Chapter 44

44
Nuclear Physics
CHAPTER OUTLINE
44.1 Some Properties of Nuclei

44.2 Nuclear Binding Energy
44.3 Nuclear Models
44.4 Radioactivity
44.5 The Decay Processes
44.6 Natural Radioactivity
44.7 Nuclear Reactions
44.8 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance and Magnetic Resonance Imaging
* An asterisk indicates a question or problem new to this edition.
ANSWERS TO OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
OQ44.1 Answer (b). The frequency increases linearly with the magnetic field

strength because the magnetic potential energy B is
proportional to the magnetic field strength.
95
OQ44.2 Answer (a). In the beta decay of 36 Kr, the emitted particles are an
electron, e, and an antineutrino, e . The emitted particles contain a
0
1
total charge of e and zero nucleons. Thus, to conserve both charge
95
and nucleon number, the daughter nucleus must be 37 Rb, which
contains Z = 37 protons and A Z = 95 37 = 58 neutrons. (Recall
that the electron and an antineutrino are produced by the decay on a
neutron into a proton.)
1099
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1100 Nuclear Physics
OQ44.3 Answer (c). The emitted particle is not a nucleon because there is no
change in nucleon number, and conservation of charge requires
15 = 16 + Z Z = 1, so the emitted particle is an electron. From
Equation 44.19, we see that 32
15 P decays by means of beta decay:
32
15 P 32
16 S + 10 e + e .
OQ44.4 Answer (d). In a large sample, one half of the radioactive nuclei
initially present remain in the sample after one half-life has elapsed.
Hence, the fraction of the original number of radioactive nuclei
remaining after n half-lives have elapsed is (1/2)n = 1/2n. In this case
the number of half-lives that have elapsed is t T1 2 = 14 d 3.6 d 4.
Therefore, the approximate fraction of the original sample that
remains undecayed is 1/24 = 1/16.
OQ44.5 (i) Answer (b). Since the samples are of the same radioactive
isotope, their half-lives are the same.
(ii) Answer (b). When prepared, sample G has twice the activity
(number of radioactive decays per second) of sample H. The
activity of a sample experiences exponential decay also;
therefore, after 5 half-lives, the activity of sample G is decreased
by a factor of 25, and after 5 half-lives the activity of sample H is
decreased by a factor of 25. So after 5 half-lives, the ratio of
activities is still 2:1.
OQ44.6 Answer (b). A gamma ray photon carries no nucleon number and no
charge, so there can be no change in these quantities.
OQ44.7 Answer (c). The nucleus 40
18 X contains A = 40 total nucleons, of which
Z = 18 are protons. The remaining A Z = 40 18 = 22 are neutrons.
OQ44.8 Answer (b). Conservation of nucleon number requires 144 = 140 + A
A = 4, and conservation of charge requires 60 = 58 + Z Z = 2.
The particle is 24 X = 24 He.
OQ44.9 Answer (d). The Q value for the reaction 94 Be + 24 He 12
6 C + 01 n is
(using masses from Table 44.2)
(
Q = ( m) c 2 = m 9 Be + m 4 He m 12 C mn c 2
4 2 6
)
= [ 9.012 182 u + 4.002 603 u
12.000 000 u 1.008 665 u ] ( 931.5 Mev u )
= 5.70 MeV
OQ44.10 (i) Answer (a). The liquid drop model gives a simpler account of a
nuclear fission reaction, including the energy released and the
probable fission product nuclei.
Chapter 44 1101
(ii) Answer (b). The shell model predicts magnetic moments by

