method of Successive Approximation Footing inn - alot 5 @=100# = 100# 700i in 700*/in in a incides with the resultant of all applied forces. This adjusted 75 Mein =125%0in ction ot elastic line represents the first approximation. A. second : cats oximation may be made from the first elastic line or from an average of ‘Solution E=25(10) i proline andthe care, ‘or by using some other ratio. For footings (1) Determine To l4a Jeogth smaller than m/A, the solution by this method may not converge transformed oreo the results are in error. eee, ‘determining the elastic line, the footing is divided into a number of “ pe fs A larger number of tepmenis gies # greater accuracy, For ener tl | oe ‘cases, four to six segments between two columns give sufficiently am results. The values of E, I, and k may be different between segments, 75" red otal pressure acting against each segment is taken as a concentrated $09 a) ‘The elastic Line is then determined by the moment area method: (2) Determine soit “ 9 any point is equal to the bending moment on the conjugate beam Bressure by nnn nh pase’ 20200! Ax 4(8+56)120 tically or graphically (by foree polygon and funicular polygon) or by = 3040int ul ‘method is shown in Plate DE 7-4. The procedure isBET=4 Combined Footing meAS ; g i A OY 5 = : flooding (elastic , | 5 : cremate (9) Corrective force = LO + 402.4 = 602.4 Corrective mom. = 402.4 X73 + M (Step 2) 2930 +3000 = 5930" # Soil pressure due to ‘corrective F ond Mi: wea? renee’ =f Ee = = 1 smc a Bere gator a,-100" =19)-(8) jt ge aR. codes Ses meas orn Tex rot ba a (12) Obtain 2nd opproximotion by storting with the average pressure (old line) ond repeat steps (2) to (10) ‘After Popovwc. 75 RON OF commu rooms 173 baciay and Moment = £12? % ‘The equations sbove are substituted with finite difference >perators: Deflection at a,b, ¢,... = A, B,C,... (a* (A 28 + EI vonats = (2) a . = loment at 5 @), es 0 : nn ‘ i _ Analysis of combined footiog by means ofthe difference equation above foment, RC pg wes yee on ial Pp Pp 1, Divide the footing into 4 to 6 equal lengths = 4. gomemme [Tp] |S onee antec seratina ne et Li, hn oy #8, |. Mar 8, tere $B la-20+¢) « [Pn sesant] left ce Mote, ett EF ie-20+ 0] = (2Pn-325ani2h)-5008h (hI) Ne) Sot presse Mote, rig — Ea-20 +0)« [Ph-750n#) — | veo 3254n +5008h + 3000h+750n= 20 kek rtraney elpnasaaec ey . 5 Solving for &,8,Cond 0: th=—“aise j (21074) inch Fig. 7.10 Methods for cal- ‘alating approximate equl- valent concentrated reect- fons. 3 f ‘ il Pressure © RA, KB... fre owes 2. Let 4, B, ... be the settlement, or deflection, at points a, b, .... The ‘soll reaction at a, b, .. is Ak, Bk, ..14 FOOTINGS AND MAT FOUNDATIONS cunr.7 {isotatisy the equations for equilibrium, ie. EM = Oand ZV = 0. Write © equations for the EM = 0 at any panel points and 2 = 0 for the whole system, in terms of 4, B, Cy. = ON"BR, + 4100 + NDR, % = 36QQN — 3) R, (7-4) Where ¢, and q, = allowable soil pressure under mat foundation, psf; 'N = number of blows per foot in standard penetration test; R, and K, = reduction factors for water level, see Fig. 6-4, Sec. 6-3B, ‘The smaller of g, and gy should be used, 7-7 Design of Mat Foundations A. Design of mat foundation by conventional rigid method. In the con- ‘ventional method it is assumed that the mat is infinitely rigid and that the mac. 7-7 DeUON OF MAT FOUNDATIONS 175 bearing pressure against the bottom of the mat follows a planar distribution where the centroid of the bearing pressure coincides with the line of action of the resultant force of all loads acting on the mat. The procedure of design by this method is described as follows. st determined by the following formula: =E2 er fs Claler LOH + Dore where E Q = total loads on the mat, A = total area of the mat, 2%, y = coordinates of any given point on the mat with respect to the x and y axes passing through the centroid of the area of the mat, én €, = coordinates of the resultant force, available to solve this problem. If the column loads and spacing wre about ‘equal, an approximate idea as to how the moment and shear are distribiited.P22Z Wall led = 900%/1in ft a= 660M Fu (92821007)19¢2000-27:5105) ‘The Sil pressure under the mat is determined by the general equation: 2502 F = 27S+0017I26 +27809-20120) =22( o é) ¥ = SOOT B4 ESO LOO) | 1 ana (tees ; With the soil pressure determined, the mat is analysed as individual bands ‘long column center lines. In this analysis, moment coefficient vy is used.5 <0.57* 9 = 3.00] 5.59 +0106(6.5)~ lage, 2348)" 3.59+0,06(6.9)+ 0" “0 a 1g-3.80™ ges.artt Fear asd or goo Sir us coef since each band is opproximataly@ simple span, use momen! gy? = 72t Line @ = Bf ig)? = 173!" ye = 136!" Line @ = fleanea?® = I weal ne @ = eaaareat = 2530" d= deegyg = 39" re Try D= 4-6" 4 50. 1 otS Topontine @ (2 wie bord si1et 9 Top ontine @ 10-6" wee f x 116 Top on ine (“146% wide bord #110174 Top ontine @) 160" wide bond sec. 7-7 DESIGN OF MAT FOUNDATIONS 179 B. Design of mat foundation by method of finite difference. This method is based on the assumption that the subgrade can be substituted by a bed of if uted coil springs with a spring constant (coefficient of sub- equation for deflection of such a mat foundation is Sy LY Vw ow Btw Sw where Yt = BM 4 2 Bw Sh We Bt iy Tay 4 = subgrade reaction per unit area of mat, k = coefficient of subgrade reaction, E = modulus of elasticity, 4 = thickness of mat, 20, — 8, + Wy +, + Wi) + Oey + Wt Wer + May) + boat meta = 9 taneous equations, the 8 can be solved rapidly9) FOOTINGS AND MAT FOURDATIONS @ 2 Dilderence equations for analysis of mat foundations. 0, 7-7 DESIGN OF MAT FOUNDATIONS 181 After the deflections are known, the bending moment at any point in each. direction can be determined, From theory of elasticity, it is known that My Mi tae, where Mf, = bending mom ‘M; = bending moment of the bending mor My, = bending moment in of the bending mome By using the finite difference operators, Eq. (7-2), the total bending moment (on a strip in the 1 ~ r direction can be expressed for an interior point = ey + W) + My — Dy + wm) The procedure of analysing a mat foundation by the method of finite differences is illustrated by a simple example shown in Plate DE7-7. A square subject only 15 unknowns in the network of 64 point arranged and tabulated on sheet 2 of Plate DE 7-7. tions are shown at the bottom of the tat the bending ‘moment at any point can be calculated, For example, at point 2, bending. moment My = DAG = Doe + Wi) + He — Be + ed) ‘The results of bending moment along the center line of this footing is shown in a graph on sl . The accuracy of the finite method deper divided. When the squares rBe numbers of equations are ns are employed. ‘In order to obtain larger deflection, a relatively thin footing, 12 im, is used inthis example,: cee Moment in tarme of @ oz 0.24] 16} ug} DEFT “Mat Foundation Finite Difference Method Shoe Given ‘A square footing 10'-0"x 11-0" subjected fo a central load @ = 100 kips tere" is = 3 «10%! I? B= O15 he 15 k= (00/bsseu in, 0 = ithe = 4.1944 x10%D in, ato = oonas O80 = 5.091075 « 16%. Moment by finite ditt. method ‘istribution At centerline of footing ‘Moment olong center line of footing Td ) | aaa recone Hl lele}cle/stetololols| enue ttc tomas PHL Shea 3]s}o}e}o}e)0//o} o/ofo}g| Sle] 3) (ris in 3) slfolfe fe -fe gals eb steltellalelet gel | . al sflel ofl l gl elRBISR| 3sfollel| ofa leleeleelol 2 & fs]clclelsla ie AA 2&1 2] //*Fe119] 8/2 *I8h9} glo} & Ei 3 HELPERS esl 3] 8lolelelelolelelel-lelolclelslal §] § | | J i fel lolloleltlel alSlololelslelalélololddé Brehel FOOTINGS AND MAT FOUNDATIONS cur. k =k PN ‘) (granular soil) 7) ah esive sol 1 k-3 (cohesive soil) on = cofiient of subgrade reaction fora very lng foting of width B, Bit cocficient of subgrade reaction for a very long footing of one foot width. Equation (7-6)is established from experi= SPO] as, PY mental results. Equation (7-7) may be derived by the following reasoning. Con t ing hv a os inthe al (Ras T-14 Effect of size of footing. ‘the sol within the pressure bulb only. For a footing having a width nB,, + and under the same unit load g, the depth of pressure bulb is nD, and con- sequently the settlement is nS. ‘That is ‘Therefore, 2 Effect of shape. For footings having the same width B under the same uniform load g and supported on the same soil, the value of k decreases with Increasing length L of the footing (Terzaghi, 19: pak + BD) 15 8) Where k = coefficient of subgrade reaction for rectangular footing having a length L and width B, ik, = coefficient of subgrade reaction for square footing (B x B). This equation indicates that k, value for an infin Uthat for a square footing. ng footing is equal to ee. 78 (COEFFICIENT OF SUBGRADE REACTION 187 3. Effect of depth. The modulus of elastcity* of sand increases with the depth and it may be expressed by the following equation Eq = Cyt where C = constant, depending on the property of sand; xy = density of sand; = = depth, Consider the sketch of a footing shown in Fig. | the settlement of the footing may be as a result of compression of ‘the the prenure bl i futher implied by jon of a cube Bx Bx B, the average depth 2 would be equal to D+ B/2. Substitute these values to the equation above, ‘cis = 4-61 22) ea Fa o(1 428 where k’ = coefficient of subgrade reaction of a foundation at depth D. For 2 footing on surface of ground, Therefore,1488 FOOTINGS AND MAT FOUNDATIONS nav. 7 _gabgrade reaction for granular soils should not be taken as greater than two that at the ground surfa ‘Based on the discussions above, a general equation may be written to jnclude the effect of size and depth for square footings on granular soils non Pt) (122) ot (ts!) a ei the ground to a great depth is practically constant depth. Therefore, the depth has no effect on the value of ha tion. ughout the ulus of founda- | Teble 71 coerriciner OF SUBORADE REACTION ky FOR LFF X LT RLATES On 5 : ‘Long Foormsos OF 1 Fr wipta® (Ib per cu in.) ap oe ie Granada slle Relative density Loose Meélum Dense 4s 130 0 Dry oF moist (Range = 20-70) (Range = 70-350) (Range = 350-1200) Submerged » 90 350 Cohesive sols Constancy Soft and very Sut Very sit Hard _ soft Uncoafined o4 12 2 4 and over steagth tons(sa fe Design as if 85 15, 380 foundation ie (Range = 60-120) (Range ~ 120-230) (230 and over) peefcty rigid * After Tercaghi (1955). sc. 7.9 (GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN DESION OF MAT FOUNDATIONS 189 However, for stiff and hard clays, the soil is actually partly cohesive and partly frictional. In such cases a general equation may be expressed to include the effect of depth and size of footing. oan 7-9 General Considerations in Design of Mat Foundations ‘When a mat is supported on strong bedrock, the column loads are trans- areas, Fig. 7-16(0). On soft soils, the pressure against the bottom of mat @ o Fig. 716 Types of pressure distibution under mat foundation. ae ‘en-shoped stim! Gyr ep 8cue. 7 jpproaches planar distribution, Fig. 7-16(¢)- Therefore itis fully to design & mat soft clay, medium clay, peat, and organic If necessary, the mat may be thickened to provide sufficient strength in the Be of Mat Foundation most invariably constructed of reinforced concrete kage cracks mats are poured in small areas, corPlate Eight A Plle Driver Driving Batter Piles | Piles may be made of timber, concrete, or steel, and a large variety of each the material andthe type of piles, the dete ‘capacity, the pile length, and the pile spacing. The s the lower soil strata must also be checked. In addition, adequate provision must be made for any lateral of uplifting force, The complete procedures for design and analysis of pile foundations are presented in this chapter. 8 PILE FOUNDATIONS 1 Use of Piles Piles may be used for the following purposes: 1. To transfer loads through water or soft soil toa suitable bearing stratum by means of end bearing of the piles (end-bearing or point-bearing piles). 2. To transfer loads to a depth of a relatively weak soil by means of “skin friction” along the length of the piles (friction piles). 3. To compact granular soils, thus increasing their bearing capacity (compaction piles). 4. To carry the foundation through the depth of scour to provide safety in the event the sol is eroded away. 5. To anchor down the structures subjected to uplift due to hydrostatic pressure or overturning moment (tension piles or uplift piles). 6. To provide anchorage against horizontal pull from sheetpling walls or other pulling forces (anchor piles). 7. To protect water front structures against impact from ships or other floating objects (fender piles and dolphins). 8, To resist large horizontal or inclined forces (baer piles). 8-2 Types of Piles - Piles may be classfed according to their composition or function.‘Table 1 OENERAL CHARACTERISTICS AND USE OF FILES . ‘Type of ple Usual maximum desien Advantages Disadvantages Common use Toad tons per ple ‘Timber 2s Tow cost per foot of pile Small bearing capacity ‘Timber is a realient material ‘uitable for impact absorp Untreated piles above ground fonter may last more than 25 Years but are not permanent tion Prone to damage by hard objects and crafts "Seving, should not be driven Timber testis and benis Gough hard. stratum or Foundation for temporary struc- ovlders ‘ures Precast fo, exept for ergs Relatively large being cape> Mut be enor t witht Ts oot ge beats “concrete pestesed piles ey handing stresses ‘Water front Permanent Requires space for exating and piers, bulkheads, ete.) | ‘Can be treated for sea water storage Foundation for bridges j installation ‘qatsstimetosetandcure before Prestressed piles of large bearing installation ‘capacity are advantageous ia Requires heavy equipment for bridge foundations | ‘handling and driving | ooars lage cost in cuting of ‘extra lengths or adding more i fengths (his i often the case since exact pile lengths can be | Getermined in advance only in txeeptional cass) | \ able 8-1 (cont) Type of pile Usual maximum desien Advanages isadvontages Common use Toad toe per pile Casvinplage 7S,exceptfor compacted Relatively large bearing ips desta piles | ay Permanent Can be treated for sea water installation Easy to alter pile lengths Damage due 10 handling oF driving ean be eliminated May be installed by. pre- ‘xcavation thus eliminating Gibration due to driving Composite Governed by the weaker Relatively low cost Small bearing capacity Joint between two parts consti= | fof the two parts Permanent tes damage due to driving Foundations for bulldings, ‘bridges, ete of moderate to beavy loads Foundations for _ biog, seem, of node dh eee polat prone to where upper part of piles is above ground water level ‘Steel 100 Large bearing capacity osibilty of damage from cor- Foundations for large structures Can” Ponetrate through sti’ rosin and electrolysis ‘of heavy loads ‘of boulders amively expensive unless the Trestles and bridge bents Small volume displacement of bearing stratum can develop ‘all large pile capecity Cantiand rough handling Les effective as fretion pile or ‘compaction pileO)96 mz rososmors come, 8 © composition of Pile: Timber: Plain ‘Treated with preservative pile, compaction pile, uplift pile, anchor pile, ened in Sc 8-1. The significant characeritice wc. 83 Toa rus 197 BB Preservative treatment. Untreated piles entirely embedded below property in the pile, (16 Ib per eu fof timber for pies in fresh wate, and 22 Ib in sea water) the protection against decay and attack is excellent, with the exception of few borers. After driven to final depth, all pile heads, treated or untreated, should be ‘awed square to sound undamaged wood to receive the pile cap. But before concrete for the pile cap is poured, the heads of the treated piles should be Protected by zine coat, ead