Radio Navigation (CHAPTER 1 - RADIO THEORY senso IstropucTioN, PRODUCING A RADIO WAVE FREQUENCY AND WAVELINGI "THE FREQUENCY SPECTRUM. : ~ ADDING INFORMATION “Amplide modation. Stdebonde Frequency Modulation. Pulte Modhltion. Puss AND PHASE DIFFEREN. : POLARISATION. AERIALS (CHAPTER 2- PROPAGATION cnn vtronucnos: REFRACTION DIFFRACTION, ELECTION ATTENUATION Space WAVES, SuRFace WAVES. Sky Waves, SPORADICE, ‘Aruosetunie Duct Toyosmrgie pucrns STATIC AND NOISE SUMMARY === “Tae Doreuix ErrecT. Doppler Navigation Stems i (CHAPTER 3- COMMUNICATIONS cvcsnnnvsnnnnnnninn rvrmonucnon. [Lone Rance Comnitsicn TIONS . SHORT RANG COMMUNICATIONS. SELCAL : Cocker EouirenT SATCOM AND Dicttal Data Lis CARS: Gieoun Binkerion FING ‘DP Lesions. Errors. (CHAPTER 4~THENDR... rvrmonuctoN Canna Waves ENTS AND THE BFO, RECEIVER OpsRaTiON Loop Aerials, Ineimamen apis [ERRORS AND ACCURACY : 7 Radio Navigation Teas 5 Contents 4Sut. 7 Thaersorms 3 Nigh Efe ; ‘Staton heron 5 Coastal Refraction 9 Qenirantl Ero, ‘0 De. own ct. 0 Rance u ‘Tynes ov ND Staion. i cats. Enont and Lam Range NDB. b Corea Te EQUIPMENT 2 NDB Taackine 5 (CHAPTER S-THE VOR. ermopucrio. 1 Princie.s oF Ortkation 1 [INSTRUMENT DISPLAYS, 3 TIECONE oF CONFUSION 5 IDENTIFICATION. 6 nas aNb ACCURACY. I 6 ‘Site Brrr and Doppler VOR. 7 Propagation Errors 5 Exuipment Errors 3 ‘Typisor VOR. 5 VOR ax DME Association ° OpexATING THE EQUIPMENT 9 VOR TRACKING. “ i 0 1 1 1 2 4 6 7 8 ° (CHAPTER 6- ILS _nerronuction. FREQUENCIES - InsiRUMENT DIsLAYS LLocAListk OvetaTion _ “Lacalter deril and Coverage ‘nirGuneeant Glidepath Coverage -MAgKER BEACONS. TLS CareooR - False GUDEStOrES OFFSET Locate. BACKCOURSE APPROACHES, CALCULATING HEJGNTS AND Ras OF DESCENT [SYSTEM ERRORS. (CHAPTER 7- MICROWAVE LANDING SYSTEM (MLS) noon Ivtmonvcn0N, PRINCIPLE oF OPERATION, covurace “ ERRORS AND Contain OF ILS AND MLS (CHAPTER &- RADAR THEORY AND GROUND RADAR... Intropvet0N. Contents 2 Teen 5requenciss CCoxTINvoUs Wav Radak aND PULSE RADAR PULSE RADAR THEORY. PULSE RADAR MAXIMUM RANGE. PULSE RADAR MINIMUM RANGE [BEARING AND RANGE RESOLIMION THECATHODE RAY TUBE (CRT) DISPLAY GROUND RADAR. “deta ‘Moving Farge indication. SSURVERIANCE RADAR. Enron Servellmee, Terminal Svelance Radar. Approach Surveillance Rader PRECISION APPROACH RADAR (PAR), AIRFIELD SURFACE MOVEMENT RADAR (CHAPTER 9~ AIRBORNE WEATHER RADAR on _erropucrion Frguency. EQUIPMENT ‘TESTING THE EQUIPAENT ON THE GROUND ‘Looking ar cLoUuDs Marnie RADAR. “ [RANGE SCALES, CayrnoL Paneis : CHAPTER 10 - DME -erropucriox PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION [BEACON SATURATION ACCURACY . . TACAN, VORDME Association Cocker Equirat. DME Ranci AxD DME Deiveb Grounbsrexo, DMEsvmno1s. DME Fen aNd DME anes. DME wr ILS. = DMEP. CHAPTER 11 -SSRswnsnnneee rnopuctiox. PRINCIPLE OF OrrRaTION CONTROLLER'S DISPLAY. Cocker Eauiests. ERxons ‘ones Made 8a Cai. (CHAPTER 12— HYPERBOLIC NAV SYSTEMS & LORAN sensnnsnsnnsnne yropucrio... ‘ACCURACY Eivaratoss | Radio Navigation asus S Contents 3LORAN, PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION ‘OxHOARD NQUINAENT ACCURACY AND RANGE (CHAPTER 13 - SATELLITE NAVIGATION... ‘Tae Sarees, FREQUENCIES. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION. ‘Tine To FIRST Fo, ACCURACY axD SYS Enon, ERE ‘Satellite ephemeris error. Intrament Receiver ero MultipadhSigals. Clock Bias FIRING ERRORS, DOP ‘Satellite geometry err Optimum Geomery. Coverage Problens IMPROVING THE NAVIGATION SOLUTION RalM, Iitegrted Navigation Sytoms. [RECEIVERS AND AETUALS Single-chamel Mut-channel receivers Mitiptex receivers. Contino receters deri Location. Lagat ‘SvSTE DavELOnENTS Differential GS. Prenties Satellite Bareddngoentaion Syston GNSS. GPS ApPLicaTiON®. ‘Air Trafic Control “Averaft Navigation (CHAPTER 14 - AREA NAVIGATION. Ixtropucrion. RNAV. “Advantages of RNAV. BeRNAY. PRNAY. RNAV EqutPAsT Baste Equine ‘ADVANCED EQUIPMENT. Database. Cost Managemen with he FS FMS Inputs ‘Airborne Operation. The EFISNAV Made The EFIS MAP Moe EFIS VOR and ILS Displays ‘The EFIS PLAN Mode. Contents 4 oe[BPIS Colour Coding ‘Navald Poi. TAs and ETOs Radio Navigation Tee0e sen BE = a - 4Intentionally Blank ‘Radio NavigationRadio waves speed o light Chapter 1 - Radio Theory Introduction sadio waves have become such a common part of our life in the twenty first century that we tend to take the benefits for granted, Most students will have studied some radio theory at school, many will have acquired 4 far greater depth of knowledge. This section considers not Only radio communications but also radio navigation aids and radar systems, Producing a radio wave ‘To produce a radio wave all that is needed ie an oscillating clectrieal current and an serial. ‘The electrons moving backwards and forwards in the aerial produce a. changing electromagnetic field which moves away from them at the ‘speed of light. Figure 9464 ‘Radio Navigation sueWhen this changing electromagnetic field passes over the electrons in a receiving aerial they are moved in. sympathy producing a current identical to the one that was transmitted, Amplifiers and filters compensate for the power loss to make the signal usable. Frequency and Wavelength ‘The waves are referred to in terms of their frequency or wavelength. The speed of light is constant fin a vacuum) at 300,000,000 or 3x 10 metres per second. An alternating ‘current that cyeles once ina second will produce one wave in that time, At the end of the second the front of the wave is 3 x 108 metres away so the wave length is 3.x 108 metres. AS the wave has cycled once in a second itis said to have a frequency fof one eyele a second or, to use the correct unit, one Hertz (Hz) Doubling the frequency will halve the wavelength. It will be useful later to also remember the speed of light as about 162,000 nautical miles per second, Se nerae Radio frequencies can be very high, ranging from 300 Hz to '300,000,000,000 Hz. By ‘convention 1000 Hz is called a Kilohertz (KHz), 1,000,000 Hz a Megaherte (MHz) and 1,000,000,000 Ha Gigahertz (Gia, ‘The relationship between frequency and wavelength can be expressed more correctly by the formula High frequencies have short, wavelengths 000K: In 8 kis 0008s In a Gitehee tf where} is the wavelength, ¢ is the speed of light and fis the frequency. The formula can be transposed 10 read 3 fe land you can, if you wish, remember it using a tangle like we id with voltage, current and resistance. For the formula to work the correct units mus: be used Wavelength must be in metres, the frequency in Hz and the speed of light in metres per second. Using this formula the frequency can be calculated fom the wavelength and vice Bxample: A radio signal has a frequency of 3 KHe, find the ‘wavelength ‘Solution: Using the formula, Roo = gxio8 Bx 10° The problem here is that the some calculators will not accept the figure 300,000,000 as they only hhave an eight digit display. If you have @ calculator like this you must cancel some zeros. n= 300,000,086 3,600 = 00,000 3 This can now be entered into the esleulator to produce the answer, 100,000 metres, which would normally be expressed as 100 kim. Try ‘another, Example: A radio signal has a wavelength of 3.5 ‘centimetzes, What is the frequency? Solution: 3.5 em is 0.035 m. Using the formula, Radio Navigation03s ‘This can. be entered into the calculator by dividing 3 by 0.035 and then multiplying the result by 10" or adding eight zeros, whieh is the ame thing f= 957x106 87x 10° He The Frequency Spectrum ‘The radio spectrum is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum that as ffequencies from 3Khz to 300Ghz, Within these ‘bounds it is broken down into eight bands ranging from Very Low Frequencies (VLF to Extremely High Frequencies (EHF}. You will need to be able to reproduce the table below so that you ‘can associate frequencies and wavelengths with the “appropriate bands. very Lovely ‘3Khz-30Khz —|100km-10km ave" (Myriamettic) Very same sooo [onetime | Sot, (Kilometric) Equipment ete “ama” [em -100 m ectonet) uma eam [100m tom foectneeta) oma 300mna [104 m cic outa 36R2 [1m -10 em foecrns) Sse wag sons" oone | Weare Frequeney iSereaere) Extremely High [30Ghe 3006Re [1 em 1 mm Frequney bitin} we 943 14 Tasue 5 Radio Navigation‘At produces two fs the carson Ifyou use mnemonics to remember sequences try this one Very Lovely Maidens Have Very Useful Sewing Rquioment Adding information ‘The frequency of the radio wave on its own is not audible. Even if it was, it would only be heard as a monotone. Any jnformation to be transmitted must be laid on top af the carrier wave before transmission and decoded by the receiver. This is own ss modulation and demodilaion. - PRA —~ AA = if Figure 9-4-4 ‘The simplest form of modulation is to vary the strength or the amplitude of the carrier wave to transmit information Sidebands ‘As the radio wave now haa not only the carrier wave frequency’ ‘but also the intelligence frequencies both above and below the line then three frequencies are now transmitted tegether, the original carrier wave, the carrier wave plus the intelligence and the carrier wave minus the intelligence. These two new Arequencies are called sidebands. Radio Navigation Tass aes‘The intelligence is duplicated on the sidebands so itis possible to reduce the amount of space taken up by the transmission, the bandwidth, by not transmitting the carrier wave and one of the sidebends’ This also reduces the power required by the ‘transmitter. The clever electrical systems that do this are said to produce single sideband transmissions when only the sideband is suppressed, by convention the lower one, and Single sideband suppressed carrier when the carrier wave is also removed. ‘Mt can uso 558 —__I Figure 9-45 Frequency Modulation ‘As an alternative to varying the amplitude of a wave the frequency ‘may be varied. The resulting signal is frequency modulated (FM, _ (x fr Figure 04-6 16 Tesue 5 ‘Radio NavigationAlthough an FM receiver will pick up just the same interference fand static with the signal as an AM receiver it has the Capability to ‘clip’ the signal to remove any extraneous variations in amplitude. The variations in frequency which cary the intelligence are unalfected. Thus an FM audio signal will produce a high fidelity reproduction of the original without interference from static. gn inn | | wh» pero I | | Aly eee MN i AL, a ! TAT With frequency modulation the mixture of frequencies is much ‘more complex than AM and the bandwidth is much wider. An FM transmission will require three times as much power and ‘more than twice the bandwidth of an equivalent single sideband AM signal Because of the greater bandwidth occupied by a station FM signals are restricted to low power, and thus short ranges, #0 ‘void congesting the airwaves. ‘The advantages of FM are therefore + Less static ‘The disadvantages are Greater power requirement + Greater banawidth + More complex receiving equipment required Radio Navigation issus 5 +7Pulse Modulation Finally, information such as morse signals can be transmitted Pulse modulation by interrupting the carrier wave to send a series of dots and sends eigtal data ashes, More complex systems can send digitised information or morse in-a binary code, This is how computers communicate. — AO. =~ 8 Figure 94.8 Phase and Phase difference Positions on a radio wave are deseribed in degrees from 0 10 The phase of 360. By convention the measurement starts where the iewhere the amplitude of the wave is incressing through zero. The diagram amplitude i 200 below shows the phase notation, fond sing Phase Notation Figure 94.0 18 teue 5For phase frequency and swvelongth mast The high 270 out of phase from the low srplitude weve If two transmissions with the same wavelength start at the same point and time the waves will be synchronised and in phase. If one starts slightly after another they wil be out of Phase by an amount measured in degrees, For phase Comparison the amplitude of the waves may differ but the wavelength, and thus the frequency, must be the same, ‘This presents a recurring problem to engineers designing radio equipment that relies on phase comparison, The wo signals, being compared must have the same frequency and wavelength ‘but must be distinguishable, Similariy, the two signels must be somehow prevented trom cancelling euch oder ul, Tel possibilty if they are 180° out of phase. The solutions to this problem can be particularly elegant, and we shall look at them fas we consider the system that relies on phase comparison, vor ‘To determine phase difference find where your wave rises ‘through the neutral position and read the phase of the reference wave at that point. In the diagram below the high amplitude wave is 270° out of phase with the reference wave. a Radio Navigation eee 5 19Polarisation Radio waves are composed of two elements, the electrical or E field which we have already considered and a magnetic field at right angles to it called the H field. Both the E and the H field fas well as being orthogonal are also at right angles to the Girection of propagation. A vertically polarised wave is a wave in which all the electrical oscillation is in the vertical plane. This is not unusual, any vertical aerial will produce a vertically polarised wave which will require a vertical aerial to receive it Likewise a horizontal ‘one will produce a horizontally polarised wave, This effect can be seen on any aircraft. VHF communications Irequencies are vertically polarised and the alreraft aerials are vertical. Navigation frequencies are horizontal and the aerials {are horizontal, often in a 'V shape on the fn ofthe aeroplane. ‘ Radio Navigation {ald i horizontal vertically Polarised waveAerials ‘The simplest aerial is a vertical or horizontal conductor, the orientation depending on the polarisation. This is a di-pole ‘aerial. The ideal aerial size js either half the wavelength or a (Quarter of the wavelength, Figure 9-1-12 shows th radiation pattern for a quarter wave vertical dipole aerial Figure 94.42 ‘The view from above is symmetrical, showing that the aerial transmits equally well in all directions. From the sice it ean be seen that the aerial transmits well horizontally but there Is an fre overhead where there is no transmission, and terefore no signal will be received. These diagrams are called polar Giagrams and could apply equally well ta receiver aerials ‘The elfect ofthe ideal aerial size can be seen in the systems we use, Car radios operate mainly on VHF, we would expect the aerials to be a quarter wavelength, that is between 2.5m and 25cm, and we find exactly that. Mobile telephones are UNF, aerials are quarter wavelength, between 25em and 2.5em. ‘Redlo Nevigation Issues at‘To transmit directional signals a parabolic aerial or dish aerial ccan be used. The particular property of a parabolic shape that ‘makes it useful as a reflector i that transmissions from one point, called the focus, ‘eflect in the same direction, The parabolic aerial produces a ‘pencil beam’ ideal for target tracking stich as might be used in aireaft weather radar. Ground based radars often make use of just a section of the ‘aerial to track in only two dimensions. ‘A modern alternative to the parabolic dish is the phase array serial, In this type a series of conducting elements like small dipoles fre arranged in a line and are fed signals in phase with each fther. The interference pattern they produce acts like a pencil ‘beam: || The aerial system on the let is made of two. separate aerials rotating together, a phase array aerial on the top and a parabolic section below. Radio Navigation{Al ish serie produce Sidolobes ‘erin produce Slotted scanners work in pretty much the same way as phase array aerials except that the vertical dipole element is replaced by a slot which acts a8 a resonant cavity to produce the radio signal, The slots themselves are not always visble. Many modern aircraft radars, particularly military types, use sloted Aerials that produce beamed signals, whether phase array or based on parabolic reflectors, have & similar poler diagram, The main transmission lobe has sidelobes of wased energy, the more efficient the aerial system the smaller the sidelobes, Figure 94-16 Sidelobes can be the source of errors and intecerence in ‘beamed aerial systems. A parabolic antenna can waste two Radio Navigation . 143thirds of the energy directed into it, a well designed slotted terials will waste less than half that ery Tesue S|caused by a ‘change of spect Low frequencies fare retracted Chapter 2 - Propagation Introduction ‘any shudents will remember experiments with waves Jn a water tank fom their achool days. Just lke the waves in water, radio waves can lose their energy land be reflected or bent in certain circumstances #0 change their path through the atmosphere. Whilst reflection is, fairly straightforward, bending can be caused by either refraction oF difraction, Refraction When light passes through a lens itis bent or refracted at the edge of the glass because the speed of the wave s changed Any change in density of the medium a radio wave passes through oF over will produce a similar effect. The amount of refraction depends on the change in speed of the save, its wavelength and the angle at which it hits the new medium, Longer wavelengths are refracted most, Figure 9244 ‘Radio Navigation issue 2ARadio waves can be refracted as their speed changes because of the surface they are passing over or because of the medium ‘they are passing through Diffraction When a wave is directed through a narrow hole a circular ‘waveform appears on the other side. The hole has acted like a point source and ellectvely retransmitted the wave. This {fraction effect alao occurs where a wave passes over a sharp object. Once more diffraction is greater at longer wavelengths, iy Reflection depends on the density of the materials, the wavelength of the radio waves and the angle they hit at. Reflection also occurs where otherwise it might not ifthe waves hit a surface or, in some circumstances, changes in density in the atmosphere at very shallow angle. To see this effect hold ‘your watch face up @ the light and tlt st towards the horizontal until refraction becomes reflection and the surface acts like a mirror. In some radar systems where reflection is an integral part of the design care is taken to ensure the Reflection ‘wavelength is compatible with the target size, that is to say the same size as the target or smaller. 22 1s Radio Navigation Ditraction Is caused by sharp greatest at low frequencies‘Atmosphere greatest at high frequencies freatest at high frequencies lonospheric trequencies ‘space waves aro Tine of sight Attenuation Attenuation is the loss of signal strength of a wave. In a vacuum there is no attenuation as the radio wave has nothing two give up its energy to, However, as a radio wave passes ‘through the atmosphere the electrons in dust and water droplets absorb some of the energy causing emospheric ‘attenuation. Atmospheric attenuation increases as the ‘requency increases becoming significant above 1 GHz. Radio waves passing over the earth's surface also lose their energy and slow down, Surface attenuation is greatest and Speed ia lowest over the ice caps, then desert areas, then over fother land and there is least attenuation and the save travels fastest over the sea, Surface attenuation increases as frequency increases just the same as atmospheric altenuation. ‘This is not really surprising as the same substances, rock and water, affect both, ‘Waves passing through the layer of electrically cha-ged atoms fat the edges of space known as the lonosphere are likewise fattenuated. In contrast to the other two, ionospheric attenuation increases as frequency decreases ‘Space Waves Space waves are line of sight waves. All radio frequencies use this method of propagation although ite range is limited by obstructions and by the curvature of the earth. The maximum theoretical range of a VHF/UHF space wave in nautical miles ean be determined from the formula, Max theoretical range 123 9H + 1.23 she where Hi is the height of the transmitter and He isthe height ofthe receiver both measured infect above mean sea level Figure 923 Ground reflected waves are also included in this category RadioNavigation we SSCS‘Surface Waves At lower frequencies radio waves passing over hills and ‘buildings are diffracted. The effect is increased by the slower ‘speed of the wave front near the earth’s surface which creates ‘2 downward component to the movement. This tends to make the wave follow the curvature ofthe earth ‘Surface Wave Formation Figure 9.24 ‘The distance a surface wave can travel is limited by surface attenuation which decreases at lower frequencies and over the fea. Surface waves are around 100nm long in the HF band, 500nm in the MF, 1000nm in the LF and over 4000nm long in the VLF bands. Surface waves and space waves occur together land the combination is called a ground wave, ‘Sky Waves Sky waves are refracted from the ionosphere, This is an area in the very outer fringes of the atmosphere many hundreds of Iclometres above the earth's surface, In the ionosphere the few gas molecules that are present are being constantly bombarded with solar and cosmic radiation ‘The molecuies of gas, which normally have no electrical charge, fare split_into positively and negatively charged ions. ‘The ‘density of the fons increases with height, up to a point, and increases with the intensity of radiation ‘The ionosphere is weaker at night than during the day because the ionising solar radiation is not present. 