Mass & Balance (CHAPTER 1- INTRODUCTION AND UNITS vont “Tw Loxoina Masa. 1 “peril mearrement 2 Mario menureot - 2 : 2 (CHAPTER 2~ CENTRE OF GRAVITY... (Centon Gravy Postion = 2 The fet of Weight a | I et Geral Pion $ Monit ‘ he Dat xno 6G Posen ‘ Rawo Mass = coll “An herve tid 2 [Booy Srsnoxs. = = ~ moa “MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD” MAG ——n col Converting Peston rom a Dat AG » (CHAPTER 3- MASS AND WEIGHT LIMITS snnenornnn Mass aN Wracts DEFTIONS. oe 1 ‘ase By Mess. e Dey Operating Nas Diora, Used or acid 2 The Tae Loa. 3 Zoro Pat Mae 2 peraig ie. eT Tay Mass 2 2 3 « Tae Of Mas - = a Regulaed Take OF as. Landing Mas. ‘Mp Sis (Uhh ol peice (iW) = ‘Maxima A Up Mas (MAT. xn Mase Mast ANDO. "et Aneroges ‘et Mars alton rca Weight Caters 2 [BNO iE Mass r VAAL Loa [ron Massor rent ~ PRONG THE MASCOFTHE THafig Lond ona - "Niner Pasenger Seto es. Twenty or More Paster Sat = “Tus Ommaron's Reson es (NOE TAR. “teroplone Loading. = ‘Oporaina Marga hon Pro Seating ac - io Documentation, 0 Loom Losbi Lint Soa Wass & Balance Tesue 5 Contentedison Lod tes: ao Flor Rung Lo a {Cha as crusts Lanos er (CHAPTER 4 COMPLETING THE LOAD SHEET wvenorenennninnnel ‘THe REcULarions. am LoaoSts Pras io 2 {oa Surs Use Manes Ano CxMS ae} CHAPTER S-THE LOADING MANUAL nnn ‘we Svcs ENGIN Piso, SEPL 1 The Twn r= MITT 3 ‘ody Staton and Momo i. ° Theft of Gear and ap Reraon io Graph of Tn Unis for OG Poston a0 ‘Maan derodamie orden a Sera Mas Lis i Poo un Cargo 2 The Moje and C8 Emelope 2 Tre Laad & Trim Shot 16 Contents.2 Issue 5Chapter 1 — Introduction and Units ‘The Mass and Balance or Loading exam compliments the Flight Planning and Operational Procedures exams and pulls together all the information needed to complete the load sheet required for public transport flights The Loading Manual A specimen loading manual, CAP 696, is provided with the ‘course, The mantal is divided into four sections. Section 1 Contains general notes, some definitions which we wll consider later and conversion factors for use in the exam. ‘The ‘conversion factors are given to as many as eight decimal places which is @ bit extreme, you need not go beyond two decimal places in practice. Section Il contains typical loading data for a single engine fon aircraft such as a Beech Bonanza, Section Ill contains Similar data for a light twin such as a Seneca Ill and Section IV ‘contains data for « B737-400. The first two are in Performance Class B, the latter in Performance Class A. Not all exam ‘questions relate to these "typical aircraft Units of Mass and Distance oth the Imperial and metric eystems of measurement can be teed in the exam and in our calculations, Where calculations Contain both units of distance and unite of rama it is thaat in metric or vce versa, An effort shoud be mde to keep ail the distance units in one calculation the same and all the ‘ase unite the satne and all the volume unite the sae, Students of physics will recognise that there is a distinction Which should be draven between weight and mass. tase could be described as the inertia of an object whereas weight is the force of gravity acting on it. An astronaut in zero 'g has mass Tasue 5 74‘but not weight. In the JAR exams mass is used for both terms except on rare occasions, even though it is not strictly correct, todo so. Imperial measurements ‘The imperial unit for mass (or more correctly weight) that we ‘use in aviation is the pound, abbreviated as Ib ‘The imperial units for distance or linear measurement are the Iugle (ator) ie foot (ad Use yal (yl) 12in - 1k an . yd Metric measurements ‘The metric unit for mass isthe kilogram (ke) ‘The metric units for linear measurement are the millimetre (com), the centimetre fem) and the metre (Im. 10mm = tem 100 em Im im 3.28 8 Volume ‘The three units of volume used are Imperial Gallons (1G) US Gallons (USG) and Litres (or irs). The Imperial gallon is larger than the US gallon, 1G = 12use. Each gallon, either US or Imperial, ean be subdivided into & pints (pt) er, uncommonly, into 4 quarts (at) Specific Gravity A relationship exists between litres and kilograms, one litre of water weighs a Kilogram. A similar relationship exists between, pounds and Imperial gallons. one IG of water weighs ten pounds. Although the navigation computer can stil be used these relationships allow us to convert freely from volumes to mass of water on the caleulator. ‘To convert fuel volumes we need to know that fuel is lighter than water, a volume of fuel would typically weigh about 70% to 80% of the equivalent volume of Water. This means that a gallon of aviation fuel may weigh 10 x 0.8 Ibs. The factor of, in 12 Teeue 8 Mase & Balancethis case, 0.8 is called the Specific Gravity (SG) of tke fuel and is a measurement of the relative density, Example: Convert 4,300 USG of fuel at SG 0.79 irto pounds using a calculator. Solution: 4,300 USG = 4300+ 1.216 = $300= 1.2.x 10x 079 Ibs 28,308 Tbs Mass & Teaue 5 1314 Intentionally BlankeChapter 2 - Centre of Gravity Forces Acting on an Aircraft in Flight ‘The forces acting on an sircraft in fight are conventionally separated into lit, weight (mass), thrust and drag. These can be considered in’ pairs, total lit acting against. weight and thrust acting against drag, Figure 4244 ‘The Wiad uae of Ure aiiciufl oa be aad ty a Uva ae point called the centre of gravity or C of G, sometimes shortened to CG. The CG is a point along the longitudinal axis, fof the aircraft. I can be described as a point where the sum of the weight moments acting on the aircraft Is zero. The force acting through it, in level ight or in a steady climb or descent, facts parallel to the gravity vector. The total lift on the aircraft facts through the centre of pressure, In level, non-accelerating, fight these forces balance out. Mase & Balance Tesue 5 2ACentre of Gravity Position ‘The centre of gravity on the ground must lie between the nose {gear and the main gear, otherwise the aeroplane will sit on i tail In flight it is usually kept infront of the centre of pressure ‘of the wing in order to make the aircraft stable in pitch. The [proper term would be to say it has ‘postive longitudinal static ‘Stability: Some stability in pitch is desirable, but not too much, ‘There 1s, however, a down side to putting the centre of gravity {forward of the wing centre of pressure (CP), it requires a down, Toree from the elevator to balance the tall up pitching effect from the wings. ‘The extra down force on the elevator effectively adds to the sireraft weight and requires the lift from the wing to be {nereased to counter it, More lift means more drag, more drag means higher fuel consumption. More mainplane if also ‘means that the wing is having to work harder and that stalling, speeds are increased as the CG moves forward, Figure 422 Aircraft manufacturers determine a safe range for the centre of ‘gravity. The aft limit is usually justin front of the wing's centre ‘of pressure, the forward limit controlled by the increasing stability and higher stalling speeds of the aircraft. For fuel efficiency the optimum centre of gravity position is near the aft limit. 22 Teeue 5 ‘Mass & Balance Aorward 66 stabi, drag, fuel consumption ‘and stating Speed ‘Tne COs usually In feont ofthe CPIf the CG fs forward ofthe safe range then: Figure 423 +The aircraft becomes too stable in pitch increasing ) control forces and making rotation and flare dificult. ‘This can extend the take-off ran and cause the aircraft 10 nose-in’ on landing, + Increased wing loading increases drag, reduces range ‘and increases the stalling speed beyond calculated values. ‘+ Unusual nose up elevator trim is required which also reduces the control range and increases drag, If the CG is aft ofthe safe range: Figure 424 + Stability is decreased. If the CG is aft of the CP the aircraft will be aerodynamically unstable & probably crash, +The mose can iN before the rotate speed, VR, is achieved Mass & Balance Taaue 5 2‘+ To maintain level flight excessive nose down trim is required, this reduces the control range and increases, ‘rag. ‘The Effect of Weight Increasing the aircraft weight also affects some of these factors, particularly fuel consumption and stalling speed. An increased eight requires an increased Hit more lit equala more drag, more drag means higher fuel consumption. Increasing weight also affects the stall speed, VS. The stalling, speed is roughly proportional to the aquare root af the weight Calculations may, very unusually, be required in the exam, Example: An aircraft weighing 120,000kg has a landing reference speed of 130kt, calculated as 1.3VS. ‘What would the landing reference speed be at 135,000? Solution: The airorat weight has increased by a factor of 135,000 * 120,000 = 1-125. This means the stalling speed and the landing reference speed hhas increased by V1.125 ~ 1.06, ‘The new speed is 190 x 1.06 = 138Kt Many speeds used in performance calculations such as VR, the rotate speed, and V2, the safety speed, are based on the stalling “speed so they also increase as. aircraft weight ‘You may also be asked the eflect of weight on V1, the decision, speed, Although this is