paint, or by wrapping the pile heads with fabric should also be treated with creosote in the field. C. Splices of timber piles. Timber piles should preferably be driven the full length without splicing. Splices of timber piles should be avoided when piles are subjected to uplift or lateral forces. spliced portions are trimmed smooth and are fied tight sleave. This type of splice is simple to make, but it lacks ability uplift force. ‘The other method of splicing utilizes steel straps and bolts, The butting fends are sawn square, and the four sides are planed flat to receive the splicing, straps. This type of splice can resist some uplift and lateral force.yP.Orersring of tinber ples. One of the most significant drawbacks of piles isthe possibility of damage due to overdriving, Piles may be ee aeee foot of penetration during the pile of tit Si Sc aac ony observed. If there is any doubt as to nist in tentedtcvonattr oan: Seis ry, of so vn ples ay. be pulled out fr is 24 Precast Concrete Piles "Precast concrete piles are cast and cured in a casting yard, then shipped to the site for driving. Sometimes they are cast atthe site if space is available, | The information concerning the design and construction of precast piles are discussed below. 4 eB ‘The pipe piles may be spliced by butt welding, or by the use of a sleeve, ly | cafes Feet eH C. Dering points. Open-end pipe piles are usually driven with a square ess cat end without other aid, The comrion types of driving points (shoes) for YH ise Hf “Te sles of diving pins for sel files depends largely onthe ec o t Fa. 64 Splice of Hpk: () welded splice; (0) riveted of bolted spice | layers. Such base plates are useful for reducing the depth of penetration in 1 ft is E in by a he hard stratum when this stratum is thin and is underlain by a soft soil. _ tip of the pile. For major columns the pipe piles should be at least 10 in. ‘When steel piles are driven to hard rock, the problem of slippage of pile tips ‘In diameter, and the thickness of wall should not be less than in. The F ‘on the uneven or sloping surface should be considered. Lateral shifting or j= holce between the open-end andthe closed-end types depends upon the til sliding of a pile point may exceed several inches before itis seated in the rock. : Slippage is even more severe in the case of batter piles. To overcome this * Inetgation of the Strength ofthe Conncion between a Concrete andthe Embecied 1 Inselecting the type of piles to be used for a given job, the engine ‘ist familiarize himself with the characteristics of all the piles available. The information shown in Table &-1 and Fig, £4 are useful. The following 3s 3 Baily a = within Comerset 025 4¢ | 028s easy ® Point-bearing piles may be used if ard stratum or the bedrock is wit not but not f reeconabe depth andi ee noel belo tum which is too soft seeing sexlng fia) ‘sto impair the supporting capacity of the hard Pal Pai oan veto bear onthe bedrock can be extinated wih i ei to delineate the surface of bedrock. Steel $000 psi 8000 psi 120001 pi (uneased) (Concrete (epee 12000 sified pipe Gees (ese) piles) welded) i 7000 psi 90005 psi | (iin ele it Psi tre the soil, the magnit | 00s seer given in the next 7 welled * Note fe’ — concrete cylinder strength at 28 days. 1 Deduct 4 i. for eorosion >be 12 | Piun FOUNDATIONS cur. 8 ‘However, theory and experience have proven that the lateral restrain required to prevent pile buckling is very small, Therefore, in ordinary ‘aces when the unit stress in the pile is kept below the allowable value, here is no need for checking the buckling capacity. Buckling enters the design problem when piles are projecting above ground surface. In such cases, approximate analysis are generally made on the assumption that the piles are laterally supported at 10 ft below ground surface in soft soils, and 5 ft in firm soils. ‘However, in extremely soft mud, the pile may'not obtain any lateral support throughout the full depth of {fhe mud, In such extreme cases, pile load tests are desirable. B. Pile capacity as determined by the supporting strength of sol. 1. Point bearing piles. When ples ae driven to bedrock, the full structural strength often can be utilized, provided that the pile tip is well seated on the b fock. The capacity is impaired if lateral shifting or uplifting of the pile take place due to pile driving operation (Sec. 8-20). ‘The bearing capacity of piles driven on, or into, a hard strata or soft rock is vecy dificult to determine, and usually it can only be estimated by approx: | That formulae. This estimated value must be verified by «full-scale loading fest. Among a number of such so-called static pile formulae, the basic © bearing capacity equation (-1b) has given more reliable results ar = HRALSGNe + YDN + O6YRN) Gy) If the pile tip is embedded in a granular soil for a depth of f, the bearing capacity may be estimated. Quy = #RXyDN, + 0.6yRN,) + 2HRH, en where Quy = ultimate bearing capacity of single pile; R = radius of pile tip; ‘¢ = cohesion of soil; D = total penetration of pile, from ground surface to pile tip; ‘y= unit weight of soil above the supporting stratum, use buoyant ‘weight for the portion below ground water; Na Ny N, = beating capacity factors, depending on the g value of the soil, see See. 33; f= depth of penetration of pile tip in the suppo r of granular soil; f, =D — h]2)tan g, and g = angle of internal friction of the ‘supporting soil. When selecting the proper values of p and c for estimating the bearing capacity itis customary to asgume that the supporting sol isnot affected by sec, 8410 mux caracrry 213 pile driving. The assumption is on the conservative side because actully Within a distance of about three diameters below the pile tip and lateral distance of about two diameters from the pile the granular soil is highly compacted. 2. Pedestal type bearing piles. The bearing capacity ofa point-bearing coo hal op er i astra Poca Ts bo mt ‘be made of a precast concrete cone attached to the pile shell and driven in place, or it may be more effectively formed after the shell is driven. In the latter cas, stiff concrete mix (zero slump) i placed in the hole and driven by a heavy ram, thus a pedestal is formed by displacement of the surrounding soil (granular type only). Therefore, the capacity of the pile is increased as a inereased base area and the increased den in granular soils. The bearing capaci and gravel may be approximated by the formula proposed ‘by Ireland (1957). Quy = ZARLZ + 9) Ktanp 2) where Q,y = ultimate bearing capacity; ‘R= average radius of pile; = total length of embedment of pile; ‘y = unit weight of soil, taking average for full length of pile; should be used below ground water; of gravity ofthe embedded portion of the pile; teral earth pressure; for step taper concrete ‘use smaller values for steel piles; regained one month ile finally becomes stronger than the undisturbed ‘where the piles ate required to ing, this effect must be considered. In such casts, Taboratory tesis should be made to determine the disturbed strength andcohesive strength, is purely granular, the piles in loess. Results of a thorough investigation of piles in jt in Nebraska may be quoted as reference (Holtz and Gibbs, | When the dry density of loess is less than 80 Ib per eu ft, friction piles are not recommended. Piles should be driven to a lower, more results. 3, When the dry density of the loess is larger than 90 Ib per cu ft, the foundation may be supported on footing without piles. xc. 8:10 mma caracrry 215 In any event, the bearing capacity and the required length of piles can be determined only by pile load test. Dynamic driving formulae (Engincering- ‘News formula, etc.) generally will give misleading results. 