2a Tesue 5 Radio Navigation surtnce waves are longest at low ‘roquoncies Sky waves retract ieom the ‘onosphere ‘Tae fonosphere is weaker at nightiy waves are, nly relia ‘he HF band Where the ion density changes radio waves will be refracted. Most of the refraction occurs about 125km up, at what is known as the E layer. A wave of low enough frequency at the right angle of incidence can be refracted back to earth. ‘The distance from the transmitter to the point where the first returning sky wave is received is called’ the minmum skip Gistance. This also decreases with frequency. In the gap between the ground wave and the first returning sky wave nothing will be received, this is the dead space. Figure 925 ‘Skip distances are increased at night as the ionosphere weakens and refracts less. By day or night a returning sley wave of sufficient power can be bounced off the earth to be Fefracted again. This is known as multi-hop transmission, and ‘may lead to four ar five bounces, depending on the train. ‘The maximum skip distance occurs when the signal leaves the ‘earth at a tangent and ia restricted by the curvature of the earth, The maximum theoretical skip distance from the E layer Is about 1500NM, the low frequencies which refract best are also those that suffer most from ionospheric attenuation. This means that sky ‘waves are only reliable in the HF band, where the frequencies fare low enough to relract but not so low that they get attenuated, Sky waves are present as interference in the MF ‘and LF bands, notably at dawn and dusk, Tasue 5 28Sporadic E In times of high solar activity the E layer is much more heavily fonised than usual and becomes dense enough to. generate returning sky wave in the VHF band leading to unusually long range reception. Atmospheric Ducting When atmospheric conditions are right radio waves in the VHF, UHF, SHF and EHF bands ean find an atmospheric duct that allows them unusually long range propagation. Ducts near the surface need a marked temperature inversion and rapid decrease in humidity with height. Air mass subsidence can produce an elevated duct. Apart from these. generalisations ‘Atmospheric ducting is unpredictable, although there is nearly always some ducting which typically extends line of sight ranges by about 15%. Atmospheric ducting is also referred to ‘a8 super refraction, where retraction is less than normal i i called sub-refrsction lonospheric ducting In the VLF band wavelengths are in the order of tens of Kilometres and frequencies are so low that sky waves would ‘not normally be expected. Sporadic E can Atmospheric sdcting t= katy in Vir only‘Static te greatest ‘The point is reached where the signals no longer vefract but reflect from the ionosphere. Now as the signals barely enter the fonosphere attenuation is minimal and multi-hop {transmissions combine with surface waves up to 4000nm long. to use the gap between the ionosphere and the earth as 3 natural waveguide. This is known as ionospheric ducting, Static and Noise Static and noise can both interfere with radio signals, Static is fa natural phenomenon caused primaniy by the electrical discharges in convective clouds, Thunderstorms generate huge ‘amounts of electricity and these discharges pavticuiarly aflect the lower frequencies becoming insignificant in the VHF band. When precipitation, particularly rain, strikes an aircraft at a different electrical ‘potential there is a minute discharge of Static. This precipitation static is most troublesome in the LF ‘and MF bands, Noise is man made interference from unshielded electrical equipment. It mostly affects the VHF frequencies and above ‘when alternating currents and sparking from poor connections produce electromagnetic Helds. Summary ‘Atmospheric and surface attenuation are greatest at high frequencies, ionospheric attenuation is greatest at low frequencies, Al radio frequencies produce space waves, sky waves are only reliably present in the HF bana but are present as interference in the MF and LF bands. Surface waves start to be significant in HF and get longer with lower frequencies. Atmospheric ducting is occasionally present in VHF and higher, ionospheric ‘ducting is present in VLF only Static is greatest atthe lowest frequencies. ‘The diagram below summarises radio propagation visually Surface wave ranges can only be approximate as they depend fon power output and the surface aver which they travel Radio Navigation wos SSC a‘Space Sky Surface lonospheric _lonospheric frat Sores” Re ae w | n v | : «| ' we | ‘UHF | - ‘Propagation The Doppler Effect ‘The Doppler effect can be heard in the change in pitch of aircraft noise as an sircraft at low level passes the observer. It isa high piteh initially, then falls to a lower pitch as the alreraft passes by. The same effect is present with radio waves, fang, in particular, radar. With a static transmitter and a static receiver the received frequency is the same as the transmitted frequency. If the transmitter is flying towards the receiver more cycles are received each second so the received frequency is higher. ‘The change in received ‘requency is called. the Doppler Shift and its proportional to the relative velocity ‘A closing relative velocity produces an increase in frequency, positive Doppler shift. If the transmitter and receiver are ‘moving apart the received frequency is lower, a negative Doppler shift Be Tose itn caveats, the highest frequency ‘Some, the highest frequency for sky waves Is 30M Aclosing rolative velocity produces 2 postive dopplFigure 9.24.0 wan’ aa “The Doppler Effect ‘The formula for Doppler Shift is Doppler Shift = Relative velo Solution: Transmitted wavelength (mets) A stationary tranamitter is producing a signal at GHz. The aircraft receiver is fying towards it at ‘500kt, Calculate the Doppler Shif. First convert the relative velocity into metres per second. 1500 x 6080 = 3040000 ft per hour 3040000 = 844.4 ftper secone ‘60 x 60 844.4 = (287.45 metres persecond, 328 Secondly calculate the wavelength, wavelength = 3x10 axle = 00375 m [Now insert these into the formula, Radio Navigation “sues SSCS~«SDoppler Shi 257.48 o.os7s = 6865 He 2 6.868 Kite it had been asked we could also state the received frequency ‘hich would be 8GH2 plus 6.865 KHz or 8,000,006,865 Ha. If ‘you like conversion factors then knots to m/ace is divided by 1:94, Doppler Navigation Systems Doppler navigation systems compute the groundspeed and drift of the aircraft from the Doppler shift in reflected signals, ‘The more sophisticated systems use this, tied in with Information from other instruments, to compute the aireraf!'s track and groundspeed and to ultimately give a continuous position readout ‘Although now largely superseded by satellite navigation and inertial navigation Doppler can stil be found fitted to military aircraft and helicopters. Only the basic principles of Doppler ‘wil be tested in the exam, calculations are not in the present rilabus. 20 eeue 5 Radio Navigation ‘convert wnots totong range Chapter 3 - Communications Introduction ‘communications systems, Most students will be familiar with the short range frequencies used by ferodromes and radar unite but not all will have experience of the long range comms networks that control the ‘more remote corners ofthe globe. As with all radio ystems the frequency bands used are chosen primarily because of their propagation characteristics T= chapter deals with long and short cange R/T Long Range Communications [At first sight the VLF band and ionospheric ducting would ‘appear to be the most suitable for dhs task but the huge aerial ‘ize required, as high as 1500f, make them uneccnomic and the “high levels “of static ‘prevent conventional voice transmission, The HF band is « feasonable alternative offering predictable sky wave propagation with less static and lower ‘The HF frequencies used in aviation range from 2MH2 to 22Mnz. The choice of frequency for the range and conditions can be quite important. Attenuation and static must be ‘minimised by keeping the frequency aa high as possible and the receiver must be kept out of the dead space. ‘The frequency at which the frst returning skywase just bite the recelver is called the optimum frequency. The constantly changing conditions in the ionosphere prevent this from being used as the slight variations in skip distance would move the receiver into and out of the dead space constantly interrupting the signal. The frequency is lowered slightly tc keep the 3 3Areceiver in contact and this becomes the Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF], with the emphasis on the word ‘usable. Figure 934 Any receiver beyond the first returning skywave would also receive the signal but itis important to realise that it would not be the best quality signal for that range, the frequency could ‘always be increased to the MUF for that range to reduce Attenuation and increase clarity. Similarly, frequencies lower than the MUF will also be received in the same position but ionospheric attenuation and static will increase to the point where the signal is inaudible, This is the Lowest Usable High Frequency (LUHF). MUP vary most by day and night. The ionosphere at night is less dense and therefore less likely to refract radio signals. To ‘compensate for this we must use a lower frequency signal Which tends to bend more than high frequencies. Thus night frequencies are typically half that ofthe daytime frequency. HF agencies produce propagation charts to guide pilots in their choice. Opposite is a chart of optimum lrequencies produced by British Telecom's Portishead Radio aeronautical service, now withdrawn but typical of its kind. One would try to make ‘contact atthe published frequency just below the optimum for the aircraft position and time of day. In some parts of the ‘world, particularly those on the other side of the polar lee caps, frequency prediction is impossible. 32, eave 5 Radio Navigation Use the highest Sun's up frequency Up, Sun's down frequency down[HF Propagation Chart Figure 93.2 ‘The following factors will affect the range and hence the quality of HF transmissions: “Transmitter power Frequency Tine of day Senson Toeaton (don't expect mu-hop transmissions oer the ice caps + Disturbances inthe ionosphere HP signals are usually single sideband with a suppressed Cadet wave to seduce Use busndwidis noid keep the teyuived transmission power down. Radio Navigation eases)Short Range Communications Short range comms are restricted to line of sight propagation paths. From this point of view any frequency from VHF to EHS ‘would be suitable. Atmospheric attenuation, however becomes Significant above the UHF band unacceptably reducing transmission range. Military agencies use the upper VHF and lower UP. bands, Civil agencies use the VHF band from 118 Miz to 137 Miz Which gives negligible interference from static tied to minimal ‘attenuation. VHF channel spacing is currently 25Khz in some airspace with 8.33Khz spacing introduced in upper airspace. Reception is ‘usually good when in range. Occasionally line of sight signals ‘and ground reflected signals which move in and out of phase ean interfere to alternately reinforce themselves and cancel teach other out causing the volume of the signal to increase and decrease, an effect known as fading. actors which affect range include: ‘Transmitter power Height of transmitter & receiver Obstructions Fading Large aircraft have equipment fitted that allows the pilots to be contacted on the radios without continuously monitoring the frequency. This is particularly needed for long oceanic legs using HF frequencies, Seleal, short for selective calling, ‘operates on HF or VHF radios. Bach airframe has a Selcal code allocated to it made up of four letters, for example SHKM, which is notified to the ATC agency fon the flight plan and once more on frst R/T contact. ‘The ATC agency can transmit coded tones corresponding to the letter code that activates a flashing light and an audio tone in the cockpit, Once called the crew can put their headsets on ‘and respond on the appropriate radi. ‘The Scloal must be checked with the ATC agency before the cerew remove their headsets and go from a listening watch on the fequency concerned to a selcal watch. In practise this, selcal check is carried out on first contact with each new ua eee 5 Radio Navigation oni to 137mhe, higher frequencies are fiat contact with feck new agencyagency, even if the seleal has already been checked on the same frequency with the previous agency. Cockpit Equipment ‘The Radio Navigation syllabus does not require familiarity with, the cockpit equipment, this section is for information only. Separate controls are used to select the frequencies used and to control transmission and reception, Shown below is the VHF Figure 033 ‘The selectors marked VHF1, VHF2, VHF3, HRI ard HF2 are pressed to display the selected frequency in the active window and the standby frequency in the right hand window. ‘The Standby frequency can be tuned with the concertrie knobs below the window and frequencies can be switched from standby to active by pressing the transfer key, the double breen arrow. Normal tuning of nav aids is automatic. The botiom row of buttons are for manual reversion Each flight deck station has a comms box, calle¢ an Audio Control Panel, whieh la used to select which radios are listened to‘and ta select the radio on which to transmit. Shown opposite is the Audio Control Panel from ar A820, the Boeing ones are very similar. The top row of buttons, mostly with ‘CALL’ writen on them, are used to select the radio on whieh to transmit. Only one button can be pushed in ata time. ‘The CALL light lashes amber and a buzzer sounds when the SELCAL is activated on that radio, Radio Navigation issue 5 38Figure 9.34 ‘The knobs undemeath the CALL lights and those on the bottom row control which facilities are listened to, To select radio or nav facility press and release the knab $0 it pops out fand then turn to adjust the audio volume. Several can be selected at once. ‘The toggle switch on the let of the panel can be selected up to talle on the intercom, left at the central position to deactivate the boom mikes and held in the RAD position to talk on the selected radio. There is also a press to transmit switch on the Side stick, This overrides the one on the ACP. SATCOM and Digital Data Links Satellite links can be used to pass data, voice messages or pictures to and from aircraft and ground stations. The Satellites are operated by INMARSAT, the International Maritime Satellite Organisation ‘The satellites maintain a geostationary or Clarke orbit around, the equator about 30,000 km above the earth's surface. As this orbit has the same period as the earth's rotation they remain tationary above the surface. Four satellites are able to provide overage at all longitudes and between BU'N and 80'S, ‘Transmissions are in the UHF band, relying on line of sight transmission. These frequencies only suller slight atmospheric attenuation and litle or no ionospheric attenuation, the signals are also unlikely to be refracted significantly by the fonosphere. All signals are digitised, that is to say converted into a stream of pulses making up a binary code, rather like the way a fax machine operates. ese Radio Navigation ‘operated by (geostationarydata ink betweon ‘operator and ‘The Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System is a VHF data link used by operators to send and receive messages to aircraft in flight using the aircraft radios, ‘usually VHP 3, number 3 VHF radio. Modern FMS systems and flight data recorders ‘wll automatically pass information on engine and airframe parameters and navigational deta. ACARS ‘can also be used fo Send company messages about passenger loads, timings and aireraft movements Ground Direction Finding Some VHF ground radio stations are equipped with automatic direction finding (VHFDF}. Military stations may provide VHF DF or UHF DF. Figure 9.35 ‘The receiver aerials, known as Adcock aerials, are a series of dipoles arranged ina circle, Bach will receive a. slightly diferent phase of the incoming signal. The difference in phase indicates where the signal is coming from. Modern displays are digital Radio Navigation Tose 5 37‘Bearing information can be provided on request expressed as either a magnetic or true direction either to or from the station bearings from two DF stations can provide a fix. The pre-war Q cade is used to avoid confusion. gre ‘True bearing from the station QDR Magnetic bearing from the station opm Magnetic bearing to the station, Mnemonics can help remember the meanings of these codes. ‘The letier Q at the start ofthe code was an indicator to a morse ‘operator that a code was being sent, the subsequent letters are the important ones. ‘TB is ‘true emanation’ DR fs direction radial DM is direction magnetic, but direction t' because a radial i a direction from’ ‘Bearings are classified by their quality, Class A bearings are accurate to 42", Class B, the most common, to 45°, Class C to #10" and Clase D outside 10°. Ground DF stations ean decline tw give a bearing if accuracy is poor. DF Letdowns ‘Two types of DF letdown are available, the VDF procedure and the QGH, the letters GH standing for ‘ground homing’. The advantage with both procedures is that no on board nav ‘equipment is needed. ‘The VDF letdown is available throughout the world. Stations Which ean offer the service are listed in the COM section of the AIP, details ofthe letdown are inthe RAC section, A pilot calling for a VDF letdown will be provided on each call ‘with his QDM. Making due allowance for drif, headings can be fet to the airfield overhead, ‘Once in the overhead the published outbound track is own followed by a turn inbound. Minimum descent heights apply a= this is very definitely an airfield approach rather than a runway approach. The pilot must have a copy of the procedure {and it remains his responsibility to interpret the procedure, to low for dif and ranice rack eoerectione 38 Teaue S| Radio Navigation Abearing Claas fe not given‘me ach Interpreted by the ‘contol ‘ADE Approach Plate Figure 936 ‘The QGH is more usually only available from military controllers although you can try asking for it elsewhere. The difference here is that all the work is done by the controller who passes headings to steer and descent instructions to the pilot. QGH procedures are not published and no chart required. Once ‘gain minimum descent heights apply. From a pilot's point of view this makes a QGH as easy to fly as a radar letdown, \VDF Fixing \VDF bearings from a single station do not provide a position fix. In order to get a fix several VDF stations must be operating fn the same frequency at the same time. This only occurs on 121.5Mhz. On this Sequency auto-triangulation may be ‘Radio Navigation issueavailable or, depending on height and position, manual triangulation may give a position. Errors AAs a line of sight frequency is used the range of VHF DF is affected by the curvature of the earth and any terrain in the ‘way. Super refraction can routinely extend the expected range, particulary over the sea, by some 15%, Simultaneous transmissions from other aircraft on the same frequency ‘will lead to erroneous bearings as will multipath ‘ronsmissions reflected from terrain, 30 ewe 5Chapter 4 - The NDB Introduction ‘out a signal in all directions for aireraft & home to. ‘This is the Non Directional Beacon (NDB) It uses vertical dipole aerial The aeroplane needs Direction, Finding equipment to find the bearing Nowadays Automatic Direction Finding (ADF) equipment is used. T: simplest navigational beacon is a station that sends NDBs are @ medium range nav aid using frequencies from 190Khz to 1750Khz, in Europe usually 200Khz -0 455Khz ‘These frequencies straddle the MP and LF bands but the system could also be described as using hectometrie and Jolometric wavelengths or, because most of the frequencies are in one band, it could be described loosely as an MF or hectometric aid Surface waves are the primary method of signal propagation fing theoretical ranges of 800mm over land and (ver 600nm ver the sea Carrier Waves, Idents and the BFO Navigational NDBs have an unmodulated carrier wave, ICAO classification NON, with the station identification transmitted at roughly ten second intervals Older systems interrupt the carrier wave to send an lunmodulated ‘morse ident, classification AIA, Mere modern ystems impose the ident on the carrier wave as ar amplitude ‘modulation, AZA. Some low powered beacons used to indicate positions on the final approach only put aut the A2A signal ‘Thus NDBs can be described as having NON AIA, NON A2A of just A2A signals, ‘To make the unmodulated parts of the signal audible ADF equipment incorporates Best Frequency Oscillator (FO) ‘This. produces a signal slightly removed from the received frequency that is then mixed with it. The mixing of the (wo Radio Navi Teas aafrequencies produces beat frequency, the difference of the two, which is audible. As an example a BFO would generate a signal of 402 KHz to match a received signal at 400 KHz. The mixing or heterodyaing of the two produces signals at 400 Kitz, 402 KHz, 802 KHe and 2 KHz, ‘The beat frequency of 2 KHz i the audible tone. Selecting the BFO on makes the NON carrier wave audible and allows the ATA type of ident to be heard, It is not needed for an A2A signal which is already modulated to an audible frequency. AA identifiers are now extremely rare, they are only found in some number in France. Receiver Operation Loop Aerials ADF systems use a loop shaped aerial to find the direction of fan incoming signal. When the loop is in line with the path of the radio waves the difference in’ phase between the signals received on the two sides of the loop eauses a current to flow. When the aerial is at right angles to the direction of travel both sides receive the same phase signal and no current flows Loop Aerials Figure 24 I the aerial is rotated until no current flows we can be sure it lies at right angles to the wave movement. The only thing we ‘cannot Know is whether the NDB lies in front of us or behind us. There is an ambiguity which must be resolved. It we view the aerial from above and plot around it the value of the induced current as the aerial ig rotated we find a figure of fight shape with two null points clearly defined and two less 42 Tesue 5 Radio Navigation “The BFO or TONE, ‘required to hoarclearly defined maxima, The double null is the ambiguity we just identified and the diagram itself is called a polar diagram. 