more dificult to prove, itis generally ‘ue that this speed also increases as weight increases. I the CG js in the safe range but the total mass is greater than is allowed then: ‘Structural limits may be exceeded increasing the risk of structural failure, particularly on landing. ‘The stalling speed is increased ‘Range and endurance are reduced ‘Take-off distances will be increased Landing distances will be increased Rate of climb and engine-out performance will be degraded 2a Taso 5 ‘Mass & Balance ‘Stat speed is the square rot of (he went@ ® ‘+ Ruel consumption is increased 1+ The aircraft ceiling is reduced ‘+ There will be excessive wear on the brakes ard tyres ‘The Effect of Gear and Flap Position (On most large aircraft the main gear retracts sideways and creates no change to CG position. The nose gear can retract tlther forwards or baclowards. Asie does soit will cause the CO {to move a small amount in that direction, This CG movement is ‘usually considered negligible Om a light aircraft, retracting the flaps will not change the CG position but the wing centre of pressure will move slightly forward. Flaps on transport aircraft are usually fowler laps, Which move forward as they retract, and this ean cause a small but significant forward movement of the CG. The wing CP will also move forward slightly, as before. Flap extension creates an opposite effect. Mass & Balance Tesue 5 2sMoments “The position of the centre of gravity is established by separately considering the empty aircraft and the items of load and fuel ‘The turning force or moment of each around a datum is, caleulated and then totalled to find where the total mass acts Before we can start the calculations proper we need to define the terms moment and datum more closely. arom Laverhon 10 meres Figure 426 The moment is the turning force created by the mass acting cover a distance or lever arm. The moment is calculated by ‘multiplying the arm by the mass. In its full form in metric units f@ moment is described in kg force metres, this is normally Shortened to kg m. Where large, awlward, mumbers are produced they are sometimes divided by a constant to produce {8 moment index, for instance a moment of 142,100,000 kg. inches may be referred to as an index of 142.1, It is a figure without units ‘mos distance ‘Moments forward of the datum are by convention negative andthe datum are ‘those aft ofthe datum are positive positive 26 Teaue 5 Mase & Balancethe 66, itis a reference point ‘The Datum The datum is a reference point ffom which all the lever arm measurements are taken. ‘The location of the aircraft datum is decided by the manufacturer. It can be + ahead of the aircraft within the aircraft, perhaps on the engine balkhead of alight airerat behind the aircraft In some cases the datum is located by measuring from a fixed point on the aircraft called the reference point. ‘The datum is, rot the centre of gravity, itis a measuring point ‘The datums of the three aircraft in CAP 698 differ, the single engine piston aircraft SEPI is described in Section 2, pagel. ‘The datum is 39° forward of the firewall, The malt-engine piston MEPI in Section 3, page 1 has a datum 78,4” forward of the wing leading edge at the inboard edge of the inboard fuel tank The B737 described as MRJTI has, according to Section, 4 page 2, « datum 540° forward of the main spar. Now we can start calculations Mase & Balance Tesue 5 27Finding the CG Position ‘The CG position can be found by adding all the moments and, then dividing the total moment by the total mass (ce position is ‘otal moment + Example: Figure 4-2-7 shows the weight recorded on each ofthe aircraft wheels and thelr position felative to the datum. Determine the position of the centre of gravity Solution: ‘The weights are alo the right ofthe datum so the arms and the subsequent moments will be positive, Caleulate the three moments in a table 2 below. Add the total mass, the total positive ‘moment and the total negative moment, in this Mass Am —+moment -moment 378 x 487 425,102 or) x HT #166041 960 x H71 _+164,160 Totals 2.3071 +355.309 In this case, as all moments are positive, the total positive moment is also the total moment. Find the position ofthe centre of gravity by dividing the total moment by the total mass 28 issue 5Example: 4955,93 + 2,307 = +158 em or, because + means aft, 154 em aft ofthe datums The diagram below shows an unloaded aircraft with the centre of gravity 8° aft ofthe datum. The fircraft is tobe loaded with 400Kg of fuel at an farm of +20", two crew weighing a total ef 150kg at fan arm of +13" and 20kg of freight in the forward hold with an arm of -22". Determine the position of the centre of gravity Figure 428 Solution: Mass & Balance Tesue 5 Calculate the moments as before, recording the ‘caleulations in tabular form. Add all the positive moments all the negative moments ané the total Mass Arm moment -moment 2420 x +8 +1980 400 x +20 +8000 160 x 19 +1,950 x 2 Totals ~ 2.90015 $29,510 ‘The total moment is 29,310- 440 = 28,870. The CGisat — 28,870+ 2990 = 9.7" aftUse the diagram below to determine the centre of ‘gravity of the beam. Assume the beam itself has . 7 [es [os wa Figure 420 Solution: ‘The masses tothe left of the datum are forward #0 the arms and the subsequent moments will be negative. Those to the right are positive. Calculate the four moments in a table as below Add the total mass, the total postive moment and the total negative moment. Mass Arm ¢moment _ -moment et 28 fe 6 ee eae co) ee eee Totals Takg +5 [Now add the positive and negative moments together observing the plus and minus signs. ‘Total moment = 51-30 +21 Now, finally, the position of the centre of gravity ccan be found by dividing the total moment by the total me The CG is at 21°18 = 1.17m aft 2 Tesue 5 ‘Mass & Balance 40Adding Mass Once the CG is caleulated loads can be added or subtracted land the new CG found by re-working the total mement and fotal mass, ‘Example: An aireraft has a mass of 1800kg and a CG position 2.43m aft of the datum. If an additional ‘ass of 200kg is added at an arm of = 2.00m (forward of the datas) Sind the new loction of the cs. Solution: Work out the original moment and the moment of the new load, add the total mass and the total moment and divide as before Mass rm moment -moment Orginal 1000 x 424944974 ‘Adding 200 x 2 400 Totals 2000Kg a74 400 New 0G = (+4374 400} +2000 = + 1.987m [Adding the load will relocate the CG t0 4 position 1.99m aft of the datum, Removing Mass Removing mass from one of the arms will alter both the total mass and the total moment causing the CG to relocate. Example: An airoraft has a mass of 1704kg and aCG position 3.1m aft of the datum, 60kg ¢f freight is Temoved from the sft old 4.7m aft of the dati, Calculate the new CG positon, Solution: Worle out the moment of the original aircraft and the load change. Add the total mass and the total moment and divide as before Mas ‘Arm ¢moment -moment Original «1704x434 452824 Removing 60x +47 __-282 Totals T6aakg 5000.4 Mass & Balance Tesue 5 2aRemoving the load wil relocate the CG to a ‘position 5000.4» 1684 = 3.042m aft of the datum, An Alternative Method Many students prefer to use an alternative method for calculating the movement of the CG which relies on a formula, ‘This method is best when you are required to find out how new position. change of CG “istance from mass to new CG ‘The next example uses the formula and uses the word ‘centroid’ to describe the central positon of the freight hold at which point al the freight in the Hold is assumed to act. Example: An aircraft has a total mass of 32,000kg and (CG 26" aft of the datum. Assuming the CC envelope is from 26” aft to 42 aft how much freight would need to be removed from a hold with ‘a centroid 60" aft ofthe datum to bring the CG to its forward limit? Solution: Mass change = 32,000 ke, or ae Mass change ~—-2.x32,000 + 34 = 1,882 kg Shifting the Load If some of all of the load is relocated then the total mass will remain the same but the total moment will alter as the load is repositioned using diferent arms Example: An aireraft hao an all up mase of 28,000leg and a (CG 50" aft of the datum, Find the new CG position if 500kg is moved from a position 80" aft ff the datum to 10° forward of the datum Solution 1: Work out the moment of the new load, add the ‘and the total moment and divide as aaa Tee0e 5‘Aem moment moment +50. +1,400,000 “$100,000 45,000" (1,400,000 ~ 45,000) + 28,000 = +48.4° Solution 2: An alternative method uses a variation on the formula used before Masechange = —ghange of CG ‘Total mi distance mosed change ofCG = ———S00kg.x 90" '28,000kg - 4 ThenewCG = = S0'at 1.6" 48.4" aft ‘The second solution is by far the best method to use when the question asks how much mass must be moved to place the CG In a particular position, Bxample: ‘The diagram below refers to an aircraft with an all ‘up mass of 65,000kg and a CG 30” aft of the datum. Irthe CG envelope is from 28° to 43" aft of the datum how much mass musi be moved from hold 2 to hold I to move the CG to the forward limit Figure 4240 Mass.change = change of CC “Total mass distance moved Mass change = 2" x 65,000 kg 215° = GosKg ass &Bslnce —=~SCssue aaaBody Stations ‘To describe the location of equipment in targe aircraft the manufacturer gives its position as a Body Station (Stn) umber, The station datum is always Stn 0. Stations forward of the datum are negative, stations aft of the datum are positive, ‘Station positions often state or imply units of measurement. The statement, ‘al stations in inches? means ration 200 is 200" aft ofthe station datum. the station datum need not be in the same place as the CO datum, Often the station datum is located atthe front ofthe jig, fon which the alreraft was built and the CG datum is placed at the forward bullchead, In the case of the B737 the station datum is 152" in front of the CG datum. Staton datum 152 118! 