necessarily describing the spin and orbital angular momentum
states of the nucleons.
(iii) Answer (b). Again, the shell model wins when it comes to
predicting the spectrum of an excited nucleus, as it allows only
quantized energy states, and thus only specific transitions.
OQ44.11 Answer (d). A free neutron can undergo beta decay into a proton
plus an electron and an antineutrino because its mass is greater than
the mass of a free proton. Energy conservation prevents a free proton
from decaying into a neutron plus a positron and a neutrino. (A
proton bound inside a nucleus can undergo beta decay into a neutron
if the final mass of the nucleus is less than that of the original
nucleus, as for example in the beta decay of sodium-22:
+
11 Na e + + 10 Ne. )
22 22
OQ44.12 Answer (d). The reaction energy is the amount of energy released as
a result of a nuclear reaction. Equation 44.29 in the text implies that
the reaction energy is (initial mass final mass) c2. The Q-value is
taken as positive for an exothermic reaction.
OQ44.13 Answer (c). To conserve nucleon number (mass number), it is
necessary that A + 4 = 234, or A = 230. Conservation of charge
(atomic number) demands that Z + 2 = 90, or Z = 88.
ANSWERS TO CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS
CQ44.1 The alpha particle and the daughter nucleus carry equal amounts of
momentum in opposite directions. Since kinetic energy can be
p2
written as , the small-mass alpha particle has much more of the
2m
decay energy than the recoiling nucleus.
CQ44.2 The statement is false. Both patterns show monotonic decrease over
time, but with very different shapes. For radioactive decay,
maximum activity occurs at time zero. Cohorts of people now living
will be dying most rapidly perhaps forty years from now. Everyone
now living will be dead within less than two centuries, while the
mathematical model of radioactive decay tails off exponentially
forever. A radioactive nucleus never gets old. It has constant
probability of decay however long it has existed.
CQ44.3 An alpha particle contains two protons and two neutrons. Because
the nuclei of heavy hydrogen (D and T) contain only one proton, they
cannot emit an alpha particle.
CQ44.4 In alpha decay, there are only two final particles, the alpha particle
and the daughter nucleus. There are also two conservation
principles, energy and momentum, that apply to the process. As a
result, the alpha particle must be ejected with a discrete energy to
satisfy both conservation principles. Beta decay, however, is a three-
particle decay involving the beta particle, the neutrino (or
antineutrino), and the daughter nucleus. As a result, the energy and
momentum can be shared in a variety of ways among the three
particles while still satisfying the two conservation principles. This
explains why the beta particle can have a continuous range of
energies.
CQ44.5 Carbon dating cannot generally be used to estimate the age of a rock,
because the rock was not alive to receive carbon, and hence
radioactive carbon-14, from the environment. Only the ages of
objects that were once alive can be estimated with carbon dating.
CQ44.6 The larger rest energy of the neutron means that a free proton in
space will not spontaneously decay into a neutron and a positron.
When the proton is in the nucleus, however, you must consider the
total rest energy of the nucleus. If it is energetically favorable for the
nucleus to have one fewer proton and one more neutron, then the
process of positron decay will occur to achieve this lower energy.
CQ44.7 I refers to nuclear spin quantum number.
5 5 5 3
(a) Iz may have 2I + 1 = 2 + 1 = 6 values for I = , namely , ,
2 2 2 2
1 1 3 5
, , , and .
2 2 2 2
(b) For I = 3, there are 2I + 1 = 2(3) + 1 = 7 possible values for Iz.
CQ44.8 Extra neutrons are required to overcome the increasing electrostatic
repulsion of the protons. The neutrons participate in the net
attractive effect of the nuclear force, but feel no Coulomb repulsion.
CQ44.9 Nuclei with more nucleons than bismuth-209 are unstable because
the electrical repulsion forces among all of the protons is stronger
than the nuclear attractive force between nucleons.
CQ44.10 The nuclear force favors the formation of neutron-proton pairs, so a
stable nucleus cannot be too far away from having equal numbers of
protons and neutrons. This effect sets the upper boundary of the
zone of stability on the neutron-proton diagram. All of the protons
repel one another electrically, so a stable nucleus cannot have too
many protons. This effect sets the lower boundary of the zone of
stability.
Chapter 44 1103
CQ44.11 Nucleus Y will be more unstable. The nucleus with the higher
binding energy requires more energy to be disassembled into its
constituent parts and has less available energy to release in a decay.
CQ44.12 After one half-life, one half the radioactive atoms have decayed.
After the second half-life, one half of the remaining atoms have
1 1 3
decayed. Therefore, + = of the original radioactive atoms have
2 4 4
decayed after two half-lives.
CQ44.13 Long-lived progenitors at the top of each of the three natural
radioactive series are the sources of our radium. As an example,
thorium-232 with a half-life of 14 Gyr produces radium-228 and
radium-224 at stages in its series of decays.
CQ44.14 Yes. The daughter nucleus can be left in its ground state or
sometimes in one of a set of excited states. If the energy carried by
the alpha particle is mysteriously low, the daughter nucleus can
quickly emit the missing energy in a gamma ray.
CQ44.15 The alpha particle does not make contact with the nucleus because of
electrostatic repulsion between the positively-charged nucleus and
the +2e alpha particle. To drive the alpha particle into the nucleus
would require extremely high kinetic energy.
CQ44.16 The samples would have started with more carbon-14 than we first
thought. We would increase our estimates of their ages.
CQ44.17 The photon and the neutrino are similar in that both particles have
zero charge and little or no mass. (The photon has zero mass, but
evidence suggests that neutrinos have a very small mass.) Both
particles are capable of transferring both energy and momentum.
They differ in that the photon has spin 1 and is involved in
electromagnetic interactions, while the neutrino has spin 21 , interacts
through the weak interaction, and is closely related to beta decay.
SOLUTIONS TO END-OF-CHAPTER PROBLEMS
Section 44.1 Some Properties of Nuclei