11. Friction piles in several soil strata. Frequently piles are driven through derive their bearing ca om ‘part of its support from point-bearing and part ‘ultimate capacity of the pile is the sum of these two Driving energy = Work of pile penetration + Loss of energy or WE = RS+L where F = driving energy = weight x stroke of hammer, in ease of drop hammers or single acting hammers, fb; R = resistance of soil, Ib; '5 = pile penetration per blow, in.; L = loss of energy including los in impact, in driving cap, in pile and in soil. If Lis assumed to be proportionate to the pile resistance, it can be writen L=RC where C = empirical constant 0.1 for steam hammers and 1.0 for drop hammers. ~ 12E = RS + RC= OR R= ZF Ensincering News formula) es | stress, shown by a heavy line in Fig. 8-11(b), may be several times greater than a fair amount of fine particles (silt, clay, fine sand) water can not that urder a single individual pile. free and fast movement of water in the voids is possible. In soils or. ° 2 Pent 9 BME slo disturbs the surrounding soil and reduces the shear streagth to a fraction ate z I, Wot the original value. Immediately ater driving, however, the soil regains its qi A rapidly. Therefore, dynamic formula cannot be relied upon for | i Sen oa tion of pile capacity in soils containing a fair amount of fine grains. € ee 4 i ive vary ST fro ing-News formula, Eq. (@-3) indicates overly conservative values in @ o set cases and unsafe values in other cases. Hence no dynamic formula 1 Fig 411 Vera ses atthe level of fg. 12 Maximum capacity of pila uld be used for determination of pile capacity in general. However, pile ips, eo. are cases where dynamic formula may be used. These cases are: | sag tte pce fw group of etion pls. . In small jobs where piles are driven to coarse-grained soil and where the Similarly the stress overlapping a group of friction pi cos of ple oad tet is doproporona othe ob cont. The dyuamic ‘Uses the piles in a pile group are spaced at great distance o that thee i no ©. formula should be used ively and cautiously. significant overiapping of stres, which is highly impracties, He Deine | 2. In localities where sufficient knowledge exists as to the reliability of the capaci group is usualy less than the sum vi ‘practice the pile spacin {in the accompanying table are formula when piles are driven to certain layer under certain conditions. capacities. the ple spacing ven in me - 3. As a criterion as to when to stop driving if the bearing capacity is etn of ples ‘Miimim ple space, expected tobe the same as that ofthe test pile and of other piles driven center to center of les : ; OO rnrec in ho samo subs i int-bearing piles in bard stratum 2 batt diameter, or 26 in The penetration resistance should be used also as 2 guide against the i Peatteatng 0 2 othe dameter or 280i. possibility of damage of pile due to overdriving. | tess to support 2 : ‘support a foundation wall, unless the substructure is so framed as to bring. ! 1 egw ay munis of pt wil comps th ol a ak the load concentrically tothe centroid of piles. Consequently, piles are seldom apace seater than ovecua. & In any event the pile spacing should be checked for group capacity Pd for settlement, he bearing capacity of a pile group may be analysed by the following Frsethod (Terzaghi and Peck, 1948). In this method two assumptions are © Therefore, the eaire block may be visualized as one deep footing, Fig, 8-12. REI The ultimate bearing capacity is then , Z Q, = sEp + uA — yLA eH 4 = shear resistance of soil along the vertical surface of the block; ‘= £ x unconfined compression strength for cohesive soils, = earth pressure at rest x tan g, for granular soil with angle of interal friction 95 L = length of pile embedment in sol; P = perimeter of area enclosing all the piles in the group; ‘2ay = ultimate bearing capacity of soll at the level of ple tip; A = area enclosing all the piles in the group; 1 = unit weight of soil within the block L x A. ion piles in sand is greater than nQ when to the benefit of compaction. However, the reverse is true for friction piles in soft clays. 812 Stress on Lower Strata Since the use of elastic theory for determination of vertical stresses in the ‘oil surrounding and below the pile tips is extremely laborious for practical ‘cases, several approximate methods have been proposed. Among them the sec. 812 [STRESS ON Lowe STRATA. 219 SO-degree rule has been accepted by a number of building codes. These ‘methods are discussed below. @ Fig. 6413 Approximate methods for determination of streses on lower strata, —ius FOUNDATIONS cur. 8 3 Settlement Analysis total settlement ofa single pile under axial load is complex because it consist of a number of components: HL Elastic compression of the pile. 2. Movement (or slip) of pile relative to the surrounding soil, 3. Settlement of surrounding soil due to pile load; this comprises elastic deformation and plastic deformation (consolidation). 4, Settlement of so under the pile tip-also elastic and plastic deformations. = 5, Creep of pile material under constant axial load. | When the lod is released all the elastic deformations will be recovered, total amount of the recovery is known as rebound. The net setlement, afer deduction of rebound from the gross settlement, is of primary signif. res seems of 0 ney of ne tesa moe compar temas of "analysis varies with the type of piles and the soil conditions. Each case is discussed separately below, __ A. Point-bearing pile on bedrock. If the pile tips are well seated on the “Tock and if the rock snot soft the net settlement ofa test ple should not be Gore than a fraction of an inch after deduction of rebound. However, well- ‘designed and constructed buildings supported on piles driven to solid hard fettlement of the test ple. The larger settlements are thought to be the result ‘of one ot more of the following factors: 1, Small uplift of piles due to driving of adjacent piles. 2. Long time ereep of pile material under constant load. 3. Overlapping of stress in soil. 4. Negative skin ftiction as a result of disturbance of clay due to pile driving, Even under the influence of ail these factors, the total net settlement of well-designed and constructed pile foundations on bedrock generally will not beso large as to cause special concern or analysis, unles the bedrock is soft. In this case, quantitative analysis is very difficult and in practice it can only be fstimated by judging from the characteristics ofthe rock core sample, Local txpericnce, if available, should be relied upon as guidance. 1B, Polat-bearing piles in sand and gravel. The load-settlement relationship ofa single pile driven in granular soils can be readily determined by load test sec. 8.13 sermaner anatves 721 since the settlement of such pervious soils takes place shortly after load application. However, the test must be so made to differentiate or eliminate the skin friction, as discussed in Sec. 8-19. Wa of pe gan Fig. 614 Settement of group of poin-bearng piles ia ‘After Skempton. sand. Engineers should never overlook the possibility of additional settlement ue to layer or layers of weak soil below the or hard layer which laboratory tests on the basis of broad assumptions, apy simplifications. In ‘not feasible in almost all construction pi cefore, if pile load tests are conducted for the purpose of determining the ultimate bearing capacity, e obtained by nations end the load settlement relationship as established by the tests must be interpreted with extreme caution. ~ =GPL FOUNDATIONS awe. 8 [D. Friction piles In page frictc sand and gravel. The load-settlement relationship of a be determined reliably by pile load ively brief since settlement insuch driving, and hence, the damage due to driving disturbance does not affect the useful strength of the founda- ig.0-15 Example of requ of clay exength made, as already discussed in Sec. afer pile driving. After Seed and Reese, ee On 8-14 Design of Pile Caps ig. 16 Typical arrange- meat of ple groups. “Theory, model tests, and field measurements have proved tha one group do ot take equal reaction, Instead, the center pikes take less than the outer piles and the ‘corner piles are subjected tothe greatest reaction.