1 is possible, with this information, to convert from body stations to balance arms. In the diagram above the nosewheel {sat station 270, 270” aft ofthe station datum. As we know the CG datum is 152° aft of the station datum the balance arm of the nosewheel ean be determined as 270 152= 118". Because the choice of the CG datum is relatively arbitrary CO. calculations ean be performed using body stations for the balance arm instead of distances from the CG datum. The method of the solution is unchanged. example: ‘The aircraft shown below has a CG envelope that lies between *Stn 240 and +Stn 280, The CG is currently at *Stn 300. How much mass must be ‘moved from +Sin 370 t0 +Stn 1200 bring the CO within limits? aaa sus SOS*~*~*«M‘Solution: Use the formula ‘Mass change "Total mass Mass change Larger Problems Larger piston aircraft and small turboprop I change of C6 distance moved 20" x 9,758 kg +250" 300 kg 1d sheets often display load data in a table with the arm of each item printed. The pilot completes the table before Might to establish whether fr not the CG is in the safe range. Fuel and oil wil, of course, be consumed during the fight so care must be taken to check. that the CG is sill within limits for landing. Example: The table in figure 4-2-13 shows loading data for ‘a multi-engine turboprop alreraft in Performance 445° and 50” aft ofthe datum, During the Might 410kg of fuel and 15kg of oll will be used. State ‘whether of not the CG will be within limits for the light. Wass & Balance 25‘Staton | weit aa] Am (nenes] Poste Moment ogave Monet sasewewt| a6 | «san crew wo | 12h ow? man ows es | wean Froathot | 20m Rear ols os | tom Bagaane | tom Tots Wei Figure 42-43 Solution: Complete the table for take-off. ‘saten | woot aay] Arm nes) Postve Moment ozsive Moment eavewormn| a0 | wat | 756,520 Fut aa | sm | 2eaeo on @ tw 10 ren so | ram 1800 ow ras | wean | re.880 ow? ran Rows © oat 9.490 Fronts | 40 2a 1120 Rearnad | a5 toe | 72,750 sansave | 60 oat 9.600 Totawoon | 4705 226650 | 3.100 2100 rots woneat [| 227.550 Figure 42-44 The takeoff CG is 221,580 + 4705 = + 47.09" and in the safe range, 26 fase S—~*~*«Mas lanceNow calculate the moment change during light. } “The positive moment is reduced by 410.x52 ‘and becomes 224,680 - 21,920 203,360 ‘The negative moment is reduced by 1523 and becomes 3,100 - 48, ‘The landing moment 203,360 - 9,085 ‘The landing mass is 4,705 ~ 425 ‘and the landing © is +200,308 + 4280 also in the safe range. Mass & Balance = 21,320 oo = 3,088 therefore = +200,308 = 4380 & Tasue 5 BarMean Aerodynamic Chord - MAC Designers of straight winged aircraft usually express the CG as fa distance relative to a datum as in our previous examples, ‘Those that design swept wing aireraft find it convenient for ‘aerodynamic reasons to relate CO position to the Mean ‘Aerodynamic Chord (MAC) of a wing. The CG is expressed as a [percentage of its postion along the MAC. Figure 42.45 ‘The Mean Aerodynamic Chord is the chord at the aerodynamic centre of the wing, not exactly half way to the tip, but close to it Lesion Teng ee) ac eaaein Figure 42-16 ‘Most aircraft will have acceptable handling characteristics if the CG is about a quarter of the way back along the MAC, 25% MAC. 28 TesueS Mass & BalanceConverting Positions from a Datum to %MAC Where the CG position is given fom @ datum it can be converted to a %MAC pravided the position of the leading edge {Le or LE) and the length ofthe chord is known. Example: The CG ofan aircraft is 1200" aft of the datum, the leading edge of the mean aerodynamic chord is 1174" aft of the datum and length of the MAC is 130". Express the CG position as a MAC. Solution: The CG is 1200"— 1174" = 26" back from the leading edge. As a percentage of the MAC which is 130" long itis 26 x 100 20%MAC 130 Example: From the information below find the ‘ocation of the centre of gravity as a % MAC. The CG is located at —_-+Stn 1500 LeMacis located at +Stn 1450 Te Macis located at +Stn 1550 The sale range is between 24% and 31% MAC All stations are in inches Solution: The dingram below shows the situation although this is not necessary for the solution. The length of the MAC can be found by subtracting the distance tothe leading edge from trailing edge. ten ssn 180 ssn 180 2% atm Figure 4247 Chord length 1550" 1450" ‘Mass &Bslonce=~S~SCaau 29‘The CG is 1500" - 1450" 50" back from the leading edge asapercentage = SO" x 100 100" = 50% MAC, outside the safe range Example: An aircraft CG is located at 27%% MAC. The Le MAC is at Stn 1400 and the Te MAC at Stn 1530, all stations are in inches, Determine the CG position in inches relative tothe station datum. Solution: The length of the MAC is 1530 ~ 1400 ~190 27% 0f 130" = 27x 130" 100 = 38" The leading edge is 1400" back so the CG = 1400+ 35.1" = 1995."Chapter 3 - Mass and Weight Limits ‘The aircraft must be loaded so that not only is the centre of gravity within limits but also that no structural or performance Iimited masses are exceeded. ‘The controlling regulations for Mass and Balance are JAR OPS Subpart J. 1.605 to 1.625 and. their Appendices at http://www jaa.nl. ‘These specify that the loading, mass and centre of gravity ofthe aeroplane must comply with imitations in the Aeroplane Flight Manual or the Operations Manual, whichever is more restrictive and set out the requirements to be included in the Operations Manual ‘he following definitions are used for airerat operating under JAA regulations although some are from common ase rather than JAA or ICAO documentation. Refer to the diagram on ppage 3.4 as you read through them and note that many are repeated in the CAP 696. Mass and Weight Definitions Basic Empty Mass ‘The Basic Mass (BM) or Basic Empty Mass (BEM) is the mass of the aircraft with the basic equipment, unconsumable ftuids ‘and unusable fuel and ol Variable Load ‘The Variable Load (VL) consists of the erew, thelr beagage and any removable equipment that is required for that fight, for instance catering equipment, Dry Operating Mass ‘The Dry Operating Mass (DOM) is the Basic Mass and the Variable Load, also called the Aircraft Prepared for Service (APS) weight. Mase & Balance Tes00 5 3ADisposable, Useful or Useable Load ‘The disposable load is made up of: the passengers and their baggage the freight the usable fuel the usable oil where appropriate ‘The Traffic Load ‘The trafic load is the disposable load excluding the fuel. Trafic load may include ‘non-reverue' load, Zero Fuel Ma: ‘The Zero Fuel Mass (ZFM) is the total mass of the aircraft not considering the usable fuel, ZFM is the DOM plus the payload, ‘The Maximum Zero Fuel Mass (MZFM) is a structural limit on the wing roots. In some aircraft the mass of fuel in particular tanks, basically fuselage fuel, is included in the 2PM, Operating Mass ‘The operating mass is the DOM of the aircraft and the fuel for the flight, rai load is not counted. t can be thought of as the ‘opposed to the DOM defined earlier. ‘The Taxy Mass (TM) is the mass of the aircraft before engine start. Maximum Taxy Mass (MTM) is a structural limit and is the greatest mass at which the aircraft can be taxied. The Taxy Mass is also known as Ramp Weight or Ramp Mat ‘Take Off Mass ‘The Take-Off Mass (TOM) is the mass ofthe aircraft atthe start of the take-off run. The Maximum Structural Take Off Mass is ‘9 structural limit defined as the maximum mass that the reraft can take off at anywhere in the world in the most favourable conditions in accordance with the certificate of ‘Airworthiness of Fight Manual. The Maximum Structural 1UM js usually the Maximum Taxy Mass minus the standard taxy fuel and can be referred to as the Maximum Take-oll Mass Authorised (MMA). The TOM may also be affected by performance ealeulations LLRegulated Take Off Mass ‘The Regulated Take-Off mass (RTOM) is the maximum mass at which an aircraft can take off due to the regulations in force ‘The lower of the Maximum Structural Take-Off Mass and the Performance Limited Take-Off Mass Landing Mat “The Landing Maca (LM) i the mass of the aircraft as it crosses the threshold on landing. The Maximum Structural Landing Mass (MSLM) is a structu Landing Mé the Performance Limited 2 isa limit derived from performance calculations ‘and the Regulated Landing Mass [RLM) isthe lower of the to. his diagram, or figure 43-5, notes 200 oe fs Crom, row baggage Fuel] 'Spacal