2 ‘The Ambiguity ‘To resolve the ambiguity another aerial is added to the system, the sense aerial. This receives signals from all directions just like a ear aerial, ‘When the two poler diagrams are combined the reception characteristics of the two aerials ean be added and subtracted as appropriate to produce the heart shaped cardioid, ‘The fardioid has only one null point. Rotating the loop aerial will rotate the mull so that now when no signal is recewed by the combined aerial the null is pointing directly at the beacon, Sarde Leypane WK posrsagen “The Combined Polar Diagram Figure 9-43 seve a3Instrument displays ‘The ADF system uses a motor to search for the null position, ‘The aerial position is relayed to a fight deck instrument which in its simplest form shows the relative bearing of the beacon, ‘This is the fixed card ADF, sometimes called the Relative Bearing Indicator (RBI) The RBI Figure 9-4-4 ‘The bearing of the beacon from the aircraft is determined by adding the aircraft's heading to the relative bearing, Adding the ‘magnetic heading produces the magnetic bearing to, the QDM, and adding the true heading gives the true bearing to, the ‘QUJ. The bearing of the aireraft rom the beacon is obtained by adding or subtracting 180° to the above aa Te Radio Navigation‘The point of the roedle ts the {QDM, the ai the ‘apr Resolving the Bearing Second generation instruments provide a moving card so that the aircraft heading, usually magnetic, can be set a: the top of the instrument. Now the point of the needle indicates QDM and the tall indicates the radial, the QDR. This is a moving card ADF. ‘Third generation inetruments automatically show the magnetic heading of the aircraft using feeds from a remote indicating compass. The point of the needle now automatically indicates ‘QDM and the tail QDR, This is the Radio Magnetic Indicator (RM) ‘which is. standard equipment on most commercial aircraft. Rls usually display both ADF and VOR information, fon most modern aircraft the two RMI needles can be switched to show either two ADFa, two VORs, or ADF and VOR, figure 9- 47, ‘Radio Navigation soos 45The RMI Figure 9.46 ‘The QDM or QDR are obtained using the aircraft's magnetic heading true bearings are required the variation at the sireraft must be used rather than that atthe NDB. Figure 9.47 as eaue Radio NavigationDearing is wrong teA0 accuracy ie 26 on 95% of eccasions, ight etfect area hhanting needle ‘and fading onthe ‘carior wave Night effects Interferons from ‘Because the heading i effectively added to the relaive bearing by the instrument to give a QDM any errors in the aircraft ‘compass system will make the QDM and QDR read out at the fbwo ends of the needle unreliable but will not alfect the accuracy ofthe relative bearing. Errors and Accuracy ‘The ADF is subject to a number of potential errors some of ‘which can be anticipated, some not. Ine ICAU requirement 18 ‘an accuracy of #6° with a signal-to-noise ratio no less than 3:1 ‘Static All forms of static can affect accuracy of the ADF system. In snow and freezing rain. precipitation static reduces the Accuracy and attenuation reduces the range of bearing information, ‘Thunderstorms ‘Thunderstorms in the vicinity act as radio beacons and can cause the needle to deviate in their direction, in conditions like this and where heavy static is present VHF aids should be used in preference to ADF. Night Effect Although the principal propagation method of NDBs is the found wave tis possible for weale sky waves to be zeturned at hight when the ionosphere is less dense and attenuation least. These sky waves tend to strike the top of the loop aerial giving ‘8 current flow where none would otherwise be present. This ‘means the null is no longer sharply defined and the ADF hhunts, reducing bearing accuracy. Returning sky waves take a longer propagation path than ground waves so they are often out of phase, Nigh: effect can bbe detected by listening for fading on the cartier wave (BFO on), ‘and by the instrument hunting. It ia most likely at dawn or dusk,‘Station Interference ‘The long ground waves of LF and MF signals mean that ccasionally signals. from stations on similar. frequencies ‘overlap. This wil not cause errors in the daytime f the stations fare only used within the protected range. At night, however, returning sky waves can cause rogue signals at considerable ange producing the same problems as night effect. The problem can be detected aurally or visually as with night effect {and there should also be two station idents audible, ‘Some ADF equipment has a switch fitted to reduce the bandwidth which is received, An aircraft receiving station interference from another beacon on a similar but not identical frequency can reduce the interference by listening to a sharper ‘band. This is called the bandpass switch, sBiDouboe) mice nono | Sp boa don en Figure 9.48 Because of the twin errors of night effect and station interference, and because other radio sources create. more hoe st night, published protecled ranges are 10 valid it Ose hours of darkness. The protected range may alsa be referred to ‘as the Designated Operational Coverage (DOC) although this term is more usually reserved for VORS, ae tone 5 Radio Navigation Symptoms of range ts valid by ‘day onty@ ‘The plotted positon is closor the airerat the closer tothe Coastal Refraction by the surface over which it travels, going faster over water than over land. This change of speed means the wave is refracted as it passes over a coastline. Figure 9-4-9 shows the wavetronts, notice refraction is always towards the coast. Another way of putting itis to say that on erossing the coast a radio wave accelerates and bends away fom the normal, (or towards the land) ‘You will remember that the speed of a surface wave is affected Figure 9.49 Plotting your position from a series of bearings taeen from a coastal NDB will place the aireraft nearer to the exast than it actually s because ofthe effect of coastal refraction. Figure 9.440 Radio Navigation Tesue 5 aBecause the wavelront has changed its direction of travel an aircraft receiving a refracted wave would give a false indication ff the beacon’s position. This effect is worse the further back. from the coast the beacon is sited and can be avoided. by taking bearings at right angles to the coast or flying at a higher altitude ‘Quadrantal Error ‘The wave front from the NDB can be distorted by the aircraft's structure as it approaches the aerial. This effect. is compounded by an emf induced in the receiver aerial by the signal re-radiating from metallic surfaces. ‘The error is called ‘quadrantal error’ because the effect is worst for signals arriving from 45° and 135° left and right of the nose, che four quadrants! Figure 9.444 Quadrantal error is small and predictable. It can be compensated during the installation of the receiver aerial and fany residual errors can be shown on a quadrantal error card Kept near the instrament: Madern reeefurm eampletely rem ie a0 Tesue 5 Radio Navigation ‘To avold coastal retraction plan ‘bearings a right angles tothe ‘caused by the distorting olecto- ‘magnetic feissDip only occurs in ‘To double the range requires Dip Some Bendix-King aerials suffer from an error calleé dip which ‘occurs when the receiver sense aerial is masked ty the loop faerial. Dip gives large bearing errors, only occurs ina turn and {sal ite greatest when the NDB is on a felative bearing of 45° fand 135" eR and right of the nose. AAC low altitude multipath signals reflected fram terrain can ‘cause erroneous readings. This effect diminishes wits height as hills are further from the line of sight and interfere less with the surface wave. Range ‘The range of a beacon is controlled primarily by its power. A long range NDB would have a power output of about 10KW ‘and a range over the sea in excess of 500nm. A beacon designed for a range of 180nm over the land would only need fn output of 1KW. ‘A coarse formula to determine range is ‘Max range = 3 Power in watts ‘The formula does not include the effect of ground conductivity or frequency and gives only approximate answers. To double the range requires four times the power. Remember that the range of a beacon is not the same as its protected range. It is highly unusual for the protected range ‘0 be greater than 200nm. ‘Types of NDB Stations ADF equipment will work on any continuous transmission in the frequency range, including commercial radio staions in the medium wave band (MF. There are three categories af NDB, Locators: These are low powered beacons at 15 t0 40 watts with a rated, coverage of between 10 and 25 nautical miles which are ‘usually co-located with the ILS outer marker. Radio Navigation Tesues aaHoming and Holding NDBs ‘These beacons are intended a¢ an aid to the transition from the en-route stage to the destination airfield and have a rated coverage slightly less than 50 nautical miles. Their typical [power output wil be tp fo 200 watts, En-route and Long Range NDBs ‘As indicated by ther tile they are long range aids to navigation swith a rated coverage in excess of 60 nautical miles. Long, Tange NDBs tend to be in the LF end of the allocated frequencies to Benefit from longer surface waves. Operating the Equipment ‘Modern ADF equipment is digitally tuned, an example of a dual ‘ADF panel ia shown below. This panel has duplicated controls {or two separate ADF systems, number 1 and 2 ADF. ‘The equipment should be tuned using the selector knobs under the frequency display and then turned on by selecting the ANT position. This uses the sense aerial only optimising ‘audio reception for idemtiieation but produeing no bearing If the BFO is required the toggle switches labelled BFO can be selected to the appropriate system or, on an A2A beacon, select itoff by leaving it in the NORM position. Figure 9.412 ‘Once tuning and identification is complete select ADF to ‘nelide the loop aerial and send bearing information co the RMls aaa Taawe 5 Radio Navigation Set ADE for tearingSome ADE ‘equipment has ne faltre warning | ‘The TEST function can be selected to test the system. A valid test is indicated if the ADF pointer on the RMI swings to a relative bearing of 325°. Many ADFs have no test facility and ‘no way of knowing if the instrument has failed. Lac of failure warning indication is often cited as a limitation of older ystems Very old ADF systems used a dial tuner with a tuning handle like’ window winding mechanism on a car. These ‘coffee grinder ADFs need the BFO on when ttning even for NON A2A beacons to make the carrier wave auclible, NDB Tracking ‘As the needle on the ADF points ditectly towards she beacon the instrument is ideal for tracking inbound or outhound from the NDB. In stil air just point the aircraft where the RMI indicates and ‘you will arrive at the beacon. If there is wind, and taere nearly Always ig, an allowance will have to be made for dif. . ‘The diagram on the lee ithistrates an aireraft tracking to a beacon with 10° of ‘starboard dit, fe eee meee ee / oe aes eaiitem t Sees ‘The aircraft is heading 060". Notice the needle points to the beacon, the point indicates the ODM of 070", ‘As long as the drift remains the same the ‘irra will track towards the teacon, Figure 9-443 ‘Radio Navigation sue SSOSC*~*~*~*~«S‘The diagram on the right silustrates the same aircraft tracking 070° outbound from the beacon with a steady Grif of 10° starboard, Note that the needle on the ygqy** RMI has reversed and continues to point to the NDB. The tail of the needle shows the QDR, the radial that the sircraft is on ana tes be Figure 04-18 If the wind changes then the tracking will be incorrect and the bearing ‘of the NDB will change, Now the wind is reduced to zero whilst attempting to track inbound. - The heading has been ‘miscalculated at 060°. Notice that, with the heading out by more than the drift, the effect is to push the head of the hneedle away from the heading bug, ‘Radio NavigationNow we consider the same situation attempting to track 070" away from the beacon. There is no wind but we have mistakenly taken up a heading of 060°. In this case the effect is as if the heading bug was ‘pulling the tail of the needle towards We can turn this into a simple rule to deliberately place the sircraft on a chosen bearing, either QDM or QDR, The rule is ‘push the head ; and pull the tal | Figure 94-16 ee Example: Given the RMI indication in figure 94-17 which heading would be correct to intercept « bearing of 130 inbound to the NDB indicated by the yellow needle in still air? 170" (6) 090" (o) 350" (270° Figure 9-447 ‘adie Navigation tase assSolution: The RMI shows an indicated QDM of 150", We want it to be 190° so we need to place the heading bug well right of it to push it round, Answer (a), 170° Figure 9-418 ‘Navigationwo 110M. not have a sharp Chapter 5 - The VOR Introduction fn contrast to Non Directional Beacons, VOR« are short range and more sophisticated nav aids. The ‘requencies tused are 10 MHz to 118 Miz in the VHF baad and are consequently free from static and night effect. [From 108 Miiz to 112 MHz the band is shared with ‘LS so VOR frequencies are only allocated at even 100 KHz spocing. From 112 Milz to 117.95 Miz the band belongs to VOR alone and spacing is reduced to 50 KHz, Thus 108.2 MH2 end 113.35, (MHz would be VOR frequencies and 108.1 MHz woud not, Principle of Operation ‘The common type of aerial used in a conventional VOR is a cylindrical cover containing horizontal dipole which is spinning Clociovise at a rate of 30 revolutions second, Slots in the vlinder combined with the rotating dipole, produce a timacon shaped polar diagram, gure 9 ‘The Limacon at a VOR Transmitter Figure 054 ‘Radio Navigation sue SSCS‘The aerial is rotated clockwise continuously at 30 cycles second. To a receiver the amplitude of the signal appears to go up and down 30 times a second or, to put it another way, the received signal is amplitude modulated at 30H, ‘The Amplitude Modulated Signal Received Figure 052 ‘The exact phase of the AM signal differs depending on the bearing of the aircraft from the VOR. So that this phase difference can be detected a reference signal also at 30H is provided to all directions at once. To avoid confusion the reference signal is frequency modulated (FM) ‘The signals are arranged so that the reference signal and the variphase signal are in phase to receivers to the magnetic north of the station. Anywhere else will show a phase difference between 0" and 360" ‘The receiving aircraft looks at the phase difference between the FM reference signal and the AM variphase signal and displavs it ag a radial. No phase difference means a QDR of 360", a phase diflerence of 128° means a QDR of 128°. Remember, the phase diflerence at the VOR is the radial Because the system is referenced to magnetic north at the station the variation at the station must be used if true bearings are desired, Radio Navigation ‘The Variphase ‘signals. 30H carrier wave ‘The phase Variation atthea0" Nagete ‘80: Pave Diterence 10 ee Phage Diflerence as a Radial Powe 953 Instrument Displays Older aircraft are still fitted with the first generation VOR indicator, sometimes called the Omni Bearing Indicator (OB!) ‘The instrument has a selector to dil in. the requires bearing, & courae deviation ber to show degrees of displacement from the selected bearing and a TO/FROM window which indicates whether the selected bearing is a QDR or « QDM. re sina rag Figure 9-5-4 In figure 9-5-4 a bearing of 030° has been sckcted. The TO/FROM window shows that the bearing concerned is 030° 33‘TO the beacon, in other words the QDM. The deviation bar is centered so the aircraft is on the 210° radial, ‘The TO/FROM window only tells you whether you are looking at @ ODM (to) or QDR (from). Aircraft heading has nothing £0 do with this instrument, Ful scale deflection on the course deviation bar indicates you ‘are 10° off the selected bearing. In the diagram above each dot ‘Would indicate 2%" of deflection, if there were five dots each fone would indicate 2°. Scales can also inckide a central ring aa sn the diagram below, in which case the edge of the ing counts fa the frst dot Figure 9.55 Using this information one can calculate the QDM or QDR even. if the deviation bar is not centered, The diagram above shows fan aircraft and the VOR display with 060" selected. TO is, ‘showing so we know that 060 is a QDM and the deviation bar shows two dots left. Each dot is 2 so we are 4 ‘right of the QDM selected, meaning the bearing from us to the station is, (056" and we are on the 056 + 180 = 236" radial Although the dioploy ia independent from heading it maleeo ‘most sense when one is flying ether TO or FROM the station. ma Tosue 5 Radio NavigationVOR information is more usually displayed on the RMI, Now the point of the needle once again indicates the QDM and the tail the QDR. Cosa ‘oreinl VOR Indications on an RAI Figure 9.56 The Cone of Confusion ‘There is an area in the overhead of a VOR transmitter where it isnot possible o obtain accurate bearing information, {A pilot in an aeroplane fitted with a VOR indicator would notice the deviation bar move off centre and then recentralise as the ‘TO/FROM flag reverses. The signal strength in the overhead, may also be low enough to make the OFF flag Micke. ‘A crew navigating with an RMI would see the needle deviate then rotate as they establish outbound from the beazon. Radio NavigationFigure 9-57 ‘The ICAO limits ofthe cone of confusion are up to 50° from the vertical. In reality the cone of confusion is far smaller than the ICAO limits. Identification ‘The VOR carries a three letter morse ident at seven words a minute repeating every ten seconds. Some beacons have voice identifiers as well. You might hear, for instance, “This is ‘Miami Omni Range . followed by the morse. Errors and Accuracy Protected range, sector and altitude where freedom trom interference is guaranteed are given in the AIP. This is the Designated Operational Coverage (DOC). Unlike the protected range of NDBs this is valid both by day and by night, outside ‘the DOC interference from other stations is possible. ICAO require bearing accuracy of * 5* on 95% of occasions although much higher levels are regularly achieved. Because ofits higher frequency and line of sight transmission VOR is free from sky wave interference and coastal refraction. ‘The power output of the transmitter continues to affect the range, An oltpit of 200 watts achieves ranges of up to 200m, ‘ne of 50 watts will only be good for short range transmissions Tesu0 5 Radio NavigationDoppler VoRs: signal is ‘Tho phase ctationeip ot ‘the airraft Ie the ‘As a VOR is a line of sight transmission the formula in Chapter ‘Two can be used to calculate the maximum theoretical range Site Error and Doppler VOR ‘Signals reflected by objects near the beacon cause exrrs at the First generation (standard) VORs were usually sited away from ‘obstructions so that these reflections are minimised ‘As the requirement for terminal VORs grew and beacons had to be sited on airfields @ new type of transmitter war developed with a much larger diameter aerial that suffered less from site ‘The VHF signal is now switched continuously around the ring of aerials 60 that it appears to come towards the sireraft and then move away. The relative movement of the origin of the signal produces Doppler shift, a shift in frequency, that varies with bearing, This means the variphase signal is now FM, If the variphase signal is FM the reference signal must be AM. This, on its own, would produce reverse sensing at the aireraft receiver so the Doppler VOR signal rotates anti-clockwise at Sts rather than clockwise, This reverses the signal again #0 ‘the phase felationship at the receiver remains the same and Glisplays on all but a few older instruments are unafected even though FM and AM are reversed, a7Propagation Errors ‘Terrain and man made obstructions can cause a build up of cerrors particularly at the limits of @ beacon's range. Where these are known they are published in the COM section of the AIP. The effect is known as scalloping. Although scalloping and site error are both caused by reflections be sure to distinguish in examinations between this, which is caused by rellections at the limita of range, and site error caused by reflections near the beacon, Atmospheric dueting can lead to synchronous transmissions ‘even within the DOC. Because ducting is unpredictable ‘no fllowance can be made for it but it illustrates the need to ‘check the station ident whenever @ beacon is used, Equipment Errors, Aireraft equipment must be accurate to + 3°. The transmitter is monitored to make sure it pute out bearings accurate to # 1” Should the monitor detect a greater bearing error the transmitter is shut down and a standby transmitter brought on line. During the transfer period the station ident ceases or Js replaced by a continuous tone. A station will also be shut down ifthe signal strength drops by more than 15% or if the monitor fails, the ident. is resumed when the standby transmitter is operating within limits, Types of VOR ‘A standard VOR is used for en-route navigation, usually to define airway centrelines ‘Although the overall required accuracy of the displayed information is # 5°, when European airways were first plotted out a lower accuracy of + 74° was assumed. Applying the 1 in 60 rule it can be seen that to keep an aircraft within the confines of an airway 10nm wide two beacons should not be placed further apart than 80 nm. As a consequence many European VORs are about 80nm apart. AA terminal VOR is a low power beacon used as part of an firfield approach. TVORS share the lower frequencies with ILS, A broadeast VOR is usually a terminal ald with @ voice broadcast giving out the airfield weather, the Aerodrome ‘Terminal Information Service or ATIS, supérimposed on the carrier wave. ‘A test VOR, a VOT, is a very low power beacon sited at airfields, usually in the US, which puts out @ constant phase Failure of thor The VORs weed ter eieray ually ne moredifference of zero in all directions. This allows aircraft to test the accuracy of their equipment on