P44.1 The average nuclear radii are r = r0A1/3, where r0 = 1.2 1015 m = 1.2 fm
and A is the mass number.
r = ( 1.2 fm ) ( 2 )
13
(a) For 12 H , = 1.5 fm
r = ( 1.2 fm ) ( 60 )
13
(b) For 60
27 Co , = 4.7 fm
r = ( 1.2 fm ) ( 197 )
197 13
(c) For 79 Au , = 7.0 fm
r = ( 1.2 fm ) ( 239 )
239 13
(d) For 94 Pu , = 7.4 fm
P44.2 (a) Approximate nuclear radii are given by r = r0A1/3. Thus, if a

nucleus of atomic number A has a radius approximately two-
thirds that of 230
88 Ra, we should have
2
r0 ( 230 )
13
r = r0 A1 3 =
3
23 8
or A = 3 ( 230 ) = ( 230) 68
3 27
68
(b) One possible nucleus is 30 Zn .
(c) Isotopes of other elements to the left and right of zinc in

the periodic table (from manganese to bromine) may
have the same mass number.
P44.3 (a) The initial kinetic energy of the alpha particle must equal the
electrostatic potential energy at the distance of closest approach.
ke qQ
K i = Uf =
rmin
k qQ ( 8.99 10 N m C ) ( 2 ) ( 79 ) ( 1.60 10 C )
9 2 2 19 2
rmin = e =
Ki ( 0.500 MeV ) (1.60 1013 J/MeV )
= 4.55 1013 m = 455 1015 m = 455 fm
(b) Following the same logic as in part (a),
1 k qQ
Ki = m vi2 = e
2 rmin
Chapter 44 1105
15
Now, for rmin = 300 fm = 300 10 m, solving for the initial
velocity gives
2ke qQ
vi =
m rmin
2 ( 8.99 109 N m 2 / C2 ) ( 2 ) ( 79 ) ( 1.602 1019 C )

2
=
(6.645 10 27
kg ) ( 300 1015 m )
vi = 6.05 106 m/s
P44.4 An iron nucleus (in hemoglobin) has a few more neutrons than
protons, but in a typical water molecule there are eight neutrons and
ten protons. So protons and neutrons are nearly equally numerous in
your body, each contributing mass (say) 35 kg:
1 nucleon
(a) 35 kg 27 ~ 1028 protons ,
1.67 10 kg
(b) and ~ 1028 neutrons .

(c) The electron number is precisely equal to the proton number,
~ 1028 electrons .
65
P44.5 (a) 29 Cu has an A number of 65, so the radius of its nucleus is
r = r0 A1 3 = ( 1.2 fm ) ( 65 )
13
= 4.8 fm
(b) The volume of the nucleus, assumed to be spherical in shape, is
4 4 4
V = r 3 = r03 A = ( 1.2 1015 m ) ( 65 )
3
3 3 3
= 4.7 1043 m 3
(c) The density of the nucleus is
m Am 3m 3 ( 1.66 1027 kg )
= = = =
V 4 r 3 A 4 r03 4 ( 1.2 1015 m )
3
3 0
= 2.3 1017 kg/m 3
P44.6 From ME = n V = n (4 r 3 3) , we find
3 ( 5.98 1024 kg )
13 13
3 ME
r= = 3
= 184 m
4 n 4 ( 2.30 10 kg/m )
17
P44.7 The number of neutrons in a star of two solar masses is