equipment Mass Pssangers Front Figure 434, * Basie Empty Mass Dey Operating Mass Variable sae | atu Mase Trae Load Disposable oad or Usefal Load Up Mass (AUM) or All Up Weight (AUW) ‘The total mass or weight ofthe aircraft at a particular time, Tasue 5 33Maximum All Up Mass (MAUM) ‘The MAUM Js the greatest m that an aircraft can be loaded to. Although the definitions are diferent the MAUM and the Maximum Taxy Mass describe the same mass, Finding the Basic Mass and DOM ‘To establish the basic mass of an aircraft itis weighed by the ‘manufacturer when itis built and every four years thereafter if Aleraft are aircraft are considered individually and every nine years if fleet normally weighed faverages are used, Aeroplanes transferred between JAR every years Operators do. not need to be weighed unless four years has passed since the last time the weights were checked. The operator must algo account for and document the ‘accumulated effects of modifieations and repairs by weighing or by using standard masses, If the accumulated effects of these modifications lead to a change of the DOM by more than 1% of the MLM or the CG shifts by more than 149% of the MAC the aircraft must be re- Weighed and the CG re-established. Exceptionally, this can be done by calculation but the operator has to justly the method ‘used to the Authority ‘When an aircraft is weighed the following conditions apply 0 « ‘The weighing must be carried out either by the ‘manufacturer or by an approved maintenance organisation, [Normal precautions must be taken consistent with good practices such as: a) to © @ Checking for completeness of the aeroplane and equipment; Determining that fluids are properly accounted for; “Enuring that the aeroplane is clean; and nouing that wighingiaaccomplabed inan Aout Encased busing Trent tot ‘Any equipment used for weighing must be properly calibrated, zeroed, and used in accordance with the ‘manufacturers instructions, Each seale must be calibrated either by the manufacturer, by a civil ‘department of weights and measures or by an Y Tesue 5 Mase & Balance aa‘appropriately authorised organisation within 2 years or ‘within atime period defined by the manufactucer of the ‘welghing equipment, whichever is less. The equipment, ‘must enable the mase ofthe aeroplane to be | established accurately When the aircraft is weighed there must be a minimum of three points of support ‘Completeness of the aeroplane and equipment referred to in paragraph (ia) is established by reference to an equipment changes are tracked in a document known as the weighing schedule, Fleet Averages: Operators may work out a single average dry opersting mass and centre of gravity position ifthey have a fleet of aireraft that | ‘eet certain criteria. According to JAR OPS, 0) Tolerances (a) ICthe dry operating mass of any aeroplane weighed, or the calculated dry operating mass of ‘any aeroplane ofa flet, varies by more than 40.5% of the maximum structural landing mass {rom the established dry operating fleet mass or the CG position varies by more than 20.5% of the ‘mean aero-dynamic chord from the fleet CG, that ‘aeroplane shall be omitted fom that feet. Separate fleets may be established, each with / differing fleet mean masses, have a fet value (©) Incases where the aeroplane mass is within the | dry operating Meet mass tolerance but its CG position falls outsides the permitted fleet tolerance, the aeroplane may still be operated lunder the applicable dry operating feet mass but with an individual CG position, (9 tan individual aeroplane has, when compared ‘with other aeroplanes ofthe Meet, a physical, ecurately accountable difference (eq galley or Seat con figuration), that causes exceedance of the fleet tolerances, this aeroplane may be maintained in the feet provided that appropriate Touse foot corrections are applied to the mass and/or CG must be (@ Aeroplanes for which no mean aeredynemic expressed as chord has been published muist be operated with samae their individual mass and CG position values or Mase & Balance jeueS SCOrust be subjected to a special study and approval (i) Use of feet values (2) After the weighing of an aeroplane, or if any change occurs in the aeroplane equipment or configuration, the operator must verfy that this ‘aeroplane falls within the tolerances specified in subparagraph () above (0) Acroplanes which have not been weighed since the last fleet mass evaluation can sil be kept in @ fleet operated with fleet values, provided that the individual values are revised by computation and stay within the tolerances defined in subparagraph () above. If these individual values no longer fall within the permitted tolerances, the operator must elther determine new fleet values fulfilling the conditions of sub: paragraph fi) above, or operate the aeroplanes not falling within the limits with their individual values (o) To-add an aeroplane to a feet operated with fleet values, the operator must verify by weighing or ‘computation that its actual values fll within the tolerances specified in sub-paragraph (i) above. (Gi) Fleet values must be updated atleast at the end of each feet mass evaluation Fleet Mass Calculations: ()If-n"is the number of aeroplanes in the fleet using fleet ‘values, the operator mist at least weigh, in the period between two fleet mass evaluations, a certain number of| aeroplanes defined in Figure 4-3-2. een) WOor more (orto 10 Figure 43:2 (i) In choosing the aeroplanes to be weighed, aeroplanes in the flet which have not been weighed for the longest ‘ime shall be selected, 36 Ieee 5 Mase iis the number of ‘aeroplanes i mast be ‘recalculated individual ivorot trust be weighed [east every 9@ (Gi) The interval between 2 fleet mass evaluations must not exceed 48 months, " Aircraft Weight Categories Aircraft can be certificated under older standards than JAR {nto one of three weight categories, these are: Normal angles of bank of less than 60°, no aerobatic Utility angles of bank in excess of 60°, chandelles and lazy eights, Acrobatic fully aerobatic Air transport aircraft are of the normal category, many light aircraft such as the Piper Warrior can make utility category Tights when they are below a set mass, Aireraft such aa Pits Specials are designed forthe aerobatic category. Finding the Mass of the Variable Load ‘and 75kg for eabin crew allowing variations by negotation with the Authority. The operator is responsible for determining the variable load, Finding the Mass of the Fuel ‘The mass ofthe fuel loaded must be calculated from the actual density of, if not known, according to an agreed method specified in the Operations Manual Finding the Mass of the Traffic Load ‘The traffic load is the total mass, of passengers, baggage and cargo, including any ‘non-revenue' load. The mass 0: the cargo fand ‘non-revenue load’ wil be determined by weighing. ‘The mass of passengers and their baggage can be found by using actual Weights or standard, In all cases the Operations. Manual must lay down the procedure to be followed, invariably they allow the use of standard weights when JAR OPS permits Ey Mase & Balance Tesue 5 37Standard masses for passengers include hand baggage and babies not occupying a separate seat. Infants under two who hhave their own seat and children aged 2 to 12 count as ‘children All standard mass values can be varied by negotiation with the ‘authority. Figures 43-3 to 4-3-5 are reproduced in Section 1, page 5 of CAP 696. Passenger weight can be determined by weighing, by use of standard tables below or by verbal statement and adding to ita pre-determined amount {0 account for hand baggage and clothing. Other baggage must be weighed. Nineteen Passenger Seats or less. ‘Standard mass values from figure 4-3-3 can be used for passengers. Additionally fr aircraft with 10 passenger seats or lees, the Operations Mantial must specify sf passenger weight ‘must be determined by weighing and a pre-determined amount, Male 104g 96kg ekg Female 86 kg ekg tke children 35kg Figure 433 Baggage must be weighed ‘Twenty oF More Passenger Seats Standard mass values from figure 4-3-4 can be used for passengers. Aircraft with more than 30 passenger seats may. ‘ise the ‘all adult’ values which means all adults are assumed to be the same weight, irrespective of sex. ieee see Mase & BalanceCc ere) ‘All fights except holiday Aes sekg | 7okg | akg Holiday charters sakg | coky | 76k9 Cchidren 38kg Figure 434 Baggage may be weighed or standard mass values from figure 4-3-5 ean be used. a Domestic within Europe | Intercontinental ‘Alothers Figire 43:5 The Operator’s Responsi JARs Aeroplane Loading (0) An operator must ensure that the loading ofits faeroplanes is performed under the supervision of ‘qualified personnel. (2) Am operator must ensure that the loading of the fright J consistent with the data used for the ealeulction of the aeroplane mass and balance. {3} An operator must comply with addtional structural limits such as the floor strength limitations, tke ‘maximum load per running metre, the maximum mass er cargo compartment, andor the maximum seating ‘& Balance Tesue 5 aeOperational Margins when Free