the ground. Doppler VORs are second generation beacons that use @ complex aerial array to reduce the problems of site eror VOR and DME Association VoRs are often frequency paired with Distance Measuring ‘Equipment (DME) so that both range and bearing ae provided’ fand have the same ident. This is discussed in more detail in ‘when DMEs are considered Operating the Equipment VOR and ILS usually use the same control panel. The ald in use is determined by the frequency selected, ‘Shown below is one of the two VHF Nav control zanels on a 'BT37. The frequency is tuned with the concentric Kaobs under the window. The TEST fimetions on the ILS produce up and left or down and right indications. ‘The VOR test function is selected with @ course cf 000° set ‘The Course deviation bar should centre with FROM indicated, the RMI should indicate 180" QDM. auto ce IMSS) Vi faa] r) ci Cis Figure 259 Radio Navigation Tee 5 39VOR Tracking VOR tracking can be accomplished using either the RMI, the VOR indicator or the HSI. The use of the RMI is exactly the same as the way it was used with the NDB 2o it will not be repeated, ‘The VOR indicator only indicates in the correct sense if the VOR tracking aircraft heading is roughly the sare as the bearing selected. To weutres an track toa beacon turn the OBS knab around until TO 38 catmate ofthe indicated and the CDI is central. The selected bearing will be ent ‘your still air heading to the beacon, Adjust for drift and follow the CDI commands as below. ‘Tum ite “Tum ok more “Tum sight ite ‘hana ie. Figure 05-10 ‘The heading instructions in figure 9-5-10 are deliberately vague as the radial sensitivity of the instrument increases closer to the beacon. The central indication might need @ good positive correction of 30” of heading 40nm away but only 5 loser in ‘To track from @ beacon, follow the same procedure but turn the OBS knob until FROM is indicated and the CDI is centered, ‘Tur the aircraft to a heading that matches the selected bearing, plus or minus the estimated drift, and follow the commands as before,Tumietalitte ——Tumleft more Tur fight ate than a ite ‘Tro HSIwil ‘The HSI works the same way as the VOR indicator with the ability to select a course and a course deviation bar. The reverse senso diference is that the HSI has a heading input from the remote Indications with 2 indicating compass so will never give reverse sense indications. vor also has compass information and RMI bearings displayed behind the centre dial Br Figure 95-412 ‘The HSI above haa a course of 060° selected and the deviation bar is showing a slight fy left command. The point of the RM needle can be seen just to the left of this confirming that the VOR is just tothe let of the nose. To intercept a bearing on the VOR indicator or HSI set up the required bearing with the OBS or course selector. Figure 9-5 13" shows an inbound track of 270° selectec on both instruments. The aircraft is approaching from the south so theHSI has the additional benefit of orientating us in space. An Intercept heading of 45° has been chosen so the HSI shows a heading of 270" + 45° = 315, In both eases track is shown well out to the right. Figure 95-13 ‘The diagram has, once again, being orientated to aircraft heading to make the most sense out ofthe instruments. {As the deviation bar starts to move in to the centre the aircraft fs getting closer to the selected bearing. With, perhsps, one division to go a smooth turn on to the desired heading of 270", Dus or minue drift, ie commenced ‘The final diagram shows the aircraft in the final stages of the ‘um with just a few degrees to go and both deviation bars nearly central ‘Once the aircraft is established inbound small drift corrections can be made. The HSI shown has an Inertial Navigation az Radio Navigationremote indieting ‘compass System input that indicates drift and groundspeed on the instrument and takes away the guesswork Notice the similarity between the VOR indicator and the HSI display. The major benefit of the HSI is that it has a heading input that allows you to visualise much more easily the aircraft position and heading relative to the beacon and selected Figure 95-14 ‘The disadvantage is that the HSI cannot get this inout unless, at least, a remote indicating compass is fitted to tne aircraft. Most small GA nirerait do not have one, Radio Navigation ar saaIntentionally Blank 5aa Teaue 5 Radio Navigation“The localleor is totzne “The plidepath ie nF Chapter 6 - ILS Introduction hhe Instrument Landing System or ILS is 4 precision spproach aid that was developed towards the end of the second world war. Over the years techrology has Improved to the point where it is possible tor aircraft Wwith the Fight equipment to fy automatic ILS approaches 10 touchdown, disconnecting the autopilot when down to taxying speed. Normal installations and alrcraft ft are deseribed a3 Category 1 equipment with the most capable increasing to Category I Separate ground transmitters provide beams to show the lateral displacement of the aircraft from the centreline, the localiser, and the vertical displacement from the glidepath, Associated short range beacons called markers help with distance from touchdown information, these are often ‘supplemented or now replaced with Distance Measuring (MB) equipment. ‘The aeroplane needs its own IS receiver te use the information. Frequencies ‘The ILS localiser works in the VHF band from 108 itz to 112 (MHz which you will remember is shared with VOR, The station Identification is carried on the localiser frequency. ‘The glidepath uses 40 spot UHF frequencies from $29.3Mbz to 339Mhz paired with the VHF channels so the sigrals do not ‘mix. The glidepath frequency is automatically selected when the paired VHF channel is dialled up. All marker beacons ‘operate on 75 MHz. RadioNavigation Sos SSOSCS~*~SInstrument Displays Information is displayed on the VOR indicator or on a Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI). In some cases. ILS information is repeated on the Attitude Indicator or, in EF aireraft, on the Primary Flight Display (PFD). On veteran Sireraft the ILS had its own indicator. In all cases the information deviation bars or ‘needles? displaced ffom a central point. A needle displaced to the right is piving a ily right indication and one to the left is saying ly lett A second needle indicates position on the glidepath. A needle displaced up is indicating a reduced rate of descent ie required land one displaced down requires an increased rate of descent, Red warning flags indicate unreliable localiser or glideslope signals ‘The ILS localiser display is less sensitive than the glidepath, ‘Typically one dot of localiser deviation is the equivalent of 0.5° ‘of displacement whereas one dot of glideslope deviation is bout 0.15". Half full scale deflection is the maximum safe Ay- is 0.75", ° IF the VOR indicator is used itis important to realise that the bearing selector will still function but it wil have no effect on the information displayed, the ILS centreline bearing is usually selected only for neatness‘The HSI, shown in figure 9-6-2, has glidepath info-mation on the right hand side and localiser displacement shown on the The centre portion of the instrument is aligned mansally to the runway QDM and the outer part with the compass rose rotates, underneath it to indicate aireraft magnetic heading. The instrument is effectively a VOR/ILS indicator placed over an RMI The localiser deviation information is not affected by the runway ODM that is set. Once again itis only set up like this to make sense ofthe indication, ILS data can algo be fed to the main altitude indkator, This ‘and the EHSI are discussed in the Instruments section when ‘examining EFIS systems. Radio Navigation Tesue eaLocaliser Operation ‘The localiser consists of two overlapping beams, one amplitude The tet hand modulated at 90 Hz and one at 150 Hz, team ie IF there is more 90 Hz some than 150H2 the needle is deflected to the right to give a fly ight’ and if there is more of the 150 tit Hz modulation it_ is deflected to the let. The airborne equipment measures the Dilference in Depth of Modulation (DDM), this changes Soest linearly from the ccentzeline squat Dom When the depth of means“on the modulation is equal the Indicator shows that Rgyolye the aircraft ison the 10S centreline By convention the 90Hz signal is known as the yellow lobe and that at 150 Hz is known as the blue lobe. Localiser Aerial and Coverage ‘The localiser transmitter Js usually in line with the Funvway centreline, 300m off the upwind end. The frangible aerial may be 20 metres wide and 3 meires hgh, and consists of 2 number of dipole and reflector elements. Figure 96-4 ‘Radio Navigation@ beused for navigation inside ‘the protectoa ‘Outeide the Localiser signals are protected out to 25nm to a heght of just ‘over 6000R. Beyond that range they may be received but not relied upon. the coverage extends to 10° either side of the ‘centeline at this range but is increased to 85° ether side when Within 17nm of the transmitter. Where terrain gets in the way. distances can be reduced to 18 nm within the 10° coverage land 10 nm elsewhere, Outside these angles signals become weal In unusual cases Tcaliser signals cast be teflected oulside the voverage alee sive reverse Indications, ‘These dimensions are for a ‘normal’ Category | installation and can be varied for steeper glidepaths and different categories. Radio NavigationThe Glidepath ‘The glidepath works in a similar way to the localiser with its The top lobes signals (UHF, remember) modulated at 90 Hz and 150 Hz, Now meduated at| the 90 Fa gives a ly down’ indication and the 150 Hz ‘ly up. £0Me ‘The centre of the beam, the glidepath, is set at an angle of typically 3 to give a reasonable rate of descent. This angle can ‘Beas high as 6° at airports like London City. ‘The glidepath serial is positioned next to the instrument touchdown point, about 300m in from the threshold, Powe giepan —Ongieepan dow op Figure 9.66 Radio Navigation‘Tne coverage ofa stoop gldepath te Bout to Bom, ‘nm Glidepath Coverage ‘The glidepath beams do not go all the way down to tae surface. In fact the lower lobe starts at 0.45 x GP angle and the upper lobe ends at 1.75 x GP angle, Coverage extends to 10nm and Up to 8° either side ofthe centreline. Example: What are the limits of coverage of a 3.0" slidepath? ‘A glidepath with a glide angle of more than 2.5° is known as a steep glidepath. Limits of coverage remain the sae except it pow only extends to Sn. Radio Navigation issue 5 orMarker Beacons Up to three marker beacons can be installed to give the pilot extra clues about his distance from touchdown, The cuter marker roughly coincides with the point st which the tlideslope is intercepted, the middle marker just before Category I decision height and the inner marker just before the threshold is crossed, Figure 9-68 I markers operate in VHF on 75MHz and use a fan shaped sam that points directly upwards, they may be known as Z markers, The signal is modulated to provide an audible morse tone and activate an indicator light in the cockpit in sympathy. A very few markers still exist on airways, These are placed to ‘mark significant points such as mountain ranges, Outer [eve | Low pitch Marker [Light | (400H2) idete | Amber | Medium pten Marker [Light | (1300H2) Inner | write | High pte Marker [Light | (3000H2) Figure 9.69 oe ese 5 ‘Radio Navigation porate on 75th“The morse letter M cannot be used for the middle marker as it ‘wouuld be indistinguishable from O, except for the piteh, when sent repeatedly, Airways markers use the same light and tone as the Inner Marker but put out a morse ident at six to ten ‘words « minute Marker beacons are becoming less common nowadays and have been largely replaced with DME equipment that gives a continuous range from the threshold. The DME is often paired ‘with the ILS frequency so that it ig automatically selected when fhe ILS fe tuned. Distance Information from ‘an instalation such as this is only good within the lateral limits of the localiser coverage and up to 25,000. ILS Categories ILS performance is broken down into categories I, II and Il ‘The aircraft equipment categories roughly match the ground equipment categories. Aircraft categories vary slightly from country to county, these are the JAA minima and they are expressed in a different way to the way they are in Operational Procedures, this shows the lowest DH and RVR possible. Ree) 60m (2008) above | 200fton the baro altimeter. touchdown ‘minimum RVR 550% 11 | 15m (60) above the | 1008 on the radio atimeter threshold rmiimum RVR. 200 Of on the radio aimater | | A | touchdown and beyond | rr ee soon Of an the radio atimater rmiimum RVR 75m tre. touchdown and beyond WG | touchdown and beyond | Dfton te raco altimeter Category IIC has never been in commercial operation as it would require an automatic taxying guidance system. Cat IIB, however, is widely used with national Autherities and operators often imposing their own more stringent RVR limits Navigation ooto make sure the pilot can see far enough to be able to taxy safely. The B747 lint is often, for example, 100m. One odd looking area is CAT Il, where the installation minima is 5OR and the aircraft is 100ft. This is not a mis-print, tis ‘quite common for aircraft such as the B737 to fly an automatic ILS, making a decision to land at 100 and leaving the autopilot engaged to SOR. CCat Il and IM holding points can be seen on the taxiways of major airports. When Low Visibity Procedures (LVPs) operations are in progress aircraft are Kept well back from the Funway so as not to interfere with the localiser bear. False Glideslopes [Bven though the glidestope is pointed away from the surface some sidelobes can be created, These beams are much less powerful than the main lobe but can provide a series of false Blidesiopes above the real one, ‘The point to notice is that you will never encounter a false glideslope if you approach the glidepath from below. For this Teason you must never attack the plideslope from above, Additional clues come from the rate of descent required to false glidepath will be at about twice the normal glide angle and other weaker false glideslopes may exist at three or four ‘umes the glide angle a0 rrr Radio Navigation Fatoe glidepathe only occur above Otdepath te key‘tidepath signats must be ignored ‘nly used in some Offset Localiser Sometimes the localiser aerial cannot be sited on the runway centreline upwind and must be placed next to the runway. The beam is then adjusted to pass through the runway centreline at decision height and the localisr is said to be "ofr set’. I'the fff-set is more than 5* then the installation no longer qualifies ‘8a precision approach, in which ease all approaches must be own to MDA/MDH limits and not Decision Height. Backcourse Approaches Some installations produce @ mirror image of the localiser beams on the opposing runway. An aircraft attempting an approach using this backeourse beam would display exactly the opposite of the correct indications, There are several ways around these confusing indications. “If you are ‘using an HIS it is possible | to rotate the display through 180° and set up the opposing runway ODM to make. the indications fact in the correct sc Some aircraft have Dackcourse’ selectors which reverse the signals internally to show the correct display. Neither option is often available to light aircraft ‘with @ VOR indicator or a ‘simple ILS indicator fitted land in neither ‘case are flideslope indications ose fovailable. if any are received they mst be ignored. Figure 96-42 Backcourse procedures are relatively common in the US and ‘Canada but may only be used as part of a published approach. for departure procedure. In most of Europe backeourse procedures are not approved and consequentiy signals may not be used for navigation even though the aireraf. may’ still receive the signal ‘Radio Navigation issue SSSS*C«Calculating Heights and Rates of Descent Rates of descent can be calculated on a normal 3° glideslope using the formula: Rate of Descent 5x groundspeed Rate of descent [As most glideslopes are set to 3° this works very well. If tlidepath is encountered that is more or less than 3° the rate of 3 alldepath Sescent must be adjusted in proportion. Example: Calculate the required rate of descent on a 3° slidepath at a groundspeed of 130k. Solution: Rate of Descent. = $x 130 50 fin Example: Calculate the required rate of descent for an aircraft on a 3.5" glideslope with a groundspeed of 40kt Solution: Rate of Descent. = 5x 140x325, 3.0 = B17 K/min Beample: An aleraft commences descent from the outer ‘marker on a 3° glidepath with a groundspeed of 160Kt, Over the middle marker the speed is reduced by 30kts. By how much will the rate of descent need to change to maintain the alidepath? Solution: The change in rate of descent can be found simply by inserting the change of groundspeed in tw the formula Rate of Descent. 5x30 = 1508/min Heights on the glideslope can be calculated using this formula: Hight lidepath angle x distance to goin fest 60 a2 Teeue 5 Radio NavigationWe distance quoted from the threshold as with dd sor FM immane fers Interference Act teystem ‘cut in 6 seconds Example: Calculate the height of an aircraft that is on a 3° lidepath passing over a marker nm from touchdown. ‘Solution: Height == gtx 4x6080 = lek [A complication emerges when distance is given not from touchdown but from the threshold. Now the formula calculates the areralt height above its position asic crosses the diresiold so to find the true height add SOR on. Example: Calculate the correct height for an aircraft 3 am from the threshold on a 2.9" glidepath. Solution: Height = 2.9" x 3.x 5080 + 50 0 - 932K ‘An alternative method allows height to be calculated by ‘assuming 300ft a mile on a 3° gldepath, 250f a mile on a 2.5° tlidepath and 290ft a mile on a 2.9" glidepath, You still have to fadd in the 50M ifthe range is measured from the threshold. Inthe example above the height could be calculated as (2908 x 3) + Some = 920R this method always reads the height a litle ow as it assumes, in the approximation, that there are 6000R in a nautical mile, not 6080. System Errors Localiser frequencies are very close to commercia FM radio stations and these can interfere with the ILS. An FM immune Slter in the aireraft equipment cuts out FO interference, the ILS itself is AM, and. the localiser and glideslope’ are continuously monitored to ensure that the transmissions are When errors are found the transmission is cut within 6 seconds for a Cat I system and 2 seconds for Cat I ¢r I ye | acIntentionally Blank sone 5 Radio NavigationData ts multiplexed Chapter 7 - Microwave Landing System (MLS) Introduction unlikely to Be used as the universal approach and Janding aid into the twenty-first century. The Microwave Landing System or MLS does not suffer from these disadvantages and is considered to be a possible replacement for ILS, although satelite navigation systems are now also contenders. A eters seers Principle of operation Like ILS MLS uses two beams, one in azimuth and one in elevation. Unlike ILS the beams both use the same frequency, fone of 200 available channels in the SHF band from 5031 MH2 to 5090.7MHz. The frequency is shared by multiplexing the signals, by sending out azimuth, elevation and other data signals in sequence, each block ‘preceded by an identifying preamble. PELE Figure 97-4 ‘Navigation Tesue 7A‘The MLS system allows the aircraft to fix its position very accurately in three dimensions, The on-board computers ean then be programmed to fly any approach path the pilot chooses feeding guidance data through Flight Management System (PMS) or an Autopilot and Flight Director System (APFDS) ‘The transmitted beam is a narrow fan shaped beam which sweeps back and forth between the limits of coverage, Prom the point of view of an aireraft on the approach the azimuth beam (42) starts on the left, sweeps to the right, the TO scan, and then back to the left, the FRO sean, FRO To ‘The azimuth station Figure 972 During the complete cycle of the TO and FRO scan an aircraft ‘would have the beam pass over it twice. An aircraft close to the Tet hand side of coverage would have a relatively large time interval between the TO sweep and the FRO sweep passing. An aircraft close to the right hand side would have a short interval, The time interval between the scans ie therefore a direct indication of the aircraft angular position from the transmitter, The azimuth transmitter is at the upwind end of the runway in the same general postion as the ILS localiser. 