2 ( 1.99 1030 kg )
A= 27
= 2.38 1057 neutrons
1.67 10 kg neutron
Therefore,
r = r0 A1 3 = ( 1.20 1015 m ) ( 2.38 1057 )

13
= 1.6 10 4 m = 16 km
P44.8 (a) The electric potential energy between two protons is
q1q2 e2
U = ke = ke
r r
( 1.60 1019 C )2
= ( 8.99 10 N m C )
9 2 2
15

4.00 10 m
1 eV 1 MeV
19
1.60 10 J 106 eV
= 0.360 MeV
(b) Figure P44.8 shows the highest point in the curve at about
4 MeV, a factor of ten higher than the value in (a).
P44.9 By energy conservation,

1 2
mv = qV: 2mV = qr 2 B2
2
By Newtons second law,
mv 2 2mV
= qvB: r=
r qB2
Comparing radii for particles with different masses but with the same
charge, we find that
r2 2m2 V qB2 m2
= =
r1 2m1 V qB2 m1
12
For C: m1 = 12 u and r1 = 7.89 cm
13
For C:
r2 r2 m2 13
= = = 8.21 cm
r1 7.89 cm m1 12
Chapter 44 1107
P44.10 By energy conservation,

1 2
mv = qV: 2mV = qr 2 B2
2
By Newtons second law,
mv 2 2mV
= qvB: r=
r qB2
Comparing radii for particles with different masses but with the same
charge, we find that
r2 2m2 V qB2 m2 m2
= = r2 = r1
r1 2m1 V qB 2
m1 m1
*P44.11 (a) The magnitude of the maximum Coulomb force is given by

ke q1q2
Fmax = 2
rmin
( 8.99 10 N m 2 C2 ) ( 2 )( 6 )( 1.60 1019 C )

9 2
=
(1.00 10 m )
14 2
= 27.6 N
(b) From Newtons second law,
Fmax 27.6 N
amax = = 27
= 4.16 1027 m/s 2
m 6.64 10 kg
(c) The potential energy of the system at the time of the maximum
force is
ke q1q2
U max =
rmin
( 8.99 109 N m 2 C2 ) ( 2 )( 6 )( 1.60 1019 C )2

=

( 1.00 10 m )
14

1 eV 1 MeV
19
1.60 10 J 106 eV
= 1.73 MeV
P44.12 We obtain the alpha particles momentum from

1 ( mv )
2
1
E = 7.70 MeV = mv 2 = mv = 2mE
2 2 m
(a) The de Broglie wavelength of the alpha particle is (mass from
Table 44.1)
h h
= =
m v 2m E
6.626 1034 J s
=
2 ( 6.64 1027 kg ) ( 7.70 106 eV ) ( 1.60 1019 J eV )
= 5.18 1015 m = 5.18 fm
(b) Since is much less than the distance of closest approach, the
alpha particle may be considered a particle.
P44.13 The volume of each of the golf balls is
4 4 4
r = ( 0.021 5 m ) = 4.16 105 m 3
3
V=
3 3
We take the nuclear density from Example 44.2. Then, the mass of a
golf-ball sized nuclear matter is
m = V = ( 2.3 1017 kg/m 3 ) ( 4.16 105 m 3 ) = 9.6 1012 kg
and the gravitational force between two such balls is
2 (
9.6 1012 kg )
2
m1m2
F = G 2 = ( 6.67 10 N m / kg )
11 2
r (1.00 m )2
F = 6.1 1015 N toward each other.
P44.14 (a) Let V represent the volume of the tank. The number of molecules
present is
N = nN A =
PV
=
(1.013 105 N/m2 )V (6.022 1023 )
RT ( 8.315 J/mol K )( 273 K )
= ( 2.69 1025 m 3 ) V
The volume of one molecule is