Seating Is Used Unless seat allocation is applied and the effects of the number of passengers per seat row, of cargo in individual cargo compartments and of fuel in individual tanks is accounted for ‘accurately in. the balance calculation, operational margins ‘must be applied to the certificated centre of gravity envelope. In determining the CG margins, possible deviations from the ‘assumed load distribution must be considered, Hf fee seating ie applied, the operator must introduce procedures to ensure corrective action by fight or cabin crew i ‘Extreme longitudinal seat selection occurs, The CG margins ‘and associated operational procedures, including assumptions, ‘with regard to passenger seating, must be acceptable to the Authority, ‘The operator must show that the procedures fully account for the extreme variation in CG travel during fight caused by passenger /erew movement and fuel consumption/ transfer. Documentation ‘The operator is responsible for producing mass and balance documentation before each flight specifying the load and Sistribution so that the aireraft commander ean determine that ‘the mass and balance limite are not exceeded. The operator must specify procedures for Last Minute Changes (MCS) co the load ‘The person who prepares the loading documents must be ‘named on them and the loading supervisor must sign them to Confirm that the load and its distribution are in accordance ‘with the mass and belance documentation, ‘The aircraft commander accepts the documentation as correct by signing i. Floor Loading Limits Floor loading limits are specified by manufacturers and must bbe observed by operators. There are two limits to consider. Distribution Load Intensity Maximum Distribution Load Intensity is the maximum static ‘mass per unit area the floor is designed to continuously earry, The distribution load intensity can be caleulated by dividing, the load by the area it covers. Any unit of weight can be 340 issue 5 Mass: nce‘combined with any unit of area, provided it is consistent with the unite used in the aircraft documentation, Debonair semrecon nt enton nd ang ‘The frst example in figure 4-3-6 shows a mass of 40kg spread ‘over 1 square metre, the distribution load is 40 = 1 = 40kg/m= ‘The second example shows 60 kg spread over 11 square feet, the distribution load is 60 * 11 = 5.43kg/ ‘These two examples use different units. In order 1» compare the distribution load to determine which is the greater they must be expressed in the same units Converting units of area requires care. 1 metre is 3.28 fe but 1 square metre is 3.28 x 3.28 ~ 10.76 square feet. In order 10 fonvert the right hand example to kg/m= we would have 10 ‘multiply by 10.76, 5.45 x 10.76 = 58.6kg/m?. We cen now see that the right hand load has a greater distribution load intensity. Floor loads and aircraft weights are occasionally given in Newtons (N). A Newton is a unit of force. Ikg equates to 9.8N,, or roughly 10%, uncer normal gravitational conditons. 1n the exams a conversion factor is usually given, and it usually expressed as “assume G = 10m/s" which ‘means “assume there are 10N in a kilogram’. Beample: Convert 430kg to Newtons Solution: 430 9.8 = 4214N, Mase & Balance Tesue 5 3aBxample: Solution Bxample; Solution: aaa ‘The flor loading limit of an aircraft is SOOON fn What is the minimum area over which a mass of 300i could be distributed? (assume G = 10, m/sec} ‘We can work in either Newtons or kilograms, Well work in lllograms inthis example. Using the conversion factor of 10 the load distribution is 5000 + 10 = 500 kg/m? 1f 500kg can be distributed over a square metre the minimum area for 300 kg is clearly smaller, land smaller in proportion to the two masses. The finimum area is therefore: 1m?x (800 + 500) = 0.6m? ‘The maximum distribution load intensity is given as 750kg/m?, What are the minimum dimensions Of the base ofa pallet containing a load of 600kg? (a) 300em x 20cm (©) 20cm x 40cm (@200cm x 50cm (a) 200em x 30cm 1f750kg can be spread over a metre the minimum size for 600kg will be smaller in proportion. To find out the minimum area multiply Lm? by the proportion 600 + 750, 1 (600 = 750) = 0.8m? ‘The answers dont give an area, they give dimensions, so we need to find an answer that gives an area of 0.8m’. Convert the dimensions to Imetres then multiply Both sides to find the area. Answer (a) gives 8.0m x 0.2m = 0.6m, answer (b) {a 2.0m x Odi = O.Bts, (c) i Ina? and (a) ia (6m. It has to be (0) TesueS Mase & BalanceFloor Running Load ‘The floor running load is calculated by dividing the weight by the length ofthe load along the aircraft fore and aft axis. ema od ee Figure 437 right is secured in bins or restrained with nets to stop it shifting in Might. Shifting loads would affect the CO position, guite possibly causing an accident, or damage the airframe from inside, Pallets and load spreading devices make freight hhandling easier and also act to spread the load reducing the problems arising from floor distribution load and running load Timi, Calculating the Maximum Permissib! Traffic Load and MTOM [At each stage of flight the All Up Mass is comprised of three basic elements, the DOM, the Traffic Load and the fuel on board. If a particular limit is considered, perhaps the MTOM, and the DOM and fuel load were known it would be possible t0 calculate the maximum Traffic Load that could be carried to just hit that limit MTOM = DOM + Fuel on board + max permissible Trafic Load or, turning it around, ‘Max permissible Tralfic Load = MTOM ~ DOM ~ Fuel an board. iance Taaue 5 343‘You may find the following disgram, which is a variation on figure 4-3-1, helpful in order to remember the relationships between the defined masses. 2 Zeno rue. uass om Th + FUEL= Aum ‘The limiting masses that might affect the Traffic Load are the MTOM, the MZFM, the MLM and the Maximum Taxy Mass. In order to find the max permissible Traifle Load for a flight we Should consider all the limits in this way. Each will give a ‘maximum Trafic Load to hit that Kit, taking the lowest gives ‘the maximum Traifie Load for the Might. Example: Given the following information find the ‘maximum permissible trafic load for the Might. pom 112,000, MTOM 187,004 MZeM 147,000, MLM 153,000, Sector Fuel 42,0008, Contingency, Diversion & reserve 8,000, Solution: Only three limits are given here, the Max Taxy ‘Mase has been left out Ifa limit is omitted from, the question you may assume it is not limiting and ignare it Draw a table with three columns, one for each limit tn each coluran put the limit and ‘undemeath it the DOM and the fel on board, aaa Tesue 5 Mase & Balance753,000 112,000 8,000 TOM 2eM tat | “¥87,000 | ~¥47, 006 -pom) 112000 | 112000 Fuel | 60,000 z = Traffic load Calculate the fuel board carefully. At take-off the fuel will consist of the sector fuel and the diversion and reserve, at landing ony the ‘contingency, diversion and reserve will remain, blank Now subtract the DOM and fel from the limit in each column. The maximum permissible Traffic Load isthe lowest of the three results, Tom | _zeu uw. lint [787,000] ~T47 000 | “753,000 pom | 112:000 | 112000 | 112,000 Fuel | 50,000 : 8,000, = Traffc load | ~ 25,000 | 35,000 |~33,00 | Im this cae the maximum Traffic Load is controlled by the MTOM at 25,000. It is also possible to use this method to find the maximum fuel load that can be carried for a given fixed Trae Load. The calculation payload are subtracted from the limiting masses, Example: Given the following information find the ‘maximum permissible take-off fuel load pom MTOM MZeM MLM Tralfic Load Sector fuel Diversion & reserve 110,000, 163,000kg 131,000Kg, 136,000kg, 20,0008 21,0008 000K the same as before except this time the DOM and Solution: Lay out the table as before. Tis time subtract the DOM and Trafic Load from the limits. You usualy quickly realise that the MZFM has ‘nothing todo with fuel load 20 leave i Hank, Tom zeM uw lit | 763,000 = | 136,000 -DOM | 110,000, 110,000 -Trafficload | 20,000. : 20,000 = Fuel | — 38.000 6,000 ‘Mass & Balance TasueS 345Solution aa6 (On the face of it the answer would seem to be the Towsest, 6,000, but this isthe maximum fuel load ai landing to have us just on the Max Landing Mass and can’ be directly compared to 33,000kg which ie the maximum fuel load at take- ‘off to just have us on the Max Take-Off Mass. ‘To find out what fuel load at take-off would have us at the MLM with 6,000kg on board we need to ‘add back in the sector fuel. b,000 + 21,000 = 27 u0bEg ‘This means that ie took off with more than 27,000g on board we would be overweight on landing and if we took off with more than 33,000kg on board we would be overweight on take-off As neither limit should be exceeded the ‘max fuel load is 27,000Kg, in this case landing ‘mass limited Given: Maximum take-off mat 146 900 kg ‘Maximum landing mass 93 800 ke, ‘Maximum zero fel mass 836-400 ke Trip fuel 27-500 kg, Bloc fuel 35.500 ke Engine starting and taxi fuel 1.000 kg. ‘The maximum take-off mass is equal to (2) 121,300 kg (0) 113,900 kg (120,900 ke (3) 120,300 kg ‘This is abit more tricky. We can" find the ‘maximum traffic load because no