2 Tesue 5 Radio Navigation ‘tows 30 fing ‘The principle of operation relies cntime ‘scanning beams. “Tmo Azimuth ‘ho upwind ond of ‘Be runway‘The slavation the downvrind endothe rarmeny rot avaliable you only get straight Inapproaches: SS S =a A =a @ ‘The elevation transmitter which is at the downwind end of the runway near the touchdown point works on a similar principle to the azimuth beam, The same transmitted frequencies are used but now a horizontal fan shaped beam is used. Once ‘again the time interval between the passages of the beam indicates angular position in the vertical plane. A precision DME (DME/?) is used instead of markers to provide the third clement, range information out to 22nm. When the DME/P is not aval le the MLS gives an ILS style straight in approach. Tes00 5 73Coverage ‘The azimuth limits of coverage are 40° left or right of the centreline out 0.a maximum of 20nrn. Figure 97-4 [Elevation limits are from 0.9" from the horizontal to 20° from the horizontal, up to 20,000 ft and out to 20nm and from 40° left to 40° right ofthe centreline out to 20nm. Certain MLS installations provide back course guidance for go- around as well as signals that cause the aircraft to flare in an ‘utoland approach. Errors and comparison of ILS and MLS Both systems suffer from shadowing as aircraft and vehicles near the transmitters blank the signal path and from reflected ‘multipath signals. In general MLS suffers much less from these cerrars than ILS and ean be sited where an ILS could not. This, fand the relatively low cost of the system, are ite main advantages. Subsidiary advantages are the ability of MLS ‘equipped aircraft to fly approach paths other than straight in and the single frequency used avoiding the requirement for Frequency pairing. Ta Te ‘Radio Navigation 40° lft and ight ‘cut to 200m IMLS suffers lose from shadowing & ‘ultipathsignaleChapter 8 - Radar Theory and Ground Radar Introduction any of the navigation systems that we are concerned ‘with use some form of radar, The purpose of this chapter is to look at the basic principles that affect and limit radar equipment and to examine a simple ground based radar. Frequencies The choice of frequencies is controlled partly by the propagation characteristics required, We are after: + Minimal static + Minimal atmospheric attenuation + Line of sight propagation This would tend to leave us in the UHE/VHF band. Higher frequencies could be used but. increasing atmospheric attenuation would mean more power is needed fo: the same range ‘The second controlling factor is the use the radar waves are pput to. Rather than transmitting in all directions radar energy |e beamed. Short wavelengths produce the narrower beams that are needed to identify small targets. che fourth requirement is therefore: + Short wavelengths for narrow beams ‘To get a decent return the wavelength used should be similar in size or smaller than the target. Radar used to detect the rain in thunderstorms should therefore have a wavelength of (ras barge an cesta eae SU gti tn eatdcentimetres or less. Similar wavelengths will also detect aircraft fand mountains. The fifth requirement i + Wavelength chosen for target size “The last two requirements are quite important, It is quite usual to use a higher frequency, perhaps in the SHF band, to get a narrow beamvidth atthe correct wavelength and to accept that range is reduced because of attenuation from the atmosphere. Civilian radars operate in the UHF and SHF bands, military radars can use frequencies as high as EHF. Continuous Wave Radar and Pulse Radar ‘As the names suggest these two types of radar operate on fundamentally different principles. Pulse radar sends out a short burst of energy and then determines the range of the target from the time it takes the pulse to return. This is a simple idea but it does have ite limitations, particularly in its maximum and minimum ranges. Continuous wave (CW) systems avoid some of the problems of pulse radar but as there are no pulses and echoes as such a Afferent system must be used to determine range. - Now the Frequency is eyeled up and down at the transmitter. The frequency of the returning signal will indicate how long ago it was transmitted and therefore give an indication of the range of the target. We meet CW radar again looking at the radio ‘altimeter, the rest of this chapter is concerned only with pulse radar. Pulse Radar Theory ‘The transmitted pulses are sent out at regular intervals, The time taken to transmit the pulse followed by the quiet period ‘waiting for the return is called the pulse recurrence period, PRI, In other words if it took half a second to complete one cycle of transmit and receive then the PRP would be 0.5 ‘seconds, a2 esue 5 ‘Radio Navigation fe UNF and SH {single aerial to receive“The number of pulses a second Atow PRE Is ‘eeded for long I _ I [mee FF ee oe It follows from this that in this ease there would be two pulses 8 second, this is called the Pulse Repetition Frequency of PRF. ‘A shorter PRP would mean more pulses a second and a higher PRE. Ifyou halve the period you double the frequency Expressing this relationship between period and frecuency as a formula we get: PRP = _1_ or PRE = 1 PRE PRP Questions can be asked about PRP and PRE using this formula. In each case the units of time used for the PRP ean be either milliseconds (one thousandth of a second, written lms) ‘or microseconds (one millionth of a second, ips) Example; The PRP of a radar system is 700s, what is the PRE? Solution: Use the formula PRF = 1 + PRP but make sure the time is in seconds, not microseconds. AS there are a million ys in a second divice 700 by a zillion or move the decimal place six point to the Teft to find 7004s = 0.0007 seconds. Now PRF = 15PRP. 2 150.0007 1429 pulses per second (pps) Pulse Radar Maximum Range [But why change the PRP at all? The answer lies in “he use the radar is put (0, If the purpose is to detect aircraft at long. ange, perhaps 200nm, then there must be a long enough Auiet period after the pulse for it to travel all the way out to thetarget and back, 400nm in all, If the PRP was too short the returning pulse would not arrive in the period when the radar ‘was receiving or, even worse, it would arrive after the next pulse had been transmitted leading to. confusion. Thus maximum range of a pulse radar is affected by PRP and, at they are interlinked, PRF. The theoretical maximum range can be calculated from the formula: Max theoretical range (in metres) = __¢_ 2x PRE Bxample: The PRF of a radar system is 400pps, what is the ‘maximum theoretical range in nautical miles? Solution: Max range = ¢* (2x PRE) ‘300,000,000 (2 x 400} 375,000 m = 375km 202 am 1 might be useful to remember the speed of light can be ‘expressed as 162,000 nm/aec. If you use this for ‘e you avoid having to do a units conversion, the answer will come straight ‘out in nautical miles Pulse Radar Minimum Range At very short ranges the beginning of the returning pulse can arrive before the tail end of the pulse has been transmitted land, as the radar has not yet switched over to receive, would not be recorded. The solution is to use short pulses for short range radar. Thus pulse width or pulse length (the same thing) affects the minimum range of Pulse Radar. ‘The minimum range of a radar can also be calculated using. speed, distance and time. Now the formula is: ‘Minimum range (in metres) = ©xpulse lenath 2 Example: Calculate the minimum range of a pulse radar with a pulse width of 1.5 microseconds, 2 = 300,000,000 x 0,0000015, 2 = 225m, ‘The obvious answer is to use a system with short pulses and a long PRP, trying to satisfy both requirements at once to build a radar that is both efficient at both long and short range. ea eee 5 Radio Navigation ‘The maximum range is Controtod by PRE and power Use 162,0000m 2 second for an ‘natcal miles ange is controled by the pulse widthGood range ‘rom short pulses Unfortunately the long range system needs long pulses to keep the energy in the beam up and so this idea does not work. ‘What we end up with, then, is @ purpose built radar. Short range systems have short pulses and a high PRF, long range systems have long pulses and a low PRE. ‘These, then, are the factors that affect the maximum range of @ Pulse Radar ‘Transmitter power PRP and PRF Pulse width ‘Transmitter and target heights Clouds and rain (weather clutter) Intervening high ground Wa radar is designed for long range it will therefore have a low PRF. The scanner rotation cannot be too fast otherwise the pulses may miss a target. A low PRF long range radar must therefore have a slow scanner rotation but © high PRF short range radar may have a high sean rate to rapidly update the image. Bearing and Range Resolution Rearing accuracy is controlled by, amongst other things, the width ofthe radar beam, ‘The beamwidth can be calculated from the formula ‘beamwidth = 70 x wavelength + antenna olameter Which means that larger parabolic dish aerials produce narrower beams than smaller ones. It is most likely that the best bearing resolution would come from a combination of high frequencies and a large aerial Range resolution is controlled by pulse length. Short pulses produce good range resolution. Certain ground based radars, such as Aerodrome Surface Movement Radar (ASMR}, operate at such short wavelengths ‘and have such narrow beams and high rotation raves that on ‘occasions it is possible to even identify aircraft types from the Tasve osThe Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) display ‘The CRT displays basic radar information by firing electrons on to.a Quorescent screen. ‘The whole tube is evacuated s0 that the air does not interfere with the electron beam Figure 9-82 Blectrons are produced by a cathode which is highly negatively charged. On its own the cathode would not emit enough electrons so it is heated by a small element {A cylindrical container with a hole in the end surrounds the cathode. This grid is more negative than the cathode and ‘would tend to repel the electrons, The only way out is through the hole in the end s0 they are squirted out as an electron beam. Varying the grid voltage controls the number of cleetrons allowed out and therefore controls the brilliance of the radar picture. An arrangement of more positively charged anodes creates an electrostatic fleld which focuses the beam on to the end of the Of the field and adjusts the focus of the beam. The first and third anodes also act to accelerate the bear ‘The X and ¥ plates can have voltages applied to them to bend, the beam, The X plates move the beara from left to right across the screen producing the timebase. The voltage across the X plates is called a saw-tooth waveform after ite shape. It must be linear to correctly represent range with a short flyback period, Tous 5 Radio Navigation ‘The grid voltage ‘controls the briience.‘waveform must correctly represent range Figure 9.03 When the beam reaches the edge of the screen it is cut off at source by making the grid very negate. This allows me voltage across the X plates to be reversed before the beam: is released ready to make another sweep, This is called flyback suppression. ‘The Y plates produce a blip on the timebase that corresponds to the radar return, As the time taken for the beam to sweep ‘cross the screen is the same as the PRP the position of the blip is an indication ofthe targets range. A simple CRT display Figure 08-4 The simple CRT display ia rarely used nowadaya. More sophisticated systems have @ rotating radar head and a Circular display known as the Plan Position Indicator (PPI) to show both range and bearing of targets. Now the X and Y plates have variable voltages applied to them to make the trace ‘move around the screen and targets are shown by “naking the rid voltage less negative and thuis increasing the briliance Radio Navigation| Plan Position indicator Ground Radar The use of ground based radar allows less separation between en-route traffic than a procedural or non-radar service and Is essential in today’s crowded skies. Ground based radar can also provide approach control and an approach service varying from/a simple Cloudbreak procedure to a Precision Approach fon Radar (PAR), The busiest airports use the ASMR to observe and control the movement of sireraft on the manoeuvering AAs we have seen radars are designed to cope with specific tasks 0 no one radar could fulll all these needs, They are classified into three groups, surveillance radars, precision approach radars and ASMRs, Aerials Ground radar aerials are either flat phase arrays or parabolic sections designed to operate in two dimensions. Where systems such as PAR require elevation information a second parabolic section aerial is used scanning up and down in the vertical plane‘The maximum range of an ATE primary radar ‘han 2000 ‘re used together ‘Moving Target Indication Many ground radars have a switchable option to include Moving Target Indication (MT). This uses the doppler shift from moving targets and the lack of doppler shift from stationary targets to distinguish them and exclude those that, fare not moving, theoretically the ground clutter. in practice MT can also exclude targets that are moving across the screen. but neither towards or away from the radar head and therefore displaying no doppler shit. Enroute Surveillance ‘An en-route surveillance radar would be required to operate to ‘maximum ranges of 200nm to 300nm and have good weather Penetrating capabilities. The long range requirement would Indicate a low prf with tong pulses and lowish transmitted frequency, this in turn, would mean that target resolution is, at best moderate, ‘Two radar systems are used together to meet this requirement. A UHF primary radar on 600Mhe with a wavelength of 50 em, pulse length dis, PRE 270 pps, horizontal beam wich 1.7" and fan aerial rotation 5 rpm is used in conjunetion with a secondary radar. The secondary redar is not ausceptible to weather clutter because it uses Afferent frequencies 10 transmit and receive. It is more likely to detect long. range targets as the signal only. travels one way, not there and back, The picture on the left shows the dish shaped. primary radar aerial, a parabolic aerial, below’ the fat phase array aerial of the ‘secondary radar. They rotate together Figure 9.86 Navigation Tissue 5 39‘Terminal Surveillance Radar ‘Terminal Surveillance Radars provide separation between aircraft within the terminal area during transit, approach and departure. They may be used to provide a radar cloudbreak It is a medium range radar with maximum ranges up to 60am to 8Onm. The medium range requirement suggests higher frequencies, a higher PRF and faster sean rate giving medium to good target discrimination, ‘Once again primary and secondary radars are used together. ‘The primary radar is likely to operate in the top end of UHF at 1000 to 1200Mhz with a pulse length of 3.9us, PRF 350 pps beam width 1.2" and a rotation rate of about & rpm, Surveillance Radar displays for en-route and terminal areas, fare processed through computers to combine information from both primary and secondary radar. This ean be superimposed ‘on an airspace map for the controller's convenience: Approach Surveillance Radar ‘The Approach Surveillance Radar is a short-range primary radar which is capable of being used to provide guidance during initial, intermediate and possibly even final approach phase ofthe fight. This would suggest higher frequencies, PRF land rotation rates than before Approach Surveillance Radars tend to operate on the UHF/SHF boundary at about 3Ghz with a PRF of about ‘TOOpps. Some approach radars have very short pulses of about 1s to allow them to operate to theoretical minimum ranges of as litle as 150m, The rotation rate is about 15 rpm, ‘This type of radar may be used to provide a Surveillance Radar Approach (SKA. During an SRA approach the controller instruets the aireraft with heading changes down to about hall mile from touchdown. The controller has no view of the aircraft in the vertical plane and only advises the pilot on the heights that the aircraft should be passing. SRAs are flown on (QFE unless the pilot requests a QNH approach or unless the normal company procedure is QNH. Altimeter checks are enucal operating roquency ‘000m rormally flown on‘sorpm Precision Approach Radar (PAR) Many military airfields have PAR installations. These are primary radar units that are designed to provide both lateral ‘and vertical guidance during final approach down to 200ft decision heights, ‘The controller has two screens, one with a lateral view of the ‘approach and one showing the vertical element. Once the approach 3s commenced the talkcown 1s near sonunuous requiring no response from the pilot unless specifically requested, You may hear something Uke this “You are to the left of the centreline turn right three degrees, you are on the glidepath, you are on the centreline turn lef three degrees, you are on the glidepath, you re on the centreline, going slightly below the glidepath reduce your rate of descent, on the centreline, on the glidepath..” ‘The radar iteelf consists of two elements, one for azimuth and fone for elevation. They are both sited at the appreach end of the runway near the touchdown point. The radar aperates on, 10Ghr on a sector sean rather than a complete circtlar sean. ‘The PAR must be capable of providing detection to a range of ‘nm up to an elevation of 7° within 10° of the runway centre line. must be capable of detecting a target with a radar erose section of 15 m? or greater. The maximum allowable error is £50 feet in azimuth and + 20 feet in elevation, Airfield Surface Movement Radar ‘Aerodrome Surface Movement Radars or Indicators (ASMR or ASMI) operate at very short wavelengths of about 3.8em (SHP) ‘The beams are narrow with high rotation rates around 6Orpm. On occasions it is possible even to identify aircraft types from the return, ‘The even higher frequencies of EHF are rarely used because of scattering and absorption of the signal by maisture and patticies in the atmosphere which make them impractical TesueS eatIntentionally Blank Radio Navigation93750he, max Doone ofthe ‘arth Chapter 9 - Airborne Weather Radar Introduction to have weather radar fitted. Its primary purpose is to detect thunderstorms and by inference severely turbulent ‘weather 20 that it can be avoided, The radar can also be used as a navigation aid by mapping the terrain ahead of the aircraft and obtaining fixes from prominent ground features. Frequency Weather radar operates between 9GH2 and 10GHz in the SHF band. frequency of 9375 MHiz is often quoted, Pusse radar is tused with a PRF of about 400 to 550 pulses a second, This limits the theoretical maximum range t0 between 200nm and 300m, I t is unusual nowadays for a Public Transport aircraft not Equipment ‘The parabolic serial fitted in the nose of the sircraft may scan up t0 90 degrees left and right and can be tilted 15 degrees up, fand down. Beam width is in the order of 3° 0 5°. Two sorts of beams are available, ether a narrow conical beam or a wider fan shaped beam. ‘The scanner sits on a gyro stabilised platform, stabilised in pitch and roll, which ensures scanner lt is aways with Fespect to the earth horizontal. OW aircraft have separate gyros for the weather radar stabilisation, more modern aircraft use the Inertial Navs or the IRS. Im the cockpit there is a PPI display, in colour if you are lucky, with etched lines showing degrees left and right of the nose and electronically generated range rings, Mounted next to or Radio Navi issue oabelow the PPI will be a control panel except in an EFIS aireraft when the weather radar control panel is likely to be on the slareshield @ ‘A Monochrome Radar Display ire 9.94 Testing the equipment on the ground Most modern equipment has a TEST selection on the control panel which checks as much as is possible without actually fransmitting anything. Transmissions on the ground near people and equipment are avoided as the emission is strong enough to ‘damage’ any grounderew nearby. Reflected signals from the ground may also damage the receiver. After engine start the scanner is tilted fully up with STANDBY selected, this warms up the radar but does not transmit. ‘As the aircraft is lined up for take-off the radar is selected ON provided that the operations manual allows it, Some aircraft hhave squat switches which prevent any transmissions while the sirerat is on the ground Looking at clouds ‘The narrow conical beam is used to detect weather plus any areas of turbulence, the weather mode or the normal mode. In addition, the radar may be used to calculate the height of the top of the cloud, either above or below the aircraft. The soanner til is adjusted until the cloud just paints, This means 92 ¥ Radio Navigation turmed on ost Detore takeottthe bottom of the beam is just hitting the cloud. 1 the ‘beamwidth is known the tit angle can be used to find the height of the cloud you are looking at. The formula is Hight of cloud above or below the arerat (f) range in NM x (scanner tit % beam width) x 100 1a) ene Figure 9.02 a i | Example: An aircraft radar with a beam width of 4 degrees, just shows a cloud SOnm away with the scanner tilted 1 degree up. If the aircraft is at 31,000R. calculate the height ofthe cloud top. Solution’ The diagram above shows that even :hough the centre of the beam is 1” up the bottom of the bbeatn is below the horizon, Don't draw diagrams to solve these problems, though, the best thing to do is to use the formula and preserve the sign of the angles all the way through. At the end, i you have a minus figure the cloud tops are below the aircraft, if you have a plus they are abeve, He above the sireraft = "50x [lt % beam width) x 100 = 50x(1- 2) x100 50 x [-1} x 100 =~ 50008 0 the cloud tops are at 310008 - Sovont e000 ‘One might expect closer targets to produce brighter returns on the screen. The electronics adjust for this when looking at clouds by making the equipment less sensitive at short range ‘0 there is an even picture. This is known as automatic gain control (AGC) [Radio Navigation ios eee iss)Separate circuitry can be used to distinguish small solid returns fom large areas of weak return. On colour screens retums above certain threshold levels will be shown in green, ‘then yellow or amber, then red. Thus thunderstorms will appear with red cores and areas of maximum turbulence in magenta on EFIS sereens a Colour Weather Radar Figure 9.9.3 Older equipment inverts or, if you prefer, cancels returns ‘above an igo-echo level to show strong returns as ‘hollow centres’, the contour mode. ee P | ld Monochrome Radar in the Contour Mode Figure 9.94 oa Radio Navigation green, yellow, red magentafnge only mapping ‘The ‘hollow centre’ or ‘black hole’ indicates where the larger water droplets are. The area of greatest turbulence, however, ‘would be where the black hole is nearest tothe outside edge of the cloud, where there is the greatest rate of change of return, Mapping Radat ‘The radar can be selected to produce a wide fan shaped beam. Jnown as the cosec? beam which can be used for mapping out {0 about 150nm, the mapping mode. It works by placing ‘parasitic elements’ in front of the radar dish to aetiect the ‘beam, you might also find this referred to as a spol dear, [Beyond 150nm there is not enough power in the spl beam to produce reasonable returns so the more concentrated conical beam should be used instead. Manual gain control retained, this is the manual mode. Hills can cause ‘shadowing’ at low altitude masking the terrain behind them and giving @ false impression of water. ao ‘The Cosecant? or Spoil Beam Figure 9.95 ‘The diagram above shows the polar diagram of the casec? beam used only in the mapping mode. The lower parts of this beam ‘which hit the ground at short range carry less energy than the higher parts, this provides distance compensation without the need for AGC. In this mode the sensitivity or gin is also manually controlled Because the radar shows slant range there is distortion of the picture, particularly at short range. There is a height ring pearly always present that corresponds to the aireraft height ‘and is caused by rellections from side lobes.Range scales Different systems have different selectable ranges. Older radar only goes out to 150nm, many modern ones have scales out to ‘300nm, In each case there are intermediate range rings shown ‘at sensible intervals, A radar with three range rings could be Indicating 300nm in 100nm divisions or equally. 