‘7UB FOUNDATIONS 8 a2 MM Qn PAs tie Qn = axial load on any given pile m, Q = total vertical load acting at the centroid of the pile group, |= number of ples inthe group, = My M, = moment with respect to the X and Y axes respectively, ies x,y = distance of pile from Y and X axes respectively. Bf WV a a Tie sec. 815 unre DS Xand ¥ axes are two perpendicular axes passing through the centroid of the pile group. In the cases where piles are arranged in one row at uniform pile spacing 5, the following equation may be used. 1 2G) = emer — D where n = number of piles in the row. Pile caps, similar to spread footings, may have pedestals, stepped or sloping tops. One eap may also support more than two columns, and in this case, the design principles are discussed in Chapter 7. Pile caps should be large enough to have a minimum edge distance of 4 in. to 6 in, of concrete beyond the outside face of the exterior piles. It driving conditions where the actual locations of piles may deviate co from the required, the edge distance should be increased to provide for such field variations. Ordinarily the piles are embedded at least thecapand the reinforcing bars are placed ata clear distance of 3 in. above the pile head. ‘Therefore the effective depth d of a pile cap is generally about 10 in. less than the total depth D of the pile cap. 815 Uplift ‘When piles are required to resist uplift force in excess of the dead load of Timber piles* embedment placed in water). Expanding into the pile heads were found of no significant be inforcing must be extended it th by bond or by means of ot Js or strap anchors may be welded to the pile Uplift resistance of a pil capacity under compre against compression and upli * Public Roads, mx (Nov, 1928) p. 16%.pb wax FOUNDATIONS cur. 8 mec, 817 aaren vruss 27 i it resi ing its bear i i ile hea Sf the force, granular soils may not have an uplift resistance approaching its bearing. ‘of pile, the type of soil, the embedment of pile head, the nature of Except for friction piles in soft clays, the uplift capacity of the and the amount of lateral movement considered acceptable, The lateral * pile determined by pull tests. When large uplift forces are ‘movement is generally limited to 2 in. for building and 4 in. or larger for ant the pedestal type piles may be of merit. tisoellaneous structures such as transmission towers. Based on a number of J The total uplift resistance of a pile group is the smaller of the following full size tests, allowable horizontal loads have been proposed and are shown, in Table 8:3. 1. Uplift resistance of a single pile ‘times the number of piles in the group; Toble 3. ALLOWABLE HORIZONTAL LOAD ON VERTICAL ILES™ 2. Uplift resistance ofthe entire group (Gor di. lateral mover) F] as a block, Fig. £18, Type of ple Pile Sead ‘Type of sil Allowable load per ile) From Bctaky 956, mata JAE + D), where pL and D are shown inthe figure, s = shear { Fae eadcoaiton may be attained by embedding the pile head at lest 24. in the resistance = ¢ + o tang. o isthe normal stress on the surface of the cota op block, and may be taken asthe earth pressure at rest. c and » are the . cohesion and angle of internal friction ofthe soil It should be noted that vertical piles driven in a deep bed of soft or very soft clays and silts should not be relied upon for resisting lateral force unless itis very small, say 1000 1b. Conerete piles subjected to lateral forces in excess of about 1000 Ib each pile should be reinforced to withstand the flexural stress. “616 Lateral Load “Any structure is inevitably subjected to a certain amount of horizontal , force due to wind, earth pressure, ee., or traction forces from automobiles or ‘rains. It is unsafe to assume that frictional resistance exists between the bottom of the pile cap and the soil because in this type of foundation the Vertical load is transmitted through the piles to the lower stratum, not to the soil immediately below the pile cap. In extreme cases, the soil may even fom under the pile caps and leaving a small space in between. supported laterally by other means, the piles should be | esigned to resist such lateral loads. ‘The amount of lateral force carried by each pile or pile group depends upon the structural framing which brings the lateral forces down to the bottom of ‘the columns. It is common to utilize the basement floor or tie beams to distribute the horizontal load to a large number of piles. Batter piles are ‘eneraly resorted to when the lateral force exceeds the allowable amount. ‘The allowable lateral load on a given pile foundation depends on the type 8-17 Batter Piles a joad as a vertical pile of the wumm, There are several meth method” involves rather unrealistic assumptions. ~1. The most crude and conservative method is one that provides enough ‘attr ples to resist all the horizontal foree. The capacity of a batter pile in resisting tal Wi along the direction of batter. hi od certainly requires more : WAH ‘ecessary for a given condition and is ; Wi \\ not commonly used. peel) \\ 2. A-commonly used method of anal- wo (@) Sketch » profile of the pile foundation and locate the center line of F ‘each group of paralle! piles. © (&) Draw the resultant R of all external forces applied on the pile founda- tion. R intersects the center line of the pile group 1 (vertical piles) at point a, (© Intersect centerline of group 2 and center line of group 3 at b. Connect . ob. (6 Resolve R into components V and B. Vis vertical and B is parallel to line ab. (© Group 1 is subjected to total axial force V. Group 2 and group 3 are subjected to force B. (f) Resolve force B into axial loads along center line of group 2 and center mc. 817 arte vass 229 ‘weight of the soil above the base, is already determined. The magnitude, slope, and point of application of this force R are shown. ‘The solution of this problem can be found by following the steps outlined above. The procedure for determination of lateral movement is discussed later in this section.Determine lateral movement based on pile loods calculated ‘by Calmann's Method: ly eypsattras FOUNDATIONS cur. 8 4, Another simple and commonly used method is referred to as the Pratytical method and is shown here step by step, Fig. 8-20. This method is, posed on the same assumptions as the Culmann’s method. | got pens : a L nel OS RT. : ows Ei * voy Fann] i Fig 628 Analytical method. {tal component H. } ‘were vertical. Therefore, Where n = total number of piles, ¢, = eccentricity = distance between Vand center of gravity of piles, x = distance of mile to center of gravity of pies. 3. Bach plé is assumed to be subjected toan axial oad, Ry, Re Who8e vertical component i equal to the corresponding vertical reaction determined | im step 2. This can be done analytically: Rass were0 = ange betel and the vet 1. Resolve resultant force R into a vertical component V and & horizon- |”umber of elastic methods have been proposed among which the (© The soil surrounding the ple is elastic and exerts an clastic redistance =~ against rotation and translation of the pile (Hrennikoff, 1950). "The pile heads may be assumed fixed or free depending upon the conditions of embedsnent. “This method is quite laborious and requires a knowledge of the coeficent ‘of horizontal subgrade reaction k. For the purpose of design, the values given by Terzaghi (1955) may be used: ‘Sand. The cocfcient of horizontal subgrade reaction k may be computed from ban ‘where k, = coefficient of horizontal subgrade reaction for a one foot wide pile at one foot depth. The values of ky are given below in tb peru in, ems snt Snvnt Doce wd Dryormost 8 Submemed 4 ° Z = depth, fe. B= width of