DOM is give, All we can play with is fue. ‘The MTOM derived from the TOM limit i 146,900kg, ‘The MTOM derived from the Landing ‘Mass limit will be MLM plus the tip fuel, 93,800 + 27,500 ~ 121,500, ‘The MTOM derived from the Zero Fuel Mi will be the MZFM plus the take-off fuel, £36,400 + 34,500 = 120,900 kg. simit ‘The lower of these values willbe the practical Limit, Dut TeaueS Mass & BalanceItwe are going to operate at the MZFM we should ls check that the fuel on board at landing oesn't put the aireraft outside the MLM Limit, ‘which would be a nasty twist in the tail of the question. The fuel at landing is 135,500 ~ 1,000 ~ 27,500 = 7,000 ‘and the Landing Mass would be £36,400 +7,000 = 93,400kg, within limits the Landing Mass at MZFM had been out of hhad to reduce the fue! load, which would have invalidated the question, of operated at a lower ZEM and reworked the third ease above. With the information given we ean do ne more Answer (c) Limit and Ultimate Loads ‘There wil be a force where the structure of the aircreft wil fall, this is called the ultimate load, Most aircraft have different positive and negative ¢ ultimate loads, the positive g ultimate Toading is usually greater. Alreraft are operated within a load envelope that is less than the ultimate load. The edges ofthis envelope are called the limit load. A’ safety factor of 1.5 separates the limit and ultimate Toads. ‘This means that an aircraft which had a positive g limit load of 3.2g would have a positive ultimate load of 3.2 x 1.5 = 4.8 Loads between the limit and the ultimate load may not cause the structure to fail but they might lead to permanent deformation, Mass &Balonce SCs SSS*C«ATIntentionally blank.Chapter 4 - Completing the Load Sheet The Regulations Appendix 1 to JAR OPS 1,625 deals with completion ofthe load sheet. The completed load sheet should show: The type and registration marks ofthe aircra’t The fight identification number and date The identity of the commander The identity ofthe person who prepared the document ‘The Dry Operating Mass and the corresponding CG ‘The mass of the fuel at take-off and the trip fuel ‘The mass of consumables other than fuel The components of the load including passengers, Doggnge, freight and ballast The Take-Off Mass, Landing Mass and Zero Fuel Mass The load distribution The applicable aeroplane CG positions The limiting mass and CG values Once again this can be varied by negotiation with the Authority I any Last Minute Changes (LMCs) are made to the load after the Mass and Balance documentation has been completed these must be brought to the attention of the commander who will enter the LMC on the documentation. ‘The greatest LMC permissible without completely reworking the documentation is Specified in the Uperations Manual. ‘A new load sheet is required for every take off. A duplicate of the load sheet is held on the ground and the origin is taken by the Captain in the aircraft. The original must be kept after the flight for atleast 3 months. Ifthe documentation is sent by data link a copy of the final documentation must be kept on the ground Mase & Balance Tesue 5 aaComputerised systems are permitted, the operator must ‘verify the integrity of the output data’ at least every six months, Onboard mass and balance systems can be used as a primary ‘method for despatch if approved by the Authority Load Sheet Presentation Load sheets for small sircraft can be presented in simple tabular form as in the earlier examples, the table is called a Joading manitest. More commoniy graphs are used to speed up the completion of the load sheet and reduce the possibilty of errors in ealeulation. ‘The first style you might come across is a graphical presentation of the moments of varying masses in different positions, The graph in figure 4-4-1 shows an example ofthis, ‘A load of 350 kg in the Ist row will have a moment effect of 3,200 keg em, 400kg 300kg 200kg 100kg 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Moment index x 100kgem Figure 444 Pictorial presentations of CG envelopes are used to include the ‘effect of moment and AUW in one graph. In the example in figure 4-4-2 an aircraft at AUW 4500kg with CG at 40° would be safe for take-off but not for landing. An aircraft at 4500kg ‘with CG at 38° would be out of limite for either. Graphs such {5 this may also show a restricted envelope where the aircraft ‘can operate in the utility category ‘The envelope in figure 4-4-3, which is taken from the single ‘engine piston in the loading manual, shows mass, moment arm. ‘and moment. As we shall see this allows the option of using the ‘graph in a slightly different way. a Taso 5preeees o | * v= GEPTPERE ESE EE EE HUE Figure 443 Wass & Balance Tews 5 a‘The final graphical format is the most common in real life. In figure 4-4-4 the operating mass and index has been calculated and the effect of passenger loads has been graphically applied land entered into the CG envelope with the take-off mass 10 Drove the aireraft is operating in the safe range. 488 Figure 444 Load Sheets using Manifests and Graphs Having completed the manifests and seen the graphs we can ‘now put them together for more representative calculations. Only a few calculations in the exam are taken from the Loading, Manual so we will start with generic calculations using different data and then move on tothe three specimen alreraft in the Manual Example: The table in figure 4-4-5 is partially ‘completed for take-off for a multi-engine piston aircraft in Performance Class B. During the flight 350kg of fuel and 10kg of ol are used. Complete the table and use the CG envelope in figure 4-4-6 to aa Teeue Mase & Balance‘determine whether or not the aircraft is ‘within operating limits for both teke-off land landing, ssaten | wos a] Arm mcs] Postve Moment opsve Maree tasleweom | 2460 | aan rua a0 | sean ows os | oan Frontho 20 | 26twa Resets as | son Baggage 20 | teo0n “ot Wage ‘ottoman 200016 800Kg 3400 Ke 000Kg 200g 100%, 2000 kg 2900, 2000 9 Figure 4.46 aoa ar ay eas ae are Teeue 5 a5Solution: First complete the table for take-off Staton [ wert] Arm innes] Poste Moment lgatve tomer sesewount | 20 | asen | 105.350 Fost wo | sen | 27.520 on wo | ome 150 crow so | tome 1500 Row! 6 | coun 11.550 Powe co | teen 7.980 Rows es | ween 9.990 rontnat | 20 | 24mg 450 ruwnaa | as | ian | 5.250 Bagge m | smn | 3200 raatwon | 3.670 +169,420 | 2.460 “2.460 raat Moment | +767,96 Figure 44:7 The take-off CG is at 4161,960-3410 = +475" During the Might 350kg of fuel and 10kg of oll are used fo the positive moment decreases by 350. 82 = 18200 to become +169,420- 18,200 = +146,220 ‘and the negative moment decreases by 103, a to become 2400-30 = +280, ‘The total landing moment is therefore +146,200-2,490 =~ +149,790. (On landing the total mass is reduced by 350+ 10 = 360K ae eee 5 ‘Mass & Balanceto become 3410-360 = -3,050kg land the new CG is 143,790+3,080 = 447.1" 0080 220049 0040 00% 0059, Figure 448 ‘The take-off and landing masses and moments ‘can now be plotted into the eraph. I-can be seen that the aircraft i within limite for take-off but not for landing, We might continue the example to ask how much freight needs to be moved from the rear hold to the front hold te bring the CG within limits. This would be a separate question in the Example: An sircraftis loaded to 3,050kg on landing with (CG at 47.1", Given that the arm of the rear hold is +150 and the front hold -28 how much freight hold to bring the CG to the at limit at 46.8°2 | Mase & Balance Tesue 5 a7Solution: The CG needs to move to 46.8", a shift of 0.3" Use the formula, = change of CG distance moved 0.3 x 3,050 ke 178" = Sd be ae Teswe 5 Mase & BalanceChapter 5 - The Loading Manual The Single Engine Piston, SEP1 Now we will ry an example using the Loading Maral Single Engine Piston data in Section 2, referred to as SEP. Turn to it Page 1 lists the data for the aircraft. Note that the MTOM and MLM are the same, quite normal for alight aircrat. Page 2 shows the seating and baggage arrangements and the moment arms for baggage zones A, B and C. The monent arms {or passengers are shown in the manifest on page 2. Note that, for simplicity in the exam, no moments are given fo: the seats themselves even though they are clearly removable It will be fassumed that the effect of this is included in the BEM data given, ‘The table at the bottom of page 2 lists weights anc moments for fuel. The gallons referred to are US gallons although it does ‘not specity this anywhere in the manual Page 3 contains instructions for completing the menifest and the blank manifest and page 4 shows the CG envelope Example: Using the data for SEP1 in the loading manual provided and the folowing information complete the loading manifest in figure 4-5-1 and use the CG envelope in figure 4-5-2 to determine the CO position for take-off and landing and the Take-ON dnd Landing Mass. Front seat occupants 380 tb ‘Third & fourth seat pax 2200 tb Baggage zone B 60 Ib Baggage zone © 150 Ib Fuel loading at start 50 Usa ‘Trip fuel take-off to touchdown 40 USG ue 8 BaTew ass | A [MOU 7: BASIC ENPTY CONOTTION 2. FRONT SEAT OGOUPANTE 7 3c