150nm in ‘50am divisions. In real life one would know the scale you had selected. Questions about range scales are necessarily limited Example: Which scale is selected on the V7 radar screen on the right? a) 100nm ) 120nm Solution: Counting only the rings directly in front of the aircraft there are five Ifthe scale was 120nm this ‘would mean five rings of 24nm, if the selected scale was 100nm five rings of 20nm. Which is more likely? A value judgement admittedly, but answer (aControl Panels Figure 99-7 ‘The control panel above is from an old monochrome radar ‘a follows: Power switch OFF on STAB OFF Range switch STANDBY 20, 50, 150 Contrast ‘Tit Control Mark Brill, unetion Switch CONTOUR WEA MAN MAP. Radio Navigation n ‘used as the basis for some exam questions, the sections are Power of Power avai stabiliser on Power available, seanner stabiliser oft Equipment ready, ‘Transmitter of. ‘Transmitter on, range as Selected Rotary contrast contro. Selects geanner tilt from 15° ‘up to 15° cown, Rotary brilliance control for range rings. Conical beam, iso-2eho, AGC. Conical beam, AGC. Conical bear, manual gain Cosec? beam, manual gain Taso S 7an Gain Manual gain control active with MAN & MAP selections, ‘The diagram below shows the Weather Radar control at the centre right of the Captain's EFIS control unit from the lareshield panel of a B737 800. This allows the radar to be fumed on of off and ranges to be selected Figure 9.08 ‘The EFIS control unit is used in conjunction with the selector panel below which is positioned in the aircraft on the centre Console behing the throttle quadrant, Radio Navigation‘This control panel has two sets of controls for the two pilots! displays. The selection int GAIN UCAL Gain nur Radio Navigation Tesue © re a follows: ‘Makes that side's display identical tothe other Diaplays weather returns with Doppler based ‘turbulence detection up to SOnm Displays weather returns using a conical beam ‘Slo gun clung ap Lee ‘Activates ground clutter suppression ir WX and WX/T modes Indicator light shows the GAIN control is improperty set Rotating knob sets manual gain contrl, distance ‘compensated in all mades. Displays maintenance test pattern Manual tit from 15® up to 15° down, seanner stabilised by IRS910 Intentionally BlankChapter 10 - DME Introduction stant range. continuous readout of slant range rather than plan Fange toa ground station, Although this might be this might be thought to be a disadvantage the iflerence between slant range and ground range is small tnless the aeroplane is very close tothe beacon, De measures D= Measuring Equipment or DME gives a UH, 962 t0 It is a secondary radar system, which means it has active ‘2taie components in the aeroplane and on the gromd. DME operates in the UHF band, using line of sight propagation, with frequencies ranging from 962 to 1213MHa, Principle of operation irra Interrogator Ground ‘Transponder Figure 910-4 ‘50 microsecond satay in ee ‘The aircraft transmits a stream of pairs of pulses to the fwansmission ground station. ‘The two pulses in each pair are separated by 412 miero seconds. After @ short delay of 50 microseconds the Radio Navigation Tee 5 404ground station then retransmits them. The time delay between Sending and receiving the pulses is converted toa range readout. ‘The aircraft equipment initiates the exchange, and the ground equipment is called a transponder as it replies, ‘The idea is simple but there are two major problems. Firstly the aeroplane must. distinguish between its own. pulses returning and those of other aircraft and secondly it must istinguish between retransmitted pulses from the transponder land reflected pulses from the ground. ‘To get round the first problem the pulse trains are made unique to each aeroplane, not by making each DME set different but by using @ random or "tered" PRF so that the ‘ime interval between the paired pulses is random and the ‘chance of two pulse trains being identical is effectively nil, ‘This does not, however, solve the second problem of the reflected ground retums, To overcome this the transponder on the ground retransmits at a different frequency, 63MH2 apart from the interrogator. These paired frequencies are called channels and there are 252 of them available, 126 in regular lise designated as X channels and another 126 Y channels ‘which can be allocated Finally, to make sure that the ground equipment isnot triggered by other UHF transmissions it will ony reply to pairs of pulses separated by 12 us w02 Tavs 5 Aittored PRE mates the signal tiniawe ‘The use of two paired froquonctos removes ground15,000 putse pair, thon 6 Pos. Locks on at 2Apps “Tne 100 strongest signats are ‘Although we said the PRE is randomised i averages out 10 about 150 pulses per second when the aircraft starts 10 interrogate the DME, dropping to 60 pulses per second after, 15000 pulse pairs. The airborne equipment searches through the possible ranges looking for a match at which pin it locks fn and the PRF drops to about 24 pulses a second, ‘ine aircraft starts looking at a time that corresponds to its ‘minimum range and then looks for progressively longer intervals. Max range is never more than 300nm because this is, line of sight transmission and often it is Tess. 300nm range corresponds to a time delay of 3.75 milliseconds, in:luding the 50 microsecond delay, so. the transmitter looks in very accurate time slots, called gates. ‘The ground equipment has a limited capacity and adjusts its gain to only handle the strongest 2700 pulses a second. This, Means that only 18 searching aircraft can use the facility of 112 locked on aircraft. In practice there is a bit af each and ‘about 100 aireraft can be served at once. Notice that the found equipment will answer the strongest signals mot the nearest sirera, Accuracy ICAO require accuracy of Y% nm plus 114% in slant range ‘measurement. This means that DME gets less accurate with increasing range but itis still the most accurate short range nav ai. You must be careful to distinguish between the accurate representation of slant range, which is what we are talking ‘about here, and the representation of plan range which is most ‘accurate when the sireraft is some distance from the beacon, TACAN ‘TACANs (TACtical Aid to Navigation) are military beacons that ‘operate in the UHF band to give range and bearing information 1 suitably equipped military aircraft. The UHF rarge element fof TACAN is 100% compatible with DME so that civilian DME ‘users can obtain range from @ TACAN and military TACAN ‘users can obtain range from a DME. Radio Navigation 70.3VOR/DME Association ‘Astociated beacons are beacons with the same ident. For VORS and DMEs to be associated they must be either less than 100% (30m) apart if used as a terminal ai oF less than 200% (600m) apart if used for any other purpose, Associated TACANs land VORS ate called VORTACS, ‘When beacons are associated the three letter morse ident is sent every seven and a half seconds, One comes from the DME, the next three from the VOR. The pitch of the DME ident is often higher than the VOR ident. If beacons fail to meet these criteria they may be given similar ‘dents, A DME within 6nm of an en-route VOR might have the last letter ofits ident changed to Z, for instance the VOR ident might be LIP and the DME LiZ. Beacons that are not ‘associated may still be frequency paired if i is considered it ‘would be useful Cockpit Equipment Figure 9-103 Primitive DME equipment used mechanical displays with the numbers on tumblers like a car odometer, An OFF flag would indicate the equipment was not locked on if the tumblers are moving, or that the power is off if they are not. General ‘aviation aircraft tend to use LED displays that do not have an OFF fag. 404 eee 5 Radio Navigation TACANS separated by DME memory ops the counters turing sional loseIn Public Transport aireraft the DME can often be displayed on the EFIS ND and also on a mechanical standby -nstrument ‘which combines two RMI needles with a double DME. In all cases there is a memory function that allows the range to continue counting down at the same rate if the signal is temporarily interrupted, After § to 10 seconds the of flag will, come up or, with an LED display, the range will not be displayed.DME Range and DME Derived Groundspeed DME indicates the slant range to the beacon. At distances in nautical miles greater than the aircraft height in thousands of feet this difference is negligible. Close to the beacon it is not, ‘To find the plan range Pythagoras’ theorem must be used. Example: An eircraft at 35,000 ft is 18nm slant range. Find the plan distance Solution: First convert 35,0008 to nautical miles. 35,000 * 6080 ~ 5.757 nm Nas Figure 9105 Pythagoras’ theorem states that the square of the hypotenuse, the longest side of the triangle, is the ‘sum ofthe squares on the other two sides. [Expressed as a formula, Ooo feo For us this means that 18 5.787? + plan distance? so plan distance? = 18'-5.7572 = 324-33.143 290.857 190.857 17.05 nm plan distance 108 Tesue ®SGroundspood fying t0 oF fom ‘the beacon at ong range an ‘Just to convince you that this is only a problem at chort range Tet us work out the plan distance for an airraft at 35,0008 at 351m slant range, where we said the error was negligible, Cutting the first line of the calculation, we now have plan distance? = 954_5.7572 = 1225-'33.163 = 191857 plan distance 191.857 > 34523 nm ‘This error would make little diference to pilot navigation, I is sill taken account of, however, with the much more accurate RNAV gystems that ‘automatically tune navigation aids to obtain an aircraft position. RNAV must have a beight input to fo this, Certain DME receivers use rate of change of DME to indicate groundspeed, These are only accurate flying to or from the Deacon at some range, ideally at ranges greater than the aircraft height in thousands of fet. DME symbols ‘There are five ‘standare! symbols that might be used to show [DMEs on charts, shown below. one, OME —TACAN.VORIDME VORTAC OME or OrDME orVORTAG or TACAN —TACAN Figure 940-6 ‘The left hand one is an old style now rarely used, the centre three symbols are used on Aerad charts and EFIS dsplays and the right hand symbol is used mainly on Jeppesen charts Radio Navigation tues 707DME fixing and DME arcs A. single DME range canbe Used as. part of fan instrument procedure to keep the aircraft ata constant range fom. the beacon. This is called @ DME are. Double oN seater ng \ aa veior ng 08 v ‘Two DME range can be used together to provide a range/range fix, called a cho/rho fx. Two circular position lines cut in two places <0 fan ambiguity is produced. Provided the cut of the lines is square enough the ‘alse’ position is usually far enough away from the aircraft's known position to be discarded \ DME can be used rth VOW to produce range beating oF fix the best followed by a DME/VOR, followed by VOR/VOR Bx. ) ‘ho/theta fix. Where ~~ f choice existe the accuracy “of DME. vor and DME A makes a DME/DME. 2A single OME ‘lows a DME are ‘Two DMEs permitUsed with ts, the threshold to:30m DME with ILS DME is used to give ranges to the threshold on an ILS. approach to supplement and replace markers Often one transponder is placed half way besween two ‘opposing thresholds to service both runways. As this would jive the range to the DME, not the threshold, the S¢us delay is Feduced to make the DME under read by half'a runvay length ‘When it is not possible to site the DME exactly half way between the thresholds it is zeroed for one runway and a note is inserted on the approach plate saying, for instance, ‘caution. DME reads 0. Inm at the threshold A DME associated with an ILS can only be used in the locals coverage area up to a maximurn of 25,0008. DME/P Precision DME, or DME/P, operates on normal DME frequencies and is usually associated with MLS installations. ‘The twin pulses of DME/P are much ‘sharper’ then ordinary DME allowing more accurate range measurement. When used with MLS the accuracy is about 30 metres, [Radio Navigation 709Intentionally Blank. 40.10 Teeue S| Radio NavigationOperating frequencies ‘030K and Chapter 11 - SSR Introduction econdary Surveillance Radar is now in common use throughout the world, As its name suggests i is a secondary radar system requiring active participation from the aireraft and the ground system. It allows the toasic primary radar information which gives tae aircraft position to be supplemented with an identification code and an altitude readout. Principle of Operation In contrast to DME the ground station is the interrogator with SSR and the aircraft carries the transponder. The ground station can ask questions by sending out trios of pulses on 3030Mhz with one of three spacings that willbe recognised by the aircraft. The aircraft will respond to the interrogation with a longer train of pulses on 1090Mbz according to the cockpit Selections ‘The ground transmission is beamed, usually with a phase array aerial, and therefore sidelobes exist. A reply to a sidelobe ‘would cause bearing confusion. The aircraft reply is ‘omnidirectional, The polar diagrams of the ground interrogator and the aircraft transponder are shown below. Figure 944-4 ‘Radio Navigation Tasue 5 1APulse 2 of the ground interrogation is a standard 2us behind pulse 1. This is used for sidelobe suppression. The interval between pulses 1 and 2 dictates the sort of question that is asked or mode. The three standard modes and their pulse spacing are a follows: Mode Spacing Use a Sus Civil & Miltary identification B rus Cl identification © 2s Altitude reporting ‘The sircraft’s response is a stream of pulses 20.38 long, framed by two frame pulses. Between the frame pulses there is space for 12 additional pulses, known as a 12 bit code. The Dulse train is effectively a binary code in which 21? or 4096 possible number combinations can be sent Aircraft altitude is taken straight from digtisers on the back of the altimeter and is independent of the subscale setting. It is ways relerenced to 1013.25mb and is transmitted in the 12 bit cade accurate to the nearest 100%, that is to say up to +/- ‘SOR from the actual aircraft height. Some ground equipment hhas the capability to adjust this when received to a QNH based tude for display on the radar screen. ‘An additional identification pulse can be transmitted 4.3545 ‘after the pulse train which causes the return on the radar Screen to bloom for 25 seconds, This extra pulse, known as ‘dent or Special Position Identification (SPM, is often requested fon initial contact with a radar’ unit, Positive aireraft Identification with SPI pulse of SSR dispenses with the need to manoeuvre the aircraft for identification Controller's Display ‘The controller has the option, which is usually taken, to Slter BA 473A gate mamaria cemané 28048 inten An era nC) t from a typical secondary display is shown on the right, Figure 041-2 ‘The flight number is BA 473A, the Flight Level PL290 and the groundspeed 480kt. The arrow indicates the aircraft is Climbing and the aircraft position is shown by the circle and bar. 2 " 5 Radio Navigation ‘The second pulse Suppression 4096 aitorent ed4096 atoront ot part ofthe 12 Cockpit Equipment AA typical light sireraft transponder control unit i shown in gure 9-11-3, The highest number available on the code selectors ia seven 0, with zero, that means ore of eight numbers can be selected in each position. The number of possible codes that can be selected is therefore 8%, or 4096, ‘which ties in with the number of eodes that can be transmitted in the pulse train ‘The function awitch can be selected a follows: Power off Power on, system accepts interrogations but does not reply on Power on, system replies to mode A interrogation with the selected code aur Power on, system replies to mode A interrogation swith the selected cade and mode C. TEST Initiates an equipment self test procedure ‘The IDENT button, when pressed, transmits the extra SPI pulse for 25 seconds ‘The amber reply lamp shows when the system is responding to Interrogation. It also lights up at the completion ofthe self test procedure.‘Several codes have been reserved for special circumstances 7700 Emergency 7600 Failure of two way communications 7500 Uniawil interference, hijacking or ‘unlawful interception’ 2000 Aircraft entering an FIR from an area ‘where no code has been assigned, or bceainie trate + Note: Although 7500 is the ICAO code for unlawful interference some National Authorities advise that 7700 be selected in the event of unlawful airborne interception ‘A serviceable transponder with 4096 codes available and ‘altitude reporting is mandatory for all FR flights in most FIRs. ‘The controller will check that the Mode C readout is within 3008 of the assigned level. Outside these limits you will be ‘asked to confirm your altitude. If the readout is more than, 300ft in error the controller may request that altitude reporting is de-selected or, if ths fils, that you squawk Mode A with the ‘code 0000 to indicate a system malfunction. Some European States have filed @ variation on the ICAO standard of 300n and require errors of no less than 2008. Errors If aircraft are in range of two ground interrogators they may reply to both. The received replies may be for the wrong station, this is called fruiting. If two aircraft are on the same bearing from the ground station and closer together than I'Tnm they may produce overlapping replies to the ground interrogator, this is called garbling. Both fruiting and garbling ‘are much reduced when mode § transponders are used Deficiencies of the current SSR should be largely overcome ‘with the Wide introduction of mode S. Whereas the present generation SSR can only handle 4096 identities, mode S has 2a bit addresses which will remove any possibility of ambiguity 17700 Emergency 7500 Mijack Is more than Replies wil be ‘garbled ifthe ‘closeptink ana and Is required Iis be able to cope with an additional 5 x 10% different uplink ‘and downlink messages ae well as having the scope for an lver-the-horizon service by using ground data links. Ground to air messages are specifically addressed to a particular aircraft, the system permits 16,000,000 individual aircraft addresses. Mode § is also used with TCAS I and Ul discussed separately. Mode § operates on the same frequencies as SSR but both bearing and range resolution have improved drametically, the Tormer to 5 minutes of are and the later to 100 f. ‘The ground station, in addition to the mode S functions, also radiates standard SSR modes and is still capable ef operating ‘with any aircraft carrying standard SSR equipment. Similarly, mode § transponders in aircraft are compatible with normal SSSR ground stations. ‘The architecture of the interrogation element of the two ystems is subtly different, ‘The time interval between pulses 1 ‘and 2 of both aystems remains at 2 us but, wheress the time interval between pulses I and 3 of the standard SSR varies and dictates the mode of operation, mode S transmits a third ‘synchronising pulse at a fxed interval of 3.5 us. Tia pulse is 1 is wide, changes phase half way through transmission and is, followed by 56 or 112 data bite of message. As the message clement contains the aircraft address only the relevant aircratt will reply, ‘To enable further mode $ equipped alireraft to be received ‘special interrogation signal is transmitted at intervals and is known as SSR/Mode $ ALL CALL. It is achieved by using a Tourth pulse (P4) which follows the leading edge of the third pulse by 1.5us. Mode S transponders will recognise this pulse a8 a roll call request and will respond with an “All Cal” reply ‘hich will contain the identity of the aireraft and tie capacity ‘of the onboard equipment. Non-mode $ equipped aircraft will gnore PA and reply to mode ‘Avand C in the normal way. RadioNavigation issue SSCSIntentionally Blank : Radio NavigationChapter 12 - Hyperbolic Nav Systems & Loran Introduction Hyperbolic position lines have a. distinctive shape shown in figure 9-121. The line between the two beacons is called the ‘baseline and the line that cuts it in two at right angles is called the right bisector. ‘rai asenast om fete Foote 6 See parenAccuracy Hyperbolic lines are most accurate where they are closest together, the area around the baseline, and least accurate ‘where they are widely spaced, the extended baseline. The most ‘accurate hyperbolic line isthe right bisector, the baseline itself, is nota hyperbolic line Limitations “The astute will have noticed that to derive a hyperbolic position line you need two stations within range a opposed to the circular position lines of DME which needs only one. To fix ‘your position you need another hyperbolic line to give you a frosscut and thus to obtain a minimal fx there must be at Teast three stations within range. Loran, Principle of Operation Loran C is a modem development of an older tong range navigation system. The system operates in the LF band at a range of frequencies around 100 KHz using surface waves and, in some cases, sky waves. Loran C is available for use in North Northern Europe, the Pacific and the Mediterranean. ‘The system is gradually being withdrawn, A Loran Aerial Figure 012.2, The Loran system operates a series of transmitting stations arranged in chains. Each chain comprises a master with three fr four slave stations arranged around it at ranges of 600nm 101000nm. The slaves are designated 2, Y, X and W. 322 esue 5 ‘Radio Navigation The most secarate faxing fren i the beveline frequenciesslterentit ‘istance by pulse technique “The GRI dentition Indexing prevents ‘unwanted Loran calculates dilferential range by pulse technique, by ‘measuring the time difference between pulses sent from master and slave stations and automatically computing the alreraft position, Loran is therefore a hyperbolic nav system. ‘To achieve long ranges the stations operate at high power, in the region of 4 megawatts in a bandwidth between 90KHz and, MOKHz centered on the quoted Trequency of 100KHe. The aerials need to be large because of the long wavelength, often, ‘more than 1900 f. high. ‘The master station sends a group of nine pulses ate rate of ten to twenty five groups per second, the group repetition interval (GRI) identifies the chain. The slave station transraite an eight pulse group. Within the groups the pulses are spacid by 1000, ‘microseconds with the exception of the last. pulse of the master’ nine pulse group which is separated by 2000 ‘microseconds. The ninth pulse identifies the maser station, slaves are identified by the actual time delay in their transmissions compared to the master, Skywave interference at the receiver becomes ncticeable at about thirty micro-seconds after the arrival of a pulse. To prevent interference corrupting the positian only the fist three pulses within a group are used to measure the time difference ‘This process is known as indexing, and allows greater accuracy than Would otherwise be possible at long range and at night Onboard equipment With the arrival of the airborne computer and sephisticated multi-chain receivers the modern Loran C sistem has Uninterrupted display of aeroplane position in latitude and longitude derived from the signals it receives. Outpat from the system can be integrated. with other onboard ravigational systems containing waypoints of a pre-determined route or flight plan. Having turned on the equipment and telected the route the pilot plays no further part in the proceedings Chains and the stations within them are automatically selected and discarded by the system as it tracks between waypoints Modern equipment can track up to eight stations concurrently Jn four different chains. {As with INS, alternative navigational information such as range and bearing to waypoints, track and track error can be isplayed in Night Radio Navigation asus 5 723Accuracy and range {In areas of good coverage the in use accuracy of Loran C is in the region of 0.1 to 0.2 nm decreasing to 0.5 tol nm at 1000, ‘nm. The ICAO requirement is # % nm on 95% of occasions between 900m and 1000nm over the sea, The maximum range is about 2000nm over the sea, Ultimately range is limited by the propagation characteristics of the frequency used and, as always, the power output. 