pile, ft. Clay, The coefficient of horizontal subgrade reaction k may be taken as keh where ky and B are defined as a sore tas fy for clays are given below in per ou in, Sancy Sip chy Yer al cy Hed to 390 ‘The procedure for oresiig te eon is described in Fig. 821.1. Elastic constonts for single pile: Wood pile driven fo rock; assume no slipping Ax cong Ay ting ok ng rare X= corte fe head (= roneere placement, f th ght As aad ~ Ay on xcs 5 Deen ct { longa fre (compression) # AN bater piles 3:1 (=108°267 7 tan (cg hp fg ot i Mr ' Pie spocing 3°-6°% = mame (tog on th etn hock) = My = Ma gest rtaoteacamiiot tern. Afar A Heat ' sings = 094869 sin? #09 sgn0 cor$ = 03623 co $ =O! cupe0 A= Fah a= — he veers fe snap =0 Q I .w line ce perpendicular to pile R, and at a distance 4, from point ‘intersection b. Draw de perpendicular to pile R, and at a distance 4, from point of intersection. (@ Intersect ce and de at point e. Horizontal distance between points b and e is the lateral movement. = =[1265 x0! +0.493109)3 +(0.493)2] = ~82* (265 ~0.493){(-0.6)3 +0] = +238" (265-0.493N30 + 60X-06)+38.9(3x0.94869 +2110) 920" f2s510.9)3 265110124 048310003) ~1245* ,493X01}(-60-30+0) +265(LON36+84)) 0.3623 = ~10320"* =H (01160 + 30% 0)+ 265(L0K 36% + B42)] “Bas 1f-as2s(-00-300))-5x6 140 =-3,320,000""* Values inthis example are taken from “Analysis of pile foundations with batter piles” by A. Hrennittf, Trans. ASCE Vol. tS, 1950 ‘The vole of 265" for woodpile is excessive. tooe. 818 NeaaTIvE SKIN FRICTION 239 8-18 Negative Skin Friction F sove Si Equations: Negative skin ftiction a downward drag acting on the piles due to relative movement between the piles and the surrounding soil. When piles 7i2ax + 23647 - 69200 -394=0 are driven through compressible soils, and the site has a newly placed fill or 238dx ~ (245ay - 103200 +1131=0 will be filled in the future, the possibility of negative skin friction should be ~69204x -10320Ay - 3,320,000: 2081 = 0 is x= 0.802 sible soils. Lowering of ground water level in such compressible soils may ay = -0.073" also bring about negative skin friction. If there is any doubt as to the com ‘& = 0.00128 radion gfe Pie toe small amount, the pile capacity should be reduced to compensate the drag due to negative skin friction. ‘The conditions which cause negative skin friction on ples or other types of 4 -0.80210.94869)-(-0.0734-0.3632)-0.00120(-€0H ep foundation are shown in Fig. £23. Under the weight ofthe new fil, or = -0.8uh ailiaatteeniies 0.51628) | due to the lowering of ground water to a level below the compressible layer, 41z 60.8920.31623) + (-0.073)1.0) + 0.00128 (-60N0.94869) + 38.9(0.00128) = 0.46" (transverse) 6i40(0.00126) = -39.3* Pca or cong ses aoe ps ent shown br Finat }) stresses are tobuicted below: ie FileNo.t —PileNo.2 Pile No.3 PilaNo.4 Pile No.5 fi 2370" saat 4.00 §— p10" sg % ast aaa. “aaa, oat 1th fe -3330e4 “t “sa00%+ -s.00%! -s9gom+ Socom Gonetasions: Requires 25°" woodple at 1:3 botter Lateral movement = 0,802 in, ak fai i et ng40 mE FOUNDATIONS cur. 8 phery ofthe pile group as a whole. Therefore the negative skia friction, (S200 2 pile group is te NS aly + yb rr = nelnd Where 4 = shear resistance of the soils vor = cohesion = } unconfined compression strength of cohesive soils, i= Ntang for-cohesionless soils ( may be taken as the earth Dressure at rest, and g isthe angle of internal friction), -{ "" L = length of pile embedment above the bottom of compressible layer; ‘A = area enclosing al the piles; = perimeter ofthe area 4; 1 = usit weight of soil, average for length Z (ise buoyant weight for the portion below ground water level), 4 = average diameter of the pile in the length L, ‘n= number of piles in the group. (whichever is smaller) 19 Test Piles Test piles are used for two purposes: For test driving, to determine the length of pile before placing orders for purchase of piles. 2 For load test, to determine or verify the design capacity of piles. Load test may be conducted for diferent load conditions: Compression load Uplift oad Lateral load Generally load tests are made to determine the bearing capacity and to ‘tablish the load settlement relationship under compression load. Loca building codes generally require such tests unless the pile capacity is kept Under certain limits when driven to a certain depth under certain driving Fequirements whichis proven safe in the locality. When piles are required to ‘esist large uplift or lateral force, corresponding tes Usually the pile foundations are designed on an estimated capacity which it arrived from a thorough sol study. At the beginning of construction, load tests are made for the purpose of verifying the adequacy of the design ‘apacity. If the test results show an inadequate factor of safety or excessive ‘ellement, the design must be revised before construction is under way. sc. 819 mest mes 241 Occasionally, time and money may be available for pre-design tests. In such cases, the tests can be carried out more extensively to determine the most thus resulting in large savings in the total con- 1ot inexpensive and the results may be terpreted properly. The procedures of clays or silts. This peri Jess than three day: 2. Methods and procedures the procedures for conductin in the ASTM Procedures bo referred. However, several pertion, two test piles should be used adjacent to each other, One of the loudctement curve ofa pile fad tt (6 ‘settlement; (b) net settlement, eos mac. 8419 nsrmas 243 This clastic deformation of « test pile can be readily determined by measuring the rebound upon unloading (see unloading curve). In the ‘fzample given in Fig. £-24, the net settlement under a total lond of 100,000 Ib is 0.20 — 0.14 = 0.06 in. 4 Bearing capacity. The bearing capacity of a pile must satisty two requirements: () The factor of safety against ultimate failure should not beless than 20r 3, (©) The load will not incur an objectionable amount of settlement. For building foundations, itis often limited to 0.01 in, per ton of pile load at the test load (2 x design load). Greater settlement may be justifed in some other foundations, - to failure, the bearing capacity can be readily definition given above. Unfortunately, most |. Fifty per cet of the yield point-a yield point is defined as the ple load at which an increase in load produces a disproportionate increase in settlement, 2 One-half ofthe load which causes a net settlement of 0.01 in, per ton of test load. +. One-half of the load under which no additional settlement takes place during a 40-hour period. 1a practice, piles often penetrate a soft layer or layers before they encounter ‘sti soil. An analysis must be made to determine the possibility of loss ofMe mar rounparions cour. 8 skin friction in the soft soil as a result of consolidation. If necessary, the design capacity should exclude the total skin friction of pile in such layer or layers. 