THRO& FOURTH SEATPAK a BAGGAGE ZONE 708 FTW SOTH SEATPAK 182 © BAGGAGEZONE' 750 T.BAGGAGE ZONE 729 ‘SUB-TOTAL = ZERO FUEL MASS & FUEL LOADING SUB-TOTAL = RAMP WASS SUBTRACT FUEL FOR START, asda RONUP (SEE NOTE {SUB-TOTAL = TAKE OFF MASE 70. TRP FUEL ‘SUB-TOTAL «LANDING WASS Figure 45-4 = PEERED EER BEER EE EEE Figure 452 32 issue —s**S*s«Mas @ BalanceSolution: Mass & Balance Teaue 5 ce Put the BEM, and moment in line 1 ofthe manifest. Insert the load masses down 19 line 7 fand work out the moments remembering to knock {o zeros off the moment before entering i into the table, 9000 is entered as 90. Add the columns tofind the ZPM snd moment. ‘The table on page 2 shows 50 USG of fuel weighs 300 Ibs and haa 9 moment of 225, enter it inline Band then add it tothe ZPM to find the Ramp ‘The note at the bottom of page 3 in the manual shows the effect of taxy fuel is 13 Ibs and 10 in the moment column, Enter it and subtract to find the TOM. ‘Trip fuel is 40 USG. Use the table on page 2 to find the weight and moment, subtract ito find the LM and moment Plot the TOM and moment and the LM snd ‘moment into the CG envelope. ‘The plotted CG for take-off is 85.5" and for landing is 86.3", both within the envelope. These figures can be confirmed by calculation, 298,560 + 3,492 = 85.5, and 280,560 ~ 3,252 = 86.3. Do not forget to add the two zeros back on to the ‘moment or your arm wil be out by two decimal places. Notice that, as momenta were given, we did not hhave to keep working out the arm in the manifest. Ifthe arm is asked for it ean be calculated by dividing the moment by the masrem mass | ‘ay | MOMGoT aE were Erm serene [aie [mL Smovomnsete ae Lr aw TET ealrmetar a a ie apa ees ae | [a Teo =emoracens [seer | are Trees soe seroma [er | [aera ietexmeesee™ | [|e Siero vanes —[ ae | [oar a ee | |r Setentcmmermns [ar | — [area aes Peeetieririae z sa eee 5 Mase & BalanceThe Multi-Engine Piston - MEP1 ‘The next pages in the manual, Section 3, deal with a Mult Engine Piston aircraft known’ as MEP,’ The caleulation is performed in exactly the same way as that for the sirgle-engine ‘sirerat Example: Use the data in the Loading Manual for MEP1, the blank manifest at igure 4-5-5, the CG graph at figure 4 ‘6 and the following information to Uetermine dhe siveraft CO positon for leke-ofT and landing Pilot and front passenger 405 1b Passengers (centre seats) 360 1b Baggage zone 3 BO tb Baggage zone 1 95 tb Fuel load st start 96 usa ‘Taxi fuel 4.usG Trip fuel 75.083 Wass | Am AROF | Moment 10 EM te) _| Daum tn) | Ginche Basie Empty Mass a0 | 90s Pilot and Fron Passenger 355 Passengers (Gente Seas) or aa Baggage Zone 2 (360 (8 Max) assenges (Rear Seats) or Baggage Zone 3 (400 18 Max) Le: Baggage Zone 1 (100 LB Max) 225 Boggage Zone # (TOOLB Max) a7 Zero Fusl Mass (4470 LB Max) Fel (125 Ga ae) 338 ‘Ramp Mass (4779 LB Max) Fost Albwanes for Sia Ta ai Take-off Mass (4750 LB Max) Minas Estimated Fuel Bur-off a6 {anding Mass (4519 LB Max) Mase & Teeve 5 asSolution: Complete the manifest as before. The dillerence is ‘that we have to calculate the fuel mass sing the value of6 tb a gallon given on page 2 and we have to caloulate moment arms for ZFM, Ramp Mase, TOM and LM. Pot in the CG positions, confirm all are in the envelope / Notice how much easier the exercise is with all k the moment arma positive. Most aircraft | om to) | Datum |e Basie Emply Mass soo | ees | 2540.55 t Pilot and Front Passenger ws | Seer Passengers (Genie Seats) or Baggage Zone 2 (360 L8 Max) ine aeons Passengers (Rear Seats) or Baggage Zone (400 8 Max) Sal” = EEE, Baggage Zone 1 (100 U8 Max) 28 ast Zoro Fuel Mass (4470 LB Max) 906 | s761.19 Foal (23 Gal Nox) we | sane ca 580 ry ee ‘Bageage Zone # (700 8 Max) = | 7 Me } Za a6 726 Ramp Mass (4773 LB Max) 906 | #0058 FustAlowance ier Siar, Tau Runup | a¥ | 936 | 2266 Take-off Maas (4750 LB Max) wae | 91.0 | area? nus Esatod Fuel Burt ~ao |_| -werz0 | Tanaing Mass (6573 5 Max) wes | 909 | 588667 Figure 457 ae 37The Twin Jet - MRJT 1 Finally we can look at Section 4 which deals with a medium range twin jet, actually a B737-800, called MRJTI and certificated in Performance Clase A, Body Stations and Moment Arms Page 1 shows a diagram of the balance arms of ce-tain body stations, The balance arm and body station number are not the same, Body stations are measured from a point in front of the rose which wes on the jig when the aircraft was made. The nose itsel! je at Stn 130, The moment arm datum is 22" aft of the nose, the nose itself is at Stn 130 so the datum is at Stn 152. ‘The table underneath the locations diagram converts body ‘The top line of the table states that to convert body stations at the front of the aircraft from Stn 130 to Stn 500 to moment farms subtract 152°, the diference between the two datums ‘The 8737-400 has been stretched fom the original with fuselage plugs at stations 500 and 727. This is why there are seven Stn 500s listed from 500A to G and, similarly, seven Stn ‘727s from A to G, these are the plugs. ‘Stn 500 has a balance arm of 500-152 = 348". The forward plug is 152° long so by the time S00G is reached the plugs Ihave cancelled out the earlier 152° correction and from Sth 540 10 727 the body stations are equal to the moment arm, From Stn 727 onwards we need extra corrections to ‘compensate for the rear plug, these are listed in the table. Example: An tem of equipment with a mass of 6,Skg is ‘added at Stn 727F, Determine the moment change, 727+ 126 = 853° the moment is an increase of 853 x 6.5 = 5544.5 Kg inches Mass & Balance Teaue 5 39‘The Effect of Gear and Flap Retraction Para 2.2 on page 2 shows that gear retraction has a negligible effect on the CG. Flap retraction, however, moves heavy aerodynamic surfaces forward and does have an effect. The effect of flap retraction is listed in the table at figure 4.3 near the top of the page. Graph of Trim Units for CG Position Figure 4.4 on page 2 shows the stabiliser trim settings to be made before take-off at diferent lap settings and CG. The ‘green band! referred to is a marked section next to the elevator ‘yim wheel that shows acceptable limits for take-off Because the flap setting affects the lit and therelore the Centre of Pressure trim settings are different for Plaps 5° and Flaps 15° take-off, 15737 ott Quctant Showing Stablsr Tin Example: The CG has been determined at 19% MAC for f Flaps 5° take-off, determine the stabiliser trim setting. Solution: Enter Figure 4.4 on page 21 at 19% MAC, run up. to the Flaps 5 line, move horizontally let to read oat 375, ‘sa0 Teaue 5Mean Aerodynamic Chord Para 2.5 on page 2 states the length of the MAC is 134.5" and the LeMAC is 625.6" aff of the datum, Bxample: The CG is determined as 646.3" aft of the datum, express this as a %MAC. Solution; The LeMAC is 625.6" aft, the G is 696.3" aft 20 itis 646.3 ~ 625.6 = 20.7" behind the LeMAC. percentage this is 20. x 100 = 15.4% 1348 Structural Mass Limits ‘These are listed at the bottom of page 2 Page 3 shows the location of the fuel tanks in the wings and fuselage. On this aircraft fuselage fuel is not counted towards Zero Fuel Mass. The fuel automatically feeds from the centre tank first, then the wings. ‘The tables on the top two thirds of the page show fuel tank maximum volumes, masses and moment arms together with Uunusable fuel details. Note the conversion factor in Figure 4.5 0f 3.03 Kg to a US gallon. sssengers and Crew Page 4 shows the distribution of passengers on the aircraft Rather than worle out the moments for each row o! seats the cabin is zoned from A to G. The maximum number of passengers in each zone and the balance arm for that mass is shown in Figure 4.8 Note that Passenger Mass is 84kg, this is the ‘all adult’ figure for non-charter fights with thirly or more seats. The baggage allowance would suggest a fight within the BU. ‘The crew allowances are non standard, this is permitted by {JAR OPS with the agreement ofthe Authority Mass & Balance Tesue 5 oatcargo ‘There are two cargo compartments, fore and aft, each divided into” three theoretical sections which "are shown, diagrammatically on page 5. ‘The balance arm of the limits of each section are shown at the top but we will use the centroid (central) values of 367-9 for the forward hold and 884.5 for the at hold Intensity are listed as are the maximum total loads and volumes ‘The Manifest and CG Envelops ‘The manifest and CG envelope are used just as before. The size of the complete calculation makes it impossible as an exam. question. Example: Use the data for MRJT 1, the information below ‘and the blank manifest at gure 4-5-10 to ‘determine the CG expressed as %MAC for takeoff and landing. Dom 34,300 kg DOM balance arm 50" Pax Zone A 4 Adults ax Zone B 5 Adulte Pax Zane C 18 Adults 2 Children Pax Zone D 20 Adults Pax Zone E 10 Adulte Pax Zone F 5 Adults Pax Zone G 4 Adults Cargo Hold 2 630 keg mail Cargo Hold 4 2100 kg bags Fuel Tanks 18 2 9084 kg Centre Tank 4900 kg ‘any Fuel 260 kg Flight Fuel 9500 kg Flight Fuel moment 5947 kg inches Assume the fuel feed from the centre tank until fempty and then from the wings. Use standard asses of 84 kg for adults and 35kg for children, saz Teaue 5 Mase & Balance‘Max Pormissble Aeroplane Mass Valuos:- axLMass ZERO FUEL MASS. ‘TAKE OFF MASS - LANDING MASS - vem Maa | 846) | eames | snc DOM 2 PAX Zone A 2 E 3. PAX Zone 386 Z “4. PAX Zone C 505 ‘5. PAX Zone ot 6. PAX Zone 77 [7 Pax zoner | 96 ‘8 PAX Zone 98 : [a carconowo1 | | sere 0, CARGO HOLD & oa : "TL ADDITIONAL ems ‘ZERO FUEL MASS 12, FUEL TANKS 182 5 19, CENTRE TANK : TAXI MASS: LESS TAXI FUEL TAKE OFF MASS LESS FLIGHT FUEL > EST. LANDING MASS 7 Figure 45-10 Solution: Extract the Mass Limits from page 2 of the ‘manual and put them in the top of the manifest Enter the DOM and the masses for the nargo and passengers, calculate the individual moments and {otal the masses and moments to find the ZFM ‘and moment. Notice that the moment column is divided by 1000 to keep the numbers ‘manageable. Check the ZFM does not exceed the Maximum ZEM, Mase & Balance insue 5 aaaTaXMMASs. 