3
8 1.00 10 m
10
4
2 r3 = = 1.047 1030 m 3
3 3 2
Chapter 44 1109
The volume of all the molecules is
( 2.69 10 25
m 3 ) V ( 1.047 1030 m 3 ) = 2.82 10 5 V
So the fraction of the volume occupied by the hydrogen
molecules is 2.82 10 5. An atom is precisely one half of a
molecule.
(b) The fraction occupied by the nucleus is found from
4 3
r 3
nuclear volume r
= 3 =
atomic volume 4 (d / 2)3 d / 2
3
3
1.20 1015 m
= = 1.38 1014
0.500 1010 m
In linear dimension, the nucleus is small inside the atom in the
way a fat strawberry is small inside the width of the Grand
Canyon. In terms of volume, the nucleus is really small.
Section 44.2 Nuclear Binding Energy

P44.15 Using Equation 44.2, the binding energy per nucleon is
Eb ZM ( H ) + Nmn M ( Z X ) 931.5 MeV

A
=
A A u
Using atomic masses as given in Table 44.2,
(a) For 21 H:
Eb 1( 1.007825u ) + 1( 1.008665u ) 2.014102u
=
A 2
0.002388u 931.5 MeV
= = 1.11 MeV
2 u
(b) For 24 He:
Eb 2 ( 1.007825u ) + 2 ( 1.008665u ) 4.002603u
=
A 4
0.030377 u 931.5 MeV
= = 7.07 MeV
4 u
56
(c) For 26 Fe:
Eb 26 ( 1.007825u ) + 30 ( 1.008665u ) 55.934942u
=
A 56
0.528458 u 931.5 MeV
= = 8.79 MeV
56 u
238
(d) For 92 U:
Eb 92 ( 1.007825 u ) + 146 ( 1.008665 u ) 238.050783 u
=
A 238
1.934207 u 931.5 MeV
= = 7.57 MeV
238 u
P44.16 We use Equation 44.2,
Eb ( MeV ) = ZM ( H ) + Nmn M ( AZ X ) ( 931.494 MeV/u )

23
Then, for 11 Na ,
Eb ( 23
11 Na ) = 11M ( H ) + 12mn M ( 11 Na ) ( 931.494 MeV/u )
23

= 11( 1.007 825 u ) + 12 ( 1.008 665 u ) 22.989 769 u

( 931.494 MeV/u )
= 186.565 MeV
Eb 186.565 MeV
and = = 8.11 MeV
A 23
23
For 12 Mg ,
Eb = Eb ( 12
23
Mg )
= 12M ( H ) + 11mn M ( 12
23
Mg ) ( 931.494 MeV/u )
= 12 ( 1.007 825 u ) + 11( 1.008 665 u ) 22.994 124 u
( 931.494 MeV/u )
= 181.726 MeV
Eb 181.726 MeV
and = = 7.90 MeV
A 23
The difference is
Eb Eb ( 11 Na ) Eb ( 12 Mg )
23 23
=
A A
= 8.11 MeV 7.90 MeV = 0.210 MeV
Chapter 44 1111
The binding energy per nucleon is greater for 23 11 Na by 0.210 MeV .

23
There is less proton repulsion in 11 Na; it is the more stable nucleus.
P44.17 From Equation 44.2, the binding energy of a nucleus is
Eb ( MeV ) = ZM ( H ) + Nmn M ( AZ X ) ( 931.494 MeV/u )

15
For 8 O:
Eb = [ 8 ( 1.007825 u ) + 7 ( 1.008665 u ) 15.003065 u ]

( 931.494MeV/u ) = 111.96 MeV
15
For 7 N:
Eb = [ 7 ( 1.007825 u ) + 8 ( 1.008665 u ) 15.000109 u ]

( 931.494MeV/u ) = 115.49 MeV
15
Therefore, the binding energy is greater for 7 N by 3.54 MeV.
P44.18 We find the mass difference, M = ZmH + Nmn M, and then the
E M ( 931.5 )
binding energy per nucleon, b = , in units of MeV. The
A A
results are tabulated below.
Eb
Nuclei Z N M in u M in u in MeV
A
55
Mn 25 30 54.938 050 0.517 5 8.765
56
Fe 26 30 55.934 942 0.528 46 8.790
59
Co 27 32 58.933 200 0.555 35 8.768
Eb
56 Fe has a greater than its neighbors.
A
139
P44.19 (a) The isobar with the highest neutron-to-proton ratio is 55 Cs ; the
N A Z 139 55 84
ratio is = = = = 1.53
Z Z 55 55
139
(b) 57 La is stable, so has the largest binding energy per nucleon
(8.378 MeV).
(c) The isobars are close in Figure 44.6, the plot of binding energy per
nucleon versus mass number, and there is not much detail, so we
may assume they have about the same binding energy, or missing
mass. However, neutrons have more mass than protons, so the
isobar with more neutrons (thus, fewer protons) should be more
139
massive: 55 Cs .
P44.20 (a) The radius of the 40Ca nucleus is,