8-20 Construction of Pile Foundations A. Pile dtiving equipment, Piles are installed by a special pile driving device known as a pi for driving vertical and batter piles. Several types of hammers are in use and each of which has different sizes. ‘The hammer types are: The drop hammer consists of a heavy ram in between up to a certain height and released to drop and therefore not in common use. It is a small number of piles are driven. ‘A photograph and cross-sections of this type of haramer are shown in Fig. 825. “A differeatial acting hammer i also double acting but uses diffrent steam cycle for rising and driving the ram. ‘Secton 6-9mec. 8.20 CONSTRUCTION OF Pitz FOUNDATIONS 247 rethod has been used in Europe, Asia, and the U.S.A. (Engineering News-Record, 1961). In construction of pile foundations several parts and devices are frequent}, ‘sed. For convenient reference, they are defined as follows: Anvitis the part at the bottom of a power hammer which impact ofthe ram and transmits it to the head, Drive cap or helmet is made of cast steel to be placed on top of pile to prevent the pile head and to maintain the axis of Follower is an extension used between the pile and tt ‘hammer when the pile head is below 1 a wide range of weights, choice of hammer type ‘The advantages and disa Single-acting ‘compact or har we heavy ram striking at low velocity produces leastsas er oi ‘Table 84 DATA yom SELECTION OP FA BALOGES FOR DRIVIND COMESETE, (Roo stan. WOETPILNG UNDER AVERAGE AND HAV DRIVENO Leneth Depth of Shee pile ‘ofplle penetration «Light ‘Medium = Heavy D)__ Geren) (fib per blow) [Driving trough Earth, Sand, Looe Gravel-Normal Frietional Resistance 2 2 ‘o00-1800 1000-1800 1900-2500 100 Yooo-teco fomn-3e00 | temo 2600 eDO-T2sD © 3AO-TSOTASO-HTSD ” 0 too-3eco temo-g6o0 3e00-«2003e00-e7s0 7350750, 750-1500) 13000-25000 109 1ao0-s4o0 Sgoo-amso 3400-7500 7250-6750 7280-18000 13000-15000 15000-25000 s 2 3600-7500 3600-8750 13000-15000 19000-36000 109 ‘3600-8750 13000-19000 19000-36000 ‘2 Driving through Stff Clay, Compacted Gravel-Very Resistant 7s 0 soo ison 1em0-2500 1900-4200 7250-6750 725D- SISO TON "5150-15000 109 yo00-2500 Ie seoo1aoD= 4200 7250-8750 7250-8750 7250-15000 13000-15000 » 2 oo 400 3400-4200 3600-750 7250-15000 TasD-tstNp 13000-15000 13000-28000 100 ‘3600-8750 3600-13000 13000-15000, 19900-36000 s 2 ‘30-8730 3600-13000 13000-15000 19000-36000 10 "7500-19000 13000-25000 19900-36000, ‘Weight (per in.) 2m 2m ob 0b ow 190 40018 ‘Pie size (apprOX) isin 1Sin 1Si, (Bin diam 1850. iam Rit int ‘= Teanense Valley Authority. har equi ia ding engl thst i, Dove the wien diving tole ate, Supp and amp Buu ‘uy SUIS aw ssauscy fF24C7 sory pap po pond a8 3th ys05 a8 cs948 Jo S05 OLB iqesous8 a s2usy Sum20-719R0CT cowianxe ty ROP susoseq Aur SUPALP yeondde af zaywm Sompnas yoouudmbe SurALP ‘pure sourarey Jo ayer pore odAs OAL “T ‘ona “aoggsna “deo SAU _sxpo any ‘48009 pares 30 240s 5} -punos8 yos Ay ng ‘scurry Bupow-qqnop 68 LOR qos po ‘wsoospeoy sso sabes ‘paods 350) 18 ds gL, “Sop eure som! ‘eee mommoyat a “ess 20 az of AU “post BaP ott “(aso ‘hay pacony exaust] UY apap pmnoge x “uo Aspro we wr 1629 99 PION ‘wsaport 30 38 0 Sd aALP 1 pa ‘2q eo spout ‘neo sony JO: -ywawarmber 00x04 army pus paods Sup noy are sBnueapesp oAL, Heda oF np ofEUTEP or 67% sMonVaNNOE FT 20 NOHLDNHISNOOcuar, 8 In order to stop driving in time before the pile is damaged by overdriving, moc. 8:21 DAMAGE, ALIONRGNT, AND EFFECT OF PIE DRIVING 251 the behavior ofthe ple during the entire period of driving should be observed. Itis time to stop driving a timber pile when the following phenomena are observed. 1. ‘The pile shivers and springs near the ground surface. 43, Tho pile head shows distress under moderate driving. Pile may bave been already damaged if the following behavior is noticed: 1. Penetration suddenly increases or becomes irregular, whereas the’ soll formation cannot acoount for it. the completion of all pile driving. they should be redriven. A small harmful, 2. Check the location of all piles after th variation may throw a great in such cases, the pile reactio ‘crude procedure devised instruments, unless load test is made"2. Heave, Pile driving in clays and dense sand is commonly associated with ‘surface heave, and sometimes with lateral displacement. The upbeaval may well exceed a foot in plastic toils. The heave of clay is followed by [settlement immediately after driving. Piles uplifted by ground heave ghould be redriven. To avoid heave and lateral movement, pile driving |. should be started from the center of the ground and proceed outwards. per cent or more of itsA Cutout View of a Drilled Caisson In Clay before Placement of Concrete ‘Advancement in the construction equipment and techniques ‘has made the drilled caisson one of the most commonly used types of foundations. This chapter deals with the procedure of design and construction including a brief description ofthe caisson excavating machines. 9 DRILLED CAISSONS 9-1 Use of Drilled Calssons ‘The terms caisson, foundation pier, and sub-pier are interchangeably used .drical foundation with or without steel reinforc- A drilled largely a compression member subjected to an axial - load at the top and a reaction atthe bottom. When properly designed, it can resist bending moment. In comparison with other types of deep foundations, 2 drilled caison has the following advantages: 1. It can be carried through soils that prevent penetration of piles. Machine died caissons have been constructed to a depth greater than 100 ft in very dense sand and gravel deposits with standard penetration resistance greater than 100 blows per foot. 43. It does not displace any volume of soil, therefore, the problem of 3g and lifting of piles is eliminated. 4, It requires comparatively mobile and light construction equipment which is simple to operate, consequently, the cost of construction isRIED cAISIONS aur.9 generally low, Further economy is achieved because it does not require concrete cap for pile group. ', The soll or rock conditions at the bottom of the caisson can often be inspected visually and tested physically. Because of economical and other advantages, the drilled caisson has ‘become one of the most popular types of foundations in recent years. Tall ‘buildings, bridges and highway interchanges, wharves, and many other heavy structures have been supported on hand excavated or drilled caissons. Tn the © cost by ever fold. Thin inet nvaaiy nif tbls be eacvatd | im saturated granular soils. 9-2 Types of Drilled Calssons ‘The drilled caissons may be classified according to the materials used, ‘When a caisson consists of a straight shaft without a bell bottom, it is mac. 9.2 ‘rvmss oF peaLtep cansoxs 257 virtually a pre-excavated cast-in-place pile. A caisson that consists of a steel shell is the same as a pipe pile. The pipe may be driven before or after the excavation of the soil inside it. The difference of terminology in such cases hhas no engineering significance. It is generally called a pile when driven in a ‘group of two or more to support a column and a caisson when constructed Fig. %1 Common types of drilled cxissons conceatially with the column and when the shaft is suficiently large to ‘permit a workman descending in it. However, in exceptional cases, tWo OF ‘more caissons are used under of estan Caton ae called Cage ws ow cso, > depending on the method of construction as discussed fater. \soil replaced by its not suficiently large to warrant the refinement, 5! 2 Establish the masimum water lvel-Set 2-12. * 3, Sketch a soll profile or profiles showing the sil sr ground at the site. On the sketch superimpose an Proposed structure and the foundation-Sec. 2-13. 