124 aus s Radio Navigation Maximum range {is 2000nm, betor ‘ver the sea than“tore are etionally 24 Chapter 13 - Satellite Navigation hhe requirement for an extremely accurate, world-wide navigational aid has been nearly completely satisfied with the introduction of satelite aide to navigation. There are currently two systems in operation. One is ‘operated by the United States Department of Defence (DoD) ‘and is known as the Navstar Global Positioning System (GPS) Which uses 2 constellation of twenty four satelites. The second is the Global Orbiting Navigation Satelite System (GLONASS) operated by the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), formerly the Soviet Union, and is similar to that ‘operated by the US, The Satellites ‘The GPS constellation of satellites is broken down into six circular orbital planes each at 85 degrees to the equator. Each orbital plane consists of four to six satellites which orbit the earth at @ height of 20,200 km (10,900 nm) once every twelve hhours. Between five and eight satellites will always be in line of sight range of a receiver at any position on earth at any one ‘TedioNavigeton teueS SSCStime. The original GFS constellation, sometimes called the notional constellation, had 24 satellites, the current Constellation has 31. The satellites are called the space segment. Satellite ground tracks only go up to 55° North and South but, because of their height, coverage is global. A satellite is not considered ‘visible’ until it is more than 5° above the horizon, ‘this is called the mask angle. GLONASS has twenty one active satellites, with three held as, spares, which ‘orbit the earth in three orbital planes ‘approximately once in every twelve hours at an angle of 60 degrees to the equator. Collision avoidance between the two systeme is achieved by having the GLONASS constellation orbit ‘some 650nm lower at a height of 19,000km (10,250 nm). Frequencies ‘The GPS satellites transmit on two frequencies in UHF. As the system has an American origin different categorisation ‘applies and they are usually referred to as 1: band, these being, 1575.42 MHz (L1) and 1227.6 MHz (2). Control of the satelite is maintained by an up-link in the 'S' band, ‘Two modulations are used. ‘The Precise (P) modulation or P (Y) ccode is used only for military and survey purposes and is, transmitted on Li and 12, The second which is available for general use is known as Coarse Acquisition (C/A) and transmitted on the higher band, Li ‘The timing of each satelite’s transmissions is controlled by four on board atomic clocks, This in turn is monitored by atomic clocks maintained by the Master Control Station (MCS) ‘which send correction signals to the satelite when necessary. ‘The MCS is called the ‘control segment. An electronic clock is, Stted in the aircraft Principle of Operation ‘The orbiting satellites transmit accurately timed radio signals, ‘modulated on the LI frequency. The digital signals contain a navigational signal repeats every millisecond and is called the pseudo random noise (PRN) code, ‘The receiving equipment uses its internal clock to measure how long the message has been in transit for and converts the time delay into a distance from the satelite, a sphere of range Ranges from two satellites produce a circular position line where the spheres intersect. Even ifthe assumption is made 32 Radio Navigation 20,200Km ‘Tho frequencies ‘ecerbod as 1 LA CIA and P code L2P code onlythat the receiver is on the surface of the earth this still produces an ambiguous position. ‘Two Satellites Produce a Circular Pos mn Line Figure 9.43.2 Ranges from three satellites are needed even for a two dimensional fix and either separate altitude information or fourth satelite is needed for a three dimensional fx, ‘There is @ problem. As the clock in the aircratis less accurate than its atomic counterpart the initial range, called a pseudo range, is invariably inaccurate, an error known 8 receiver lock ‘bias. The pseudo range rom several satelites would produce a cocked hat instead of a precise fx. Receiver Clock Bias Producing Pseudo Ranges Radio Navigation Issue 5 a‘The aircraft equipment has the capability to run a series of simultaneous equations to correet the pseudo ranges to a precise fx, this gets round the requirement for time control on the receiving equipment to be alternative correction process to the receiver time until a single position is found, this method is called an iterative process, Receiver Clock Bias Corrected Figure 9.13.4 ‘The correction for receiver clock bias algo means that by the time a fix position is calculated the receiver is completely synchronised to satelite time. Satelit time is not the same as UTC, but it can be corrected For this system to work the receiver must be aware of the satelite positions, called. their ‘ephemeris’. The expected positions are stored in receiver memory as an almanac. Im addition to the PRN code the satelite also sends a data stream called the NAV message with correction factors and Information to update the receiver almanac. This is Superimposed on the LI frequency in five subsframes. Each set of ve sub-frames make up a frame lasting 30 seconds. There fare 25 frames in al, 0 send the entire almanac takes a total of 12s minutes, Bach sub-frame starts with a burst of telemetry identifying the satelite followed by a ‘hand over word! for military users needing to connect to the P code and then a string of data, The fret three sub-frames send data on the clock correction and the satelite position, its ephemeris, this is updated crv ese 5 ‘Radio Navigation by simuttancous ‘Tne NAV 25 ramos 42% minutes toGS 04 elpaois “searches the sky’ Reduce the time fer feat fx by putting in position intermittently by the control segment. The last two sub-frames send chunks of information on UTC corrections, ionospheric delay and almanae information on the orbits ofall the satellites in the system, ‘The receiver uses the almanac data to work out th: positions of the satelites in three axes relative to the centre of the earth talled the X, ¥ and Z axes. The fix is also initially expressed Felative to these axes with an additional parameter, ime (T) ‘The X, Y, Z, 7 ix positon is then referenced in the receiver to the WUba ellipsoid where i technically described a8 a g, 2 land altitude position before finally being presented -o the user fas latitude, longitude and height. Maps that have not been corrected to the WGS 84 datum may show GPS positions Several hundred metres out from where they appear on the ground, GPS receivers also have the capability to compute velocity and, ‘using a time correction from the space segment, can indicate time and time intervals, ‘The receiver is called the ‘user segment” Time To First Fix When the receiver i first turned on it looks for satellites where Jt expects fo find them according to the almana> of space ‘segment orbital data held in memory. IF the receiver has been moved a long way since it was last used it gets confused and has to search the sky to determine Which satellites are overhead, this can take 4 or 5 minutes. If the almanac is out of date it has to download new almanac information from the satellites. Once the satellites are identified clock bias is corrected for and the sosition is ‘computed, “Time To First Fit can be shortened by entering a position, lime and date to give the receiver new starting datum and shorten the search forthe satellites, Radio Navigation Tseue 5 BsAccuracy and System Errors, UERE Fixing accuracy of plus or minus 13 metres on 95% of ‘occasions is quoted for raw signals Several system errors are classified as User Equivalent Range [Errors or UERE. They are Satellite ephemeris error. Caused by the satellite not being where it should be. This could be caused by gravity changes in the earth's gravitational Field oF the fields from the sun and moon. Atmospheric drag, solar winds and electromagnetic forces ‘can also. produce terrors, Control of position is so stringent that errors eatised are in the region of plus or minus 0.5m. Atmospheric or lonospheric error Variations in ionospheric density and atmospheric conditions lead to predictable propagation errors of plus or minus 4m, Satellites that are overhead have the least errors and provide the most accurate ranges. ‘The delay in the transmission time caused by the ionosphere ‘and atmosphere is proprtional to 1/, where fs the frequency fof the carrier wave. Miltary” receivers operating on two Frequencies can compare the delays on their wo frequencies to compute a correction for ionospheric error. A civilian receiver ‘operating on one frequency, the C/A signal, can not take ‘sdvantage of this and relies instead on a mathematical mode! of the ionosphere which is downloaded from the satellites part of the data message and subsequently stored in its memory, InstrumentReceiver error ‘These are caused by electrical noise, computational errors or frrors arising when matching the pseudo-random signals, [Errors in range from this source are only expected to be in the region of one metre. ‘Multipath Signals Signals reflected from terrain can be confused with direct signals and reduce the accurate by 0.5m or so. The error arising from multipath signals can be reduced by aerial design fand software fixes, B68 Tesues ‘Radio NavigationGeometne caused by @ the position spheres ‘Sateite signals taro 20 weak they fre easily Jammed (Clock Bias ‘Timing errors at the receiver will lead to fixing errors. Receiver clock bias can be corrected out, Errore at the satelite are less likely but more serious as these can only be corrected as the satellites passes over the Master Control Station. Fixing Errors, DOP Dilution of Precision (DOP) can be caused by: Satellite geometry error Strictly speaking this is not a GPS error at all but is based on. the prineiple of using position ines to obtain a fix. (the angle ‘of cutis shallow then the fix i lable to be less accurate than if the lines eut at an angle of ninety degrees or so, This occurs particularly when satelites are close together, The term used In GPS is. geometric dilution of precision (GDOP}. Position, errors of up to 70m can unusually occur. GDOP is made up of four components + PDOP, the Position Dilution of Precision in 3D, sometimes called the Spherical DOP. ‘+ HOP, the Horizontal Dilution of Precision Latitude & Longitude). ‘+ YDOP, the Vertical Dilution of Precision (Height) + TDOP, the Time Dilution of Precision (Time). While each of these GDOP terms can be individually computed, they are not independent of each other. A high TDOP (time dilution of precision), for example, will cause receiver clock errors which will eventually result in increased positon errors Optimum Geometry ‘The optimum geometry for four satellites is to have three separated by 120" in azimuth and elevated a litte above the horizon witha fourth directly overhead. Coverage Problems ‘There have been many reported cases of GPS coverage being less than expected because the satellite signal has been blocked. These worm holes’ can cover relatively ‘arge areas and last from mimtes ta days Worm holes are caused by accidental or deliberate jamming of the satellite signals sometimes by transmissions on the same 137frequency, sometimes by harmonics from similar frequencies stich as UH television broadeasts Improving the Navigation Solution Because satellites are monitored from the ground it may take some considerable time before users become aware of a ‘malfunction in the system. At present three methods exist Within airborne equipment to provide integrity of navigation Under these circumstances ‘The first is to use GPS with another satellite system such as GLONASS. This increases the number of satellites in view and, by using two separate frequencies, reduces the effect of propagation errors. This method is not yet approved for IFR ‘navigation, ‘The second method is to use a system called Receiver ‘Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM} ‘The receiver normally tracks four satellites to give a 3D fbx, Bvery twenty seconds data from one of the four satellites is replaced by data from a fifth. Ifthe position changes either the tellte that was rejected or the new one is in error. By continuously sampling the satellites a faulty one can be identified. This means that whereas a 2D fix normally requires 3 satellites and a 3D fix requires four when RAIM is monitoring the navigation solution four eatelltes are needed for a 2D fix and requires five to monitor a 3D fix. I an error is found a further satellite must be available for AIM fo continue to function ao the ideal is to have two ‘spare’ cover and above the minimum needed for a fx, The table below summarises the number of satellites required under different 20 Fix 3 4 5 30 fx 4 5 6 Figure 9135 ‘The third method is to integrate GPS positon with alternative, ‘more conventional, navigation systems, 38 Tesue 5 ‘Radio NavigationImtograted systems provide ‘Ge best ofboth Integrated Navigation Systems GPS has obvious advantages in its great accuracy but clear disadvantages like the presence of ‘worm holes’ which make it hot quite suitable to be used as a stand alone navigation aid ‘One way around this is to combine GPS with other navigation systems and create a multisensor nav aystem. The two basic combinations are GPS with INS and GPS with RNAV. GPS integrated with INS is an ideal match of two quite different systems, INS is not aa accurate as GPS but its pesition only drifts out, st will always be close. Inertial Navigation systems usually run in threes so that if one IN drifts away the others will be able to ‘outvote' it: The GPS is very accurate but when it goes wrong it loses ‘ts position ‘completely. This allows the GPS to update the triple mixed IN position but i the GPS fails the signal can be discarded. Not all aircraft have Inertial Nave fitted, many commuter turboprops, for instance, do not. An ideal solution now would, be to use GPS with RAIM combined with RNAV, where the ‘ireraft automatically tunes VORs and DMEs to obicin the best fross-cut. RNAV is very accurate, often to less than 400m, but ‘ot quite as good as GPS. Its, however, more relia Mulisensor systems like this use GPS as a primary nav system ‘when RAIM is functioning, when there are insuliceat satellites for RAIM to operate RNAV automatically becomes the primary nay system, ‘Radio Navigation ees SCReceivers and Aerials ‘Single-channel As the name suggests this type uses just one channel which moves from one satellite to another to collect data. for navigational purposes. As the data is not simultaneous the movement of the receiver can degrade overall accuracy. Figure 9.43.6 Multichannel receivers ‘These are the types most likely to be found in aircraft pormally with three channels. One channel is used to calculate range whilst the others read the NAV messages. Compared to a Single channel receiver time to first fix is reduced and the receiver can maintain tracking at moderate speeds. Multiplex receivers Multiplex receivers use a single channel which switches every 5 milliseconds between satelites in view. They provide a high quality fix but are susceptible to jamming, either real or ‘ecidental Continuous receivers Continuous receivers are used in specialised circumstances ‘such as survey work or far scientific purposes, Operating on between four and twelve channels they give instantaneous read ‘out of position and speed. Normally the four satelites that are predicted to give the best geometric solution are tracked, this minimises GDOP. ‘All in view’ continuous receivers track all, visible satellites simultaneously, the disadvantage is their high 33:40 7 Radio Navigation recelvers are(PS neriae are con the top of the ae Figure 9413-7 GPS Aerials are positioned on the top of the fuselage to give a ‘lear view of the sky. The B737-800 has two aerials near the ‘centre of gravity at station SODA. Legality GPS is approved for Basic Radio NAVigation (BRNAV) by the JAA, GLONASS is not ‘A standalone GPS must have @ RAIM facility or it must be Integrated with other systems such as automatic DME/DME fixing. Traditional navigation equipment such as VOR and DME receivers must also be installed as @ backup, ‘Where GPS is the only equipment used that meets BRNAV standards the RAIM availability must be confirmed before flight. If it is predicted to not be available for more than 5 minutes the fight does not go. In fight, using a standalone GPS to meet BRNAV standards, ‘conventional nav aids must be selected to allow eros checking ‘and to act as an immediate backup i the GPS fails IFRAIM fails on a standalone GPS then the Might may continue ‘using the GPS but it must be continuously crass checked with conventional nav aids. If an erroneous position is announced the GPS position should be disregarded and the Mgt should be continued using the conventional nav aids. ‘The height or altitude datums when using GPS are always pressure or radio datums. If you are cleared to Hy at a Might level for instance, you must use the altimeter with 1013.2Hpa Radio Navigation issue SSCS.