R = r0 A1 3 = ( 1.20 1015 m ) ( 40 )
13
= 4.10 1015 m
The energy required to overcome electrostatic repulsion is
3keQ 2 3 ( 8.99 10 N m /C ) 20 ( 1.602 10 C )

2
9 2 2 19
U= =
5R 5 ( 4.10 1015 m )
= 1.35 1011 J = 84.2 MeV
(b) The binding energy of 40

20 Ca (Z = 20, N = A Z = 20) is (using
Equation 44.2 and masses from Table 44.2),

Eb = 20 ( 1.007 825 u ) + 20 ( 1.008 665 u ) 39.962 591 u
( 931.5 MeV/u )
= 342 MeV
(c) The nuclear force is so strong that the binding energy greatly
exceeds the minimum energy needed to overcome electrostatic
repulsion.
43
P44.21 Removal of a neutron from 20 Ca would result in the residual nucleus,
42
20Ca . If the required separation energy is En , the overall process can
be described by
mass ( 43
20 Ca ) + En = mass ( 20 Ca ) + mass ( n )
42
En = mass ( 42
20 Ca ) + mass ( n ) mass ( 20 Ca )
43
From Table 44.2,

En = ( 41.958 618 u + 1.008 665 u 42.958 767 u )
( 931.5 MeV/u )
= 7.93 MeV
Chapter 44 1113
Section 44.3 Nuclear Models

P44.22 The curve of binding energy shows that a heavy nucleus of mass
number A = 200 has binding energy about
MeV
7.8 nucleon (200 nucleons) 1.56 GeV
Thus, it is less stable than its potential fission products, two

middleweight nuclei of A = 100, together having binding energy
2(8.7 MeV/nucleon)(100 nucleons) 1.74 GeV
Fission then releases about
1.74 GeV 1.56 GeV ~ 200 MeV
ANS. FIG. P44.22
P44.23 (a) In Equation 44.3, the first or Volume term is,

E1 = C1A = (15.7 MeV)(56) = 879 MeV
The second, or Surface term is,
E2 = C2 A 2 3 = ( 17.8 MeV ) ( 56 ) = 260 MeV
23
The third, or Coulomb term is,

Z ( Z 1) ( 26) ( 25)
E3 = C3 = ( 0.71 MeV )
A 13
( 56)1 3
= 121 MeV
and the fourth, or Asymmetry term is,
E4 = C4
( A 2Z )2 = ( 23.6 MeV )
( 56 52 )2 = 6.74 MeV
A 56
The binding energy is then

Z ( Z 1) ( A 2Z ) 2
Eb = C1 A C2 A 23
C3 13
C4
A A
= 879 MeV 260 MeV 121 MeV 6.74 MeV = 491 MeV
(b) The percentages for each of the terms is as follows
E1 E
term1 : = 179% ; term 2 : 2 = 53.0% ;
Eb Eb
E3 E
term 3: = 24.6% ; term 4: 4 = 1.37%
Eb Eb
P44.24 (a) Nucleons on the surface have fewer neighbors with which to
interact. The surface term is negative to reduce the estimate
from the volume term, which assumes that all nucleons have
the same number of neighbors.
(b) The volume to surface ratio for a sphere of radius r is

Volume ( 4 3 ) r
3
1
= = r
Area 4 r 2
3
The volume to surface ratio for a cube of side length L is
Volume L3 1
= 2 = L
Area 6L 6
The sphere has a larger ratio to its characteristic length, so it

would represent a larger binding energy and be more plausible
for a nuclear shape.
Section 44.4 Radioactivity