4. See arog strat strata and the allowable bearing pressure- 5, Check for danger of overstressing the sol strata below-Sec. 9-6. ; ‘must be taken into consideration is the so-called a friction. A negative skin frition is a dragging force aloog the ‘ofa caisson when the soil surrounding the ebaft i setting, whereas, the mac, 94 seanina CAPACETY OF DRILLED CAISSONS 259 caisson resting on a ard stratum stays stationary. The surrounding so m8} cares result of dewatering ofthe site, compression from a surcharge load (additions camp or deterioration of organic content of the sol. As long. downward movement of the soil with respect to the 2 a there a dg which tends to exert an additonal load to the ‘bottom of the caisson. “The principle and procedure for determination of negative skin friction discussed in Sec. 8-18 are applicable to caissons. In the numerical example, Seo 9-13, the effect of negative skin friction is included. ‘As Drilled calsoons on cobesive sails. According to Skempton (4951) the: ltate bearing capacity of a circular footing o= caisson is gen = Ne where ¢ = cohesion which may be taken as one-half ofthe unconfined com pression strength. “rhe value of N depends on the depth/diameter ratio of the caissor D. Depthidiam caisson bottom 0 0.5 1.0 15 20 25 30 400 and over Value of Ne 62 7.17.7 8:1 84 86 88 9.0 Since a caisson is drilled in the ground, the depth/diametes mato seldom Sine tes than 1 and the value of N ranges from 7.1 to 9.0, Taking o® becomes Et and using & factor of sfty of 3 for normal Toning, the ‘llowable bearing pressure may be expressed as Go = 1d on fined compresive strength of the clay. Tt may be noted thin 10 per cent when the depth/diameter ratio “Therefore, it may be considered as a general B. Drilled calssons on sand and gravel. Equations (6-1a) and (6-2) may be applied to drilled caissons. They are a= Bar, + 2000 + NDDR, oa) B+ 1), ga = MA4ON = ata) x 20)DRILLED CAINS cur. 9 sc. 9-5 {HEN FRICTION oF CASON SHAFT 261 assumption that on sand and gravel a deep foundation settles experience in the locality is lacking the bear bo bal as much as a foundation at the ground surface; eee asunedcqealva tat on he sures oteeks vom of LN = number of blows per It in standard penetration tests; bration the problem soften further complicated been of presence of ‘B = diameter of caisson bottom, ft; fee water in the socket. Quite often there is a certain amount of seepage i ‘water flowing into the caisson either through the rock joints and fissures, D = depth of caisson, f; If D > B, use the value of B in calculation; along the rock surface, or from higher elevations. As a result, ae Re» Ry = reduction factors, see Fig. 6-4. is usually poured under water, or ese poured against an upward seepage °C. piled calsons on bedrock. Local building codes usually stipulate safe ects, The ater proces dara: Tihs cs, the quality and ing val ies for concrete and steel pile on bedrock, These values are based es the concrete may contol te bering pseu, ‘on past experience sad are generally on the conservative side. If such infor- ftictonal of the rock socket is sufficiently rough to ensure large is lacking, reference is made to the discussion on engincering frictional resistance, In hard rocks, the resistance may be taken as the bond | es of rocks in Chapter 1. If rock samples are tested in unconfined value Setween conrte and reinforcing ba 1 sot ost i i allowable resistance strengt ‘which must be ‘machine, usually # to 4 of the test value is used as allowal Boru ty he cen sus ‘When a socket is made in the bedrock and the concrete with or without a It should be re-emphasized that bearing values should be reduced if ul cote is extended int Fi. 9D, the bearing capacity ofthe elon ike 1, Free water softens the soil or rock during construction. steel shell may be considered as being consisted of three components: 2. Conerete i : . , fearing of the steel shell or pipe on the ledge of the rock socket, the bearing Coneeeis poured under water-pouring concrete aginst seepage i ‘of the concrete with the core on the bottom of the socket, and the shear 4 nee ; friction between the concrete and the side of the rock socket. If the entire oe soi fo mul accumulates on the bottom of easton andi dificult caisson (shell, core, and concrete) acts as one unit, as is always desired, the removed completely. timate bearing capacity would be equal to the sum of these three com- discussed below. 9-5 Skin Frictic a "Doonase of irregular rock breakage, the end of the ste! pipe is generally fin Frition of Calsson Shaft pearing partly on the edge of rock socket, and partly on the concrete Plug A dried caisson of relatively small diameter carried to a great depth in ‘which fills the socket. It is commonly’ assumed that the entire stress in the stiff or compact soil may derive large portion of its bearing capacity from— pipe is transferred to the concrete plug, not to the rock edge, This assumption the skin friction between the shaft surface and the surrounding soil. In such Rronservative, and leads to the common practice that bearing capacity of cases, the computation ofthe uitimate bearing capacity should include the dalled caisson in rock socket consists of end bearing and side friction, oF avallable skin friction which, unfortunately, is dificult to determine. Ia large 7D bond, regardless ofthe use of steel shel. projects where cost of load texts is justified, caisson Toad test may be planned The bearing eapecity of rock increases with increasing depth of the socket. such tha the capacity due to skin fiction and that due to end bearing cam be Many building codes recognize this fact and permit a certain amount of ilferentiated. This may be done in several ways. For example, one test additional allowable bearing pressure for each foot increase. Terzaghi i (1946) quoted the following results of concrete tests an = Gu + 41D where quy ~ ultimate bearing pressure of concrete under a confining pressure Po 4 = unconfined compressive strength of concrete. ‘The true relationship between the depth of socket and the bearing capacity of rocks difficult to determine, because ofthe presence of joints, bedding planes, ven in an appareatly uniform deposit, and a considerable j vd fesure, et in rock formations, tis a common practice that when pest ittpreaon of sonsdonsierequacds Sndgement endcur. 9 small and average sized projects, an approximate evaluation of the friction ‘may be necessary. Such evaluation, as described ith conservative factor of safety. ‘between cohesive soils and the caisson shaft cannot exceed assumed to be equal to one-half of i ‘and hard clays, cy rough, the coeficient of friction i equal to tan p where pis the soil. Since the caisson shaft is practically uniform ‘against itis probably the earth pressure at rest. "f, may be expressed as (KeyD) x (D)2) x wd i rest, and Sp=O.7yaD¥ tang 3) | where 5; = total ultimate skin tiction, 1b; ‘y= average unit weight of sil-use submerged weight for sll below water level, pef; d= diameter of caisson shaft, D = depth of caisson from ground surface to top of bell, f; ‘9 = angle of internal friction of the toil. 9-6 Stress on Lower Strata ‘Thus the average stress at a depth z Toad Qis equal to 40/m(B + 2), where B: justified by ignoring the effect several feet by a drag line. During the chopping operation sec, 9-11 ‘CONSTRUCTION OF DRILLED casssoNs 277 solid metal with blunt cutting edges. Teeth or the choppi break the rock by continued chopping action as the bucket filled with water which, being constantly stirred, keeps the rock chips in suspension and therefore enables the chopping action to te directed on a ‘more or less fresh rock surface at the bottom of the hole. ccavated first by drilling with the equipment for the the bottom of the drilled shaft is considered satis- 11, the bells then enlarged by means of a reamer. Fig. 9-9. When the kelly the same time the reamer 3g out the arms. ting edges on the arms ream the side of the into a bell. Plate 9 is a photograph of a bell a heavy duty caisson ex- "The principal parts of this machine are a hammer grab, 'd hydraulic devices for moving and supporting 1g toot weighing about 3000 Ib. Different ‘the bottom for eXcavating different types278 pRRLED CAISIONS “fimteral, The boring tobe isa heavy casing with cutting ede atte 1oWet God. Te is held by a collar which transmits @ roc ig rotation and ‘fertical motion to the boring tube. The reciprocating is achieved by Tarecation of two opporite hydraulic ecks scting horizootlly on a boom «enced to the collar, Two other hydraulic rams operate vertically on the Seep 99 Rea bs Por cof Cr eae calla o aise and Tower the tbe, and roe the tube into the ground ‘Juring the boring ection. The combination ofthe two movements keeps (vs fn friction to a minimum thus facilitates toft soil the tube can be advanced ahead of the to insure the stability of the ground. In hard i anced ahead of the tut 1B. Concrete placement, The major prob concrete are segregation and underwater

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