62060 ZERO FUELMASS. 57500 TAKE.OFFNASS 42°22 LANDING MASS. 4900 mem May | 2A 00) | xganttoan | eMac DOM 34500 | 650 | 22295 2 PAX Zone A 336 | 7 | s5aee | “4 PAX Zone © rere | s05_| vonsr | 5. PAX ZoneD 760 | ost | 10r6.5e 6. PAX Zone E seo | im | 65208 7. PAX Zone F eo | 0 | 57652 8. PAX Zone @ 336 | we | sasser @ carconos | 30 | sro | 297.777 jo carcoHo.ns | eroo | ees | 7857.45 77. ADDITIONAL : ens ZEROFUELMASS | 42649 27551.59 | 12 FUEL TANKS 142 | 905e va.centre tank | 4900 | TAXIMASS LESS TAXI FUEL 260 - TAKE OFF MASS C LESSFUGHTFUEL | 9500 “5955.18 |= EST, LANDING MASS. Figure 45-11 Mari in the fuel balance arms extracting the data from page 3, find the taxi mass and moment Subtract the taxi fuel and moment sing the ‘contre tank balance arm to find the TOM and ‘moment. Subtract fight fuel and moment to find [Mand moment. Turn the TOM and LM moments back into balance arms, uaa Teno 5 Mase &Max Permissible Aeroplane Mass Valuos: TAXINASS 2060 ‘ZEROFUELMASS- $7200 TAKEOFF MASS: 62800 LANDING MASS-_s4900 a “iar | 2869 | koe sie DOM 30200 | 050 | 22095 "PAX Zone 8 wo | se | rez - 4 Pax zonoc | rsse | 50s | 7on.97 - | ‘5 PAK Zone D vaso | on | toress a 6. PAX Zone E soo | im | 652.68 7. PAX Zone F wo | 06 | 57652 - 8 PAK Zone G 356 | 908 | saser @ canconows | «so | sere | esnz77 WrcaRconow4 | 27co | ous | 7457.45 "FL ADDITIONAL rreMs ZEROFUELMASS | 42608 BREED Y2FUELTANKS 182 | sore | 6507 | 5970.96 | - TB.CENTRETANK | 4900 | 600.4 | 2967.96 | _- TAXIMASS: 56688 26720.81 LESS TAXI FUEL -260 | sooe | -156.1 | - Tae orrmass | s0s0r | eas.ve | 50578.7/| LESS FLIGHT FUEL “5995.19 | ~ EST. LANDING MASS | #068 | 688.57 | 506a8.55 Figure 45-12 Wass & Balance Tasue 5 ‘sas Now we have a TOM of 56368kg and an arm of 648.92" and a LM of 46868Kg and arm of (653,57", We need to find the CG as @ %MAC. ‘The data on page 2 of the manual tells us the Leading Edge of the MAC is at 625.6" sc the take- olf arm is (048,92 — 625.6 = 29.22 aft of the Leading Edge. As a MAC = 28.92 + 194.5 x 100 = 17.3%MAC ‘The landing arm is at(653.57 625.6 = 27.97" aft ofthe Le ‘a8 a 6MAC = 27.97 + 134.5 x 100 = 20.8%MAC We could plot this on to the CG envelope on ‘page 8 of the manual to prove we are operating inside the envelope. The question does not require ‘this, we will use the Load and Tvim Sheet instead. ‘The Load & Trim Sheet ‘The load and trim sheet is shown on the last four pages of the loading manual and is reproduced in figure 4-5-14. The left hhand side of the sheet is used to check that the data from the manifest has not exceeded the load limits and to record the load distribution. The right hand side is used to determine the CG and the stabiliser tim setting, Loading Summary Cofs Figure 45-13, Follow through the example using the blank Load and Trim Sheet, a6 Taso 5 Mase & BalanceTesu0 5 ‘sav Mass & BalanceIntentionally Blanke‘The loading summary itself is split into three sectiors, The top section, Section 1, is used to establish the maximum payload ‘that can be carried, The middle part, Section 2, details the load distribution by destination and the lower part, Section 3, ‘summarises the losd and allows last minute changes (MCS) Section1 Section 2 Section 3 Figure 45-15, We will start with Section 1. Into this we enter the maximum smastes for Take-Off, Zero Fuel and Landing and the DOM. The ‘maximum masses are in the manual, We are entering the data, fom the manifest into the trim sheet 80 we will use the DOM and loads from the previous example. [Now work out the take-off fuel, 9084 + 4900 - 260 = 13724 ke, fand enter it under the DOM and MZPM. Add it to esch in turn {to find the (wet) Operating Mass and the value in box. [Add the trip fuel, 9500kg, to the MLM to find the value for box c. Wass & Balance Teaue 5 | jFigure 45-46 [Now choose the lowest of boxes A, B or C and subtract the (wet) (Operating Mass from that to find the Allowed Traific Load SS [ = foie te A hit ta | ——— as fe lolol sata Having found the maximum trafic load we can use we are now going to set Section 1 to one side and consider Section 2, the load distribution, Section 2 has two identical parts so that the traffic load for separate destinations can be identified. We shall assume just fone destination, San Francisco, SFO, which is entered on the Jeft side. The next boxes allow the number of males, females, childzen and infants to be recorded. We had the passengers distributed like this: Pax Zone A 4 Adults ax Zone B 5 Adults ax Zone 18 Adults 2 Children Pax Zone D 20 Adults ‘520 TeuoS—~S*«Mas & BalancePax Zone £ 10 Adults ax Zone F 5 Adults ax Zone G 4 Adults Which, disregarding the distribution for now, totals to 66 adults 'and two children. We have drawn no distineticn between male and female adults 60 they wil all be recorded as male. ‘The distribution mass of the passengers is calculated as 66 x Stk = 554aKeg for the adults and 2x 25kg = 70g for the children. The masses are entered as being in the passenger r Figure 45.48 Now we enter the cargo, split into Baggage, Cargo and Mail. We hhave 630 of Mail in Hold 1 and 2100kg of bagenge in Hold 4 2 le Bm ke ° rare. Figure 45.49 Now add the masses in Hold 1, Hold 4 and the Passenger Cabin to find the Total Traffic Load. 630 + 2100 + 5614 = 8344kg. Enter this in Section 1, then subtract it from the Allowed Traffic Load to find the underload before Last Minute (Changes (LMC). Mass & Balance= Teneo = 3 ea at cos 7 5 9 la] Ie [re oda ea 4H a ! Figure 45:20 Now the final bit of Part A, Section 3, which records the actual ‘Total the baggage and mail from Section 2, ad in the total passenger mass from zone 0 to find the Traffie Load again Check this agrees with the Traffic Load entered in Section 1, ‘Add this to the DOM to find the ZFM, check it does not exceed the limit. Add the take-off fuel to find the TOM, check it does ‘not exceed the limit. Subtract the trip fuel to find the LM, ‘check it does not exceed the limit, tasue & Mase & BalanceNext is the right hand part of the Tvim Sheet, the CG and stabiliser trim setting. This part uses a format’ we have met before ‘The first thing to do is to determine the Dry Operating Index. ‘There is no information in the manual to allow xls to do this so it has to be given, We will use a DOI of 45,0 with two crew, enter iin the box, top right. Now transfer the masses of baggage in compartments 1 and 4 fom the let side of the sheet (figure 4-5-19) into the boxes on ye let Ind side, Ener te number of passenge-s in exch compartment. This form does not allow a distinctian between adults and children. In reality the Operations Marual would tell you how to deal with this, for this example we will assume that in this section we treat all passengers as adults, the Giferences will be minor. ej swverewonaveoe [PP 2= [25 joan a Ey fii aaa, Figure 45:22 iance Tesu0 5 ‘sa3Consult Section 4 page 12, figure 4-14, of the manual to find the index for the take-off fuel of 19724 kg, it is “11.1, Write it Having marked in the number of passengers in each compartment, the cargo mass and the fuel index we can follow through the grids moving in the direction of the arrows for the correct number of divisions, The scale is marked on each grid. AeeAnaaoe (Once the line reaches the CG envelope drop straight down until it erosses the TOM. The %MAC can be read as 16.7%. The stabiliser trim setting is shown by the numbers 8, 4 and 3 in circles, it appears to be about 4, 3m ”~*Cwe Mase &We can now find the 96MAC for ZAM and LM. For ZFM ignore the fuel index a8 no fuel is considered and drop a lire down to intersect the ZFM. The %MAC is 19.8. For LM caleulate the landing fuel, 13728 ~ 9500 = 4224kg and work out the index from page 12, -5.1. Move along the fuel index 5.1 divisions and drop a line to the LM, the %MAC is 18.2 A e]=|=[:]]> El 7 Z. Figure 45.24 A final cheek af the CG positions shaves the TOM, ZEM andl LM to be within the envelope, Notice that the %MAC values obtained from the :rim sheet lifer slightly from the calculated values. This is because of the Inherent inaccuracies of the graphical method and. the instructions not to interpolate on page 12, the fuel index. In real life these diferences are small and hardly affect the stab setting. Mase & BalanceIntentionally Blanie Teaue 5 Wass & Balance