*P44.25 We use Equation 44.7 for the exponential decay rate of the sample,
R = R0 e t , where
ln 2
= = 0.0267 h 1
26.0 h
Since we require a 90% decrease in activity,
R
= 0.100 = e t ln ( 0.100 ) = t
R0
Chapter 44 1115
then,
2.30
t= = 86.4 h
0.026 7/h
P44.26 (a) From R = R0 e t , the decay constant is
1 R 1 10.0 mCi 2 1
= ln 0 = ln = 5.58 10 h
t R 4.00 h 8.00 mCi
= 1.55 105 s 1
(b) The half-life is
ln 2
T1 2 = = 12.4 h

(c) The number of original atoms can be found if we convert the
initial activity from curies into becquerels (decays per second):
1 Ci 3.70 l010 Bq.
R0 = 10.0 mCi = ( 10.0 103 Ci ) ( 3.70 1010 Bq/Ci )
= 3.70 108 Bq
Since R0 = N 0 , the original number of nuclei is
R0 3.70 108 decays/s

N0 = = = 2.39 1013 atoms
1.55 10 s
5
(d) The decay rate after thirty hours is

R = R0 e t = ( 10.0 mCi ) exp ( 5.58 102 h 1 ) ( 30.0 h )
= 1.88 mCi
P44.27 The decay law is
dN/dt = N
Then, the decay constant is
1 dN 1 6.00 1011 nuclei
= = 1.00 1015 nuclei
N dt s
= 6.00 10 4 s 1
and the half-life is
ln2
T1/2 = = 1.16 103 s

(This is 19.3 minutes.)
P44.28 According to Equation 44.7, the time dependence of the decay rate is
R = R0 e t . From this equation we can derive a relation between the
change in decay rate over the time interval t to the decay constant.
We start with R = R0 e t . Then, rearranging and taking the natural log
of both sides gives
R R
e t =
R0
( )
ln e t = ln
R0
R R
or t = ln = ln 0
R0 R
Solving,
1 R0
= ln
t R
ln 2
Now, because = , we can relate the time interval t to the half-
T1/2
life:
1 R0 ln 2 1 R
= ln = ln 0
t R T1/2 ( ln 2 ) t R
1 1 R
= ln 0
T1/2 ( ln 2 ) t R
T1/2 =
( ln 2 ) t
ln ( R0 R )
P44.29 The number of nuclei that decay during the interval will be
(
N = N 1 N 2 = N 0 e t1 e t2 )
First we find the decay constant :
ln 2 0.693
= = = 0.0107 h 1 = 2.97 106 s 1
T1 2 64.8 h
Now we find N0:
N0 =
R0
=
( 40.0 Ci ) 3.70 104 s 1
2.97 106 s 1 Ci
= 4.98 1011 nuclei
Chapter 44 1117
Substituting in these values,
N 1 N 2 = ( 4.98 1011 ) e ( ln 2 64.8 h )(10.0 h ) e ( ln 2 64.8 h )(12.0 h )
N 1 N 2 = 9.47 109 nuclei

P44.30 The number of nuclei that decay during the interval will be
(
N 1 N 2 = N 0 e t1 e t2 )
We wish to write this expression in terms of the half-life T1/2 and the
initial decay rate R0. First, from the definition of , we have
ln 2 ln 2 ( t T1 2 ) t T
= e t = e = 2 12
T1 2
Now we find N0:

R0 R0T1 2
N0 = =
ln 2
Substituting in these expressions, we find that
R0T1 2 R0T1 2
N1 N 2 =
ln 2
(e t1
)
e t2 =
ln 2
(2 t1 T1 2
2
t2 T1 2
)
P44.31 (a) The decay constant is
ln 2 ln 2
= = = 0.086 2 d 1
T1 2 8.04 d
0.086 2 1 d 3 1
= = 3.59 10 h
d 24 h
9.98 107 1 h 7 1
= = 9.98 10 s
h 3600 s
(b) From R = N, the number of radioactive nuclei in a 6.40 mCi of 131 I is
R 6.40 103 Ci 3.70 1010 s 1
N= = 7 1 = 2.37 1014 nuclei
9.98 10 s Ci
(c) From Equation 44.7, R = N, the decay rate R also undergoes
exponential decay; thus, after one half-life, the rate drops from R0
to R0/2. The number of half-lives that have elapsed after 40.2 d is
n = t/T1/2 = 40.2 d/8.04 d = 5, so the remaining activity of the
sample is
R0 R0 6.40 mCi
R= = = = 0.200 mCi
2n 25 32
P44.32 (a) From Equation 44.6, the fraction remaining at t = 5.00 yr will be
N
= e ( 5.00 yr ) ln 2 (12.33 yr ) = 0.755
t ln 2 T1 2
= e t = e
N0
(b) At t = 10.0 yr,
N
=e (
t ln 2 T1 2 10.0 yr ) ln 2 ( 12.33 yr )
= e t = e = 0.570
N0
(c) At t = 123.3 yr,
N
=e (
t ln 2 T1 2 123.3 yr ) ln 2 ( 12.33 yr )
= e t = e = e 10ln 2 = 9.766 104
N0
(d) No. The decay model depends on large numbers of nuclei.