‘System Developments Differential GPS ‘To improve the accuracy beyond the basic 30m a system known as differential GPS (AGPS) has been developed. GPS signals are received on the ground by a continuous receiver at_an accurately surveyed location, The ground position and that from the GPS and sends the correction to any Aireraft within 70nm using an ACARS or mode S link, The fefined position will be accurate from 1 ton DGPS corrects for errors induced by satellite clocks, ephemeris and ionospheric propagation, it cannot correct for’ recelver errors, multipath signals or some atmospheric propagation Pseudolites A development of dGPS is to include an extra ground station that acts like another satellite, a pseudo satelite or pseudolit. ‘The pseudolite sends satellite type signals to the receiver and sends the dGPS correction. The benefit is greater than ‘raw GPS because the pseudoite ves another range input to Increase the accuracy of the fx, particularly in the vertical plane reducing the VDOP. Preudolites are short range devices intended to increase GPS position accuracy in the approach and, because they are placed on the ground, can have problems with the aircraft fuselage screening the receiver aerial, For this reason they tend to be placed off to the side of the approach path. ‘Satellite Based Augmentation Systems Both dGPS and peeudolites provide a high level of accuracy over a small area, Satelite Based Augmentation Systems {(SBAS) take the ideas of AGPS and pseudoites and apply them lover a wide area, There are three systems under development, all of which work. fon the same basic principle. They are” + ‘The Wide Area Augmentation System (WAS), developed In the US +The European Geostationary Navigation Overlay System (EGNOS) developed in Europe + The Meteat Satelite Based Augmentation System (O45BAS) from Japan crers issue Radio NavigationINMARSAT All three operate on the same basic principle and aim to ‘eventually provide accuracy sufficient to enable Category 1 precision approaches (GPS Seta ge ‘heron poston A Satelite Based Augmentation System Figure 913.8 A SBAS uses the same architecture as GPS with three segments, a ground segment, a space segment and a user segment. The ground segment consists of a number of precisey surveyed ‘Wide Area Reference Stations” (WARS), a “Wide Area Master Station’ (WAMS) and a Ground Earth Station (OES). The WARS and WAMS stations are interconnected by data links, The network of reference stations (WARS) centinuously downloads satelite data and passes this informacion to the WAMS. "The WAMS collects the data, determines the differential corrections for each satelite being tacked, organises the data and formats a data broadcast. This is sent to the ground earth station (GES) and is then uplinked to the space segment, ‘The space segment is a geostationary satelite. The American WAAS and. the Buropean EGNOS. systema ues INMARSAT communication satelites. The Japanese plan to use their own ‘meteorological satellites MTSAT 1 and MTSAT 2. Radio Navigation issue SSSS~*~« A‘The satelite receives the data and transmits it to all users ‘modulated on the GPS L1 frequency. The message consists of + An integrity message indicating the status of all GPS satelites in a use/don' use format + Wide Area DGPS error corrections + An ionospheric delay model + Ephemeris and clock data for the geostationary satellite, ‘The satellite information also includes information that ean be used to determine a range from the geostationary satelite Increasing the lx accuraey sill urtner “The Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) is envisaged as being based on a combination of GPS and GLONASS satellites. The additional accuracy and redundancy available {rom the two aystems would allow GNSS to be used as.a sole means of navigation. Receivers already exist that can receive data from both constellations but the GLONASS. system is suffering from serious under funding and the GNSS standard has yet to be ‘met, Europe has offered aid to the CIS in a joint project to ‘upgrade GLONASS, the American response has’ been to Increase the accuracy of the GPS system in an effort 0 stay ahead. GPS Applications Air Traffic Controt GNSS is also being trialled in the Automatic Dependent Surveillance Broadcast (ADS-B), The system, based in the sircralt, dgitises the position information derived from the GNSS nd broadeasis it as part of a data stream renewed several times a second, The data stream contains! ‘Aircraft identification and fight number Aireraft type atitude Speed Heading Information on aircraft atinude ‘The advantage ofthis is it can provide ATC with real time data For oceanic sectors the data stream could be transmitted by a satellite link through INMARSAT and in the terminal area & ‘Made § data link could be used, qa14 ‘Radio NavigationAircraft Navigation GPS is already widely used as an integrated navigation aid both inthe en-route and terminal areas. GPS. precision approaches are not yet certified SD position data is used on some airraft in conjunction with a computer model of the tervain to provide an Enhanced Ground, Proximity waming System (EGPWS). In these circumstances the GPS height is zeroed to the wheel height of the azeraft by the EGPWS software. Radio Navigation 7345Intentionally blank crery Tesue §Chapter 14 - Area Navigation Introduction n the early days of commercial air transport tke accepted navigation method was to fly from radio beacon to radio beacon. This had advantages and disadvantages. On the plus side the navigation was relatively easy and ATC systems could control the tafe without radar using a procedural system that relied on the aircraft reporting ite position overhead beacons, On the negative side it channeled fall the sirraft into narrow airways increasing local congestion. ‘The airway was also not always the shortest, and therefore ‘cheapest, route to take. ‘The solution was to develop navigation systems that were capable of point to point navigation without flying overhead, beacons. The development of this navigation equipment had to be paralleled by developments in ATC that allowed wide area radar coverage and in associated systems like TCAS to reduce the colision risk. Achieving high levels of navigation accuracy where precision beams stich as ILS and MLS are not available requires the automatically co-ordinated use of several diferent navigation systems. The advantage of this is that the errors of different systems can be complimentary, radio ystems have good long term accuracy but might instantaneously be out whereas systems like IRS will be accurate shortly after a position update but drift over time, Ifthe two are linked together the best aspects of each system can be used to override the worst. The navigation guidance obtained from an integrated system like this ean be interpreted manually by the pilot of, in more ‘advanced systems, fed through an FMS to the APFDS. This is ‘Area Navigation (RNAV), RadioNavigation ———~=~SCsueSSSS*«wICAO classy navigation performance standards by the ability to maintain an accuracy of a particular amount for 95% of the time, ‘The standards are’ called Required | Navigation Performance RNP] and the accuracy is listed after it in nautical miles, Thus RNPS means *a required navigation performance to within Sm on 95% of occasions". Some RNP standards that are being considered for use contain a vertical element listed in feet. RNPO.O1/15 means *a required ‘navigation performance to O,0lnm laterally and 1Sf vertically", this is the proposed standard for CATH approaches, ‘The current RNP standards in Europe are: Departure Departure procedures are normally based on RNP 1. Where necessary and appropriate, they may be based on RNP 0.5 or RNP 0.3. Departures are not associated with an RNP less than RNP 0.3, En-route procedures are normally based on RNP 4 or higher Dut, where necessary and appropriate, they may be based on RNP L Non Precision Approaches Non precision approach procedures are normally based on RNP. 0.5 (initial approach only) or RNP 0.3 for inital, intermediate and final approach. 1Non-precision approach procedures are not RNP less than RNP 0:3. ciated with an. Advantages of RNAV RNAV provides the poten fr increasing iropace capacity ‘+ By implementing routes which do not have to overfly point source navaids such as VORS. ‘+ By reducing the lateral separation between aircraft tracks. 102‘This means that the route structures can be modified quickly snd easily to meet the changing requirements of the user community. The routes can be shorter, simpler end, where recessary, can be designed to minimise the environmental Impact. In the future, higher levels of navigation accuracy and integrity are anticipated and this should lead to the Introduction of closely spaced parallel routes, RNAV can be used in all phases of flight end, when Implemented correctly, can result ins “+ Amprovea situations awareness for the pilot + Reduced workloads for both controller and pilot. + Reduced environmental impact from improved design of routes and procedures. + Reduced fuel consumption from shorter, more direct B-RNAV ‘The present standard of RNAV is called Basic RNAV or B- RNAV. B-RNAV defines European RNAV operations which satisfy a required track keeping accuracy of #5 NM for at least ‘95% of the time inside the ECAC member states, ecuvalent to NPS. This level of navigation accuracy is comperable with that which can be achieved by conventional navigation techniques on ATS routes defined by VOR and DME when the VORs are lese than 100 nm apart B-RNAV requirements are mandatory in ECAC airspace on the centie ATS route network above FL 95, higher in some states. [B-RNAV is also being used on selected routes into and out of terminal airspace in some States, B-RNAV can be achieved using inputs from: © DME/DME © VOR/DME, within 62 nm of the VOR INS oF IRS (with radio updating or limited to2 hours use aftr last on-ground position update) + LORAN € (where available and certified) + ops Radio Navigation aaP-RNAV Precision Area Navigation (P-RNAV] equates to RNPI giving an accuracy of Inm on 95% of occasions. Although it i not yet ‘mandatory, most transport aireraft are capable of meeting the P-RNAV standard in some phases of fight, particularly when in range of suitable DME stations. P-RNAV uses inputs from: + DME/oME ‘+ VOR/DME, when within 1Snm of the VOR © GPs. + IRS (for periods of afew minutes only) P-RNAV procedures must be referenced to WGS 84 co ordinates RNAV Equipment ‘The minimum requirements for B-RNAV equipment are that there should be: Continuous display of cross track position in the its) primary field of view + Display of distance and bearing to the active waypoint + Display of either time to the active waypoint or sroundspeed + Acapability to store atleast four waypoints ‘Indications of RNAV system failure and sensor failure Basic Equipment Primitive RNAV equipment such as the Bendix/King KNS 80 and KNS 81 meets the basic requirements and is fitted to many light aircraft, although they are rarely certified for anything, other than VFR use. These systems allow a number of ‘waypoints to be defined as bearings and ranges from selected waa Tasue P-RNAV and RNP {erminal airspace,fone ot fe tnm in APR RNAV VOR/DMESs. These waypoints may also be referred fo as ‘offset beacons’ or ‘phantom stations. Kis 80 Figure 9-14 Distance, groundspeed and time to elther a VOR/EME or to a defined waypoint Is computed from the aircraft position and the location of the waypoint, Displacement from track can be shown on the HS! course deviation indicator. "he MODE Selections at the bottom left of the above control unit control the HSI display, only one mode can be selected at ore time, When the VOR button is pressed the options are VOR or PAR VOR. The VOR selection allows the HSI to operate es a normal VOR indicator acting on the tuned beacon with 1C° full seale deflection, of 2" a dot, from the selected bearing. Ia DME is, ‘associated with the VOR the display unit shows slant distance, fgroundspeed and time to the station. With PAR VOR selected the HSI shows cross track deviation not in degrees. but in pautical miles If the RNAV button is pushed the options are ENR RNAV or APR RNAV. If en-route RNAV (ENR RNAV) is s:lected the KNSBO computer converts raw bearing ane distance information from the reference beacon to show plan distance, groundspeed and time to the ‘phantom waypoint’ that is Selected, The HSI displays cross track deviation in nautical rails, Basic RNAV waypoints can be defined in terms of range and bearing from a reference beacon while still outside the range of the reference beacons but the aircraft must. actually be Navigation jesus 8receiving valid signal from the reference beacon to give bearing and range indications to the phantom waypoint. APR RNAV (approach RNAV) increases the sensitivity of the HSI Advanced Equipment More sophisticated RNAV uses the Flight Management System (FMS) to automatically tune navigation aids to provide ‘continuous eross cuts, The radio Rix is then combined with INS for GPS data to find a very accurate position. ‘An integral. part of the FMS is the Flight: Management Computer (FMC) which automatically tunes navigation aide to provide continuous cross cuts. The radio fix is then combined with INS or GPS data to find a very accurate position. ‘The FMS will compute displacement of the aircraft from the desired track to generate track guidance signals. ‘The normal operating regime is automatic Night with the FMS linked to the autopilot and fight director system (APFDS or ARCS), Advanced FMS will guide the alreraf from brakes off to the landing rollout. If automatic Night is not available the FMS can drive the Flight Director aystem and the aircraft can be own manually. Databases ‘The FMS maintains two read-only databases, a Navigation Database and a Performance Database. Predetermined or custom made routes can be stored in the Navigation Database and then flown automatically. In. the horizontal sense this is known as LNAV, short for Lateral NAVigation, and in the vertical sense, in the climb and descent, fas VNAV, "Vertical NAVigation. Company. routes, complete LNAV and VNAV solutions, can be stored, and either used ‘unmodified or altered by the crew: ‘When the crew alter the route they do not change the route tored in the Read Only Memory (ROM) database, they only ‘modify the route being used on the day, RAM in computer Waypoints entered! manually into the route from the navigation, database can have names with a maximum of five characters, ‘The following are valid entries: ‘+ waypoint identifier (waypoint name) © naval identifier 146 Tesue S ‘Radio Navigation ‘re updated every 2 days Inter navigation (ouay) an ‘avigation nav “eg crew enter navigation[ZERO represents + runway number ‘+ airport ICAO identifier Standard instrument arrivals and departures, SIDS and STARS, can also be stored and called up for use. Performance Databases store data relating to aircraft performance including the effects of CG position, coafiguration, fete on stall speeds and margins used to calculate safety speeds, cruising speeds, optimum and maximum altitudes. FMS databases are updated every 28 days. Cost Management with the FMS ‘The FMS is the major tool in controlling the cost of operations, land therefore the profitability of the Might. Cost of the fight is ‘made up of two parts: + Pixed costs, which are airport charges, crew costs and ‘other costs that do not change with’ changing flight ‘conditions + Variable costs, which change according to the fight ‘conditions and are therefore controllable in fight. ‘The two major variable costs are the cost of fuel and the cost of Aight time, ‘© Fuel prices vary from airport to airport, anit might be less costly, for example, to arrive empty at an airport with low fuel charges and fil the aircraft up than to fll up at home base. ‘+The longer the time airborne the higher will be the scheduled maintenance charges. Flying faster will save fn Might time costs but inereases the fue burn and therefore fuel cost. The FMS can calculate minimum cost routings and climb, cruise and descent profiles from information held in its Satabase, ‘The operating philosophy for the route can be modified by adjusting a ‘cost index’ In the FMS. For the 737 the cost index is represented by a number between 000 and 200, a cost, Index of zero is maximum range and one of 200 ie miniraum time. Other systems have a maximum index of 100. Radio Navigation Tesue 5 747FMS Inputs ‘The inputs to the FMS system are comprehensive, not all are irectly related to the RNAV function Airborne Operation Once the aircraft is airborne the display shows the next ‘waypoint and the course or heading to be flown, with speed fand height as appropriate. With LNAV selected the aircraft wi fly the programmed route, the ACT RTE page will scroll down ‘a8 waypoints are passed, [Navigation information ia transferred to the EHEI or Navigation Display (ND) where the active route wil be displayed in ‘magenta. FMS LNAV and VNAV commands will also show on the Electronic Attitude Indicators or Primary Flight Displays (PFDs). 148) 13‘lop ono dot Is ‘The EFIS NAV Mode FMS information is shown on the ND by selecting the NAV mode, either full rose or expanded, or by selecting one of the MAP modes, ‘The display in figure 9-14-9 shows the expanded YAV mode, the aireraft ie visible at the base of the screen as a white triangle, the wind ie shown at the bottom left with the arrow orientated to the display, weather radar can be overaid and an expanded compass rose at the top of the screen shows, in this, fase, heading at the top. In this display the selected heading bug is on 282°M, the actual heading on 195°M and the actual track on _91°M. The course is off the seale to the right shown as a sold magenta line The aireraft eross track displacement ffom the selested course ls shown by the magenta deviation bar at the centre bottom of the display, ust in front of the aireraft symbol, one dt ie 2nm, Radio Navigation ———~—~SC~CSsue 749NAV deviation (none) is shown on the vertical scale to the bottom right ofthe screen, ‘The EFIS MAP Mode The MAP mode shows the computed FMS track relative to the aircraft symbol. The aircraft symbol can be positioned at the entre of the display, the CENTRE MAP ‘mode, or, more conventionally, at the bottom of the display, the MAP mode. ‘The FMS track is shown by a magenta line connecting star shaped waypoints, the active waypoint is magenta, the others are white, Figure 9444 ‘The MAP mode can be overlaid with other information, circles “and VORTACs are displayed with their standard ‘symbol, eyan if not being used but green if currently tuned. In the display above one VORTAC, ident HSM, shows a fix reference radial of 079 has been selected, The white line pointing straight up the screen shows the current track with range rings, 80am can be seen half way up the sereen, Just short of 80nm there is green arc across 7a10 Radio Navigationtrack, this indicates that the aireraftis in a climb or descent to f selected altitude and shows where the FMS has computed i ‘ill reach that altitude EFIS VOR and ILS Displays. VOR and 1LS information can be displayed in full rose format, ‘meaning, the whole compass rose is visible, or at expanded modes. VOR and ILS modes easily can be distinguished because the ND says, at the bottom left hand comer of the screen, which is displayed. The ILS mode is called the APR (approach) mode in some aizerat. ce) outs Expanded iL Ful Ross ILS ‘The VOR and ILS modes show cross track displacement in the same way a8 the NAV modes. In the VOR mode one dot of displacement ia 5", in the APR mode it is 1" and when an ‘expanded scale is shown in APR one dot is 0.5" Radio Navigation a4‘The EFIS PLAN Mode ‘The EFIS PLAN mode is the only mode that does not show an aircraft symbol of one sort or another. The screen should be Viewed as two separate parts, the upper part showing the aircraft heading or track against an expanded compass rose, the lower part showing a plan of the route always orientated to tne north. “The upper part ofthe screen shows heading or track “The ower part of the screen ‘shows the FMS route ‘orientated to True North Pian Figure 9-165 PLAN mode can be quickly identified by the true north arrow at the hottom right of the screen, no other BRIS mode has this EFIS Colour Coding Display features should be colour coded as follows: Warnings Red Flight envelope and system limi Red Cautions, abnormal sources “Amber/Yellow Earth ‘Tan/Brown Engaged modes Green Sky Cyan/Blue ILS deviation pointer Magenta Flight director bar Magenta/Green (i) Specified display features should be colour coded: Fixed reference symbols white Current data, values White Armed modes White Selected data, values Magenta’ Active route/fght plan Magenta 142 Radio Navigation‘accurate updates ue * The extensive use of the colour yellow for other than ccaution/ abnormal information is discouraged. * Magenta is intended to be associated with those analogue arash constie yo Rep ened ye Precipitation and turbulence areas should be coded as follows: Precipitation O-1mmm/hr Black 4 Green 4-12 + ‘Abes/ Yellow 12-50 * Red Above 50 * Magenta ‘Turbulence White or Magenta (iv) Background colour: Background colour may be used (Grey or other shade) to enhance display presentation, Navaid Priority ‘The FMS continuously computes the aireraft postion, using data from the IRS, VOR, DME and the ILS localiser as required. In route navigation the order of priority for selecting input data to obtain the mast accurate fx is a DME/DME ‘rosscut, then DME/VOR, then VOR/VOR and finaly the IRS. ‘The system will tune ite own DME frequencies in. sequence according tothe route information in the navigation database If the IRS is the only position reference the FMC cemputes its position from those positions with pre-calculated typical IRS. error value applied. When radio data is available the FMC computes a position taking account of the likely errors in both radio and IRS data, Because radio errors are small end the IRS fan drift miles over a long route this will be closer to the radio position than the IRS position, ‘The B737-800 has two IRS platforms but only takes data from the left hand IRS, unless i is feulty. No radio updates are available to the FMS whilst the aircraft is on the greund so the FMS position and IRS position are the same until the acraft is lined up for take-of. ‘As the TOGA button ia proaaed for tale off the FME react Ital to the threshold co-ordinates of the runway in use. After take- off DME/DME updates keep the FMS position updated. Unlike the Airbus, the B737 will not accept VOR information. ‘The B737 manual advises flight crews to monitor FMC position carefully particularly when approaching the destination as the FMC position may be based solely on IRS data and may not be fas accurate as desired. The accuracy of the FNC position 7448should be checked in the descent using radio aids and rac information if available, I the FMS is suddenly updated by DME/DME or GPS the BFIS MAP display will eadjust itself in a series of small steps. This phenomena is known as ‘Map Shift’ ETAs and ETOs Waypoint snd destination ETAs are calculated using a combination of the actual and forecast groundspeed. The Droportions used depend on the distance from the aircraft to the waypoint. ETAs for close waypoints use almost all actual groundspeed and distant points use almost all forecast speeds, in-between a mixture is used. Forecast winds for each leg can ‘be manually or automatically entered to increase the accuracy of the ETA, TAs at waypoints are sometimes referred to as Estimated ‘Times Overhead (BTOs) to distinguish between the time ‘overhead a waypoint and the time of arrival at destination. ‘The pilots compare the computed ETOs on the FMS and ND with the expected overhead times on the computer fight plan to assess whether the Might is on-time, behind or ahead of schedule. wate Tesve 5