After some long but finite time, only one undecayed nucleus
will remain. It is likely that the decay of this final nucleus
will occur before infinite time.
T1/2 ln 2
P44.33 The number remaining after time = is
2 2
1/2
1 N0
N = N 0 e t = N 0 e ( ln 2/2 ) = N 0 ( e ln 2 )
1/2
= N0 =
2 2
The number decaying in this first half of the first half-life is
N0 1 2
N first half = N 0 = 1 N0 = 1 N0
2 2 2
=
2
2
( 2 1 N0 )
N0
The number remaining after time T1/2 is , so the number decaying
2
in the second half of the first half-life is
N0 N0 1 1 2 1
N second half = = N0 = N0
2 2 2 2 2 2
=
1
2
( 2 1 N0 )
The ratio required is then
N first half = 2
2
2 1 N0 ( )
= = 2 = 1.41
N second half = 1
2
2 1 N0 ( )
Chapter 44 1119
dN 2
P44.34 (a) = rate of change of N2
dt
= rate of production of N2 rate of decay of N2
= rate of decay of N1 rate of decay of N2
= 1 N 1 2 N 2
(b) From the trial solution,
N 10 1 2 t
N 2 (t ) =
1 2
e ( e 1t )
dN 2 N

dt 1 2
(
= 10 1 2 e 2 t + 1e 1t ) [1]
dN 2
dt
N
(
+ 2 N 2 = 10 1 2 e 2 t + 1e 1t
1 2
)
N
+ 10 1 2 e 2 t 2 e 1t
1 2
( )
N
= 10 1 ( 1 2 ) e 1t = 1 N 1
1 2
dN 2
So = 1 N 1 2 N 2 as required.
dt
(c) The functions plotted in ANS. FIG. P44.34(c) are
Po nuclei: N 1 ( t ) = 1 000e ( ln 2 3.10 min ) t
Pb nuclei: N 2 ( t ) = 1 130.8 e ( ln 2 26.8 min ) t e ( ln 2 3.10 min ) t
ANS. FIG. P44.34(c)

(d) From the graph, tm 10.9 min
dN 2
(e) From equation [1], = 0 if
dt
2 e 2 t = 1e 1t
1
e( 1 2 )t =
2
ln ( 1 2 )
Thus, t = tm = .
1 2
(f) With 1 = ln 2 ( 3.10 min ) , 2 = ln 2 ( 26.8 min ) , this formula gives
ln ( 1 2 )
tm =
1 2
ln 2 ( 3.10 min ) 26.8 min

ln ln
ln 2 ( 26.8 min ) 3.10 min
= =
ln 2 ln 2 1 1
ln 2
3.10 min 26.8 min 3.10 min 26.8 min
= 10.9 min
This result is in agreement with the result of part (d).
Section 44.5 The Decay Processes

P44.35 Atomic masses are given in Table 44.2.
(a) For this e+ decay,
Q = ( MX MY 2me ) c 2
= 39.962 591 u 39.963 999 u 2 ( 0.000 549 u )
( 931.5 MeV/u )
Q = 2.33 MeV
Since Q < 0, the decay cannot occur spontaneously.
Chapter 44 1121
(b) For this alpha decay,

Q = ( MX MY 2me ) c 2
= [ 97.905 287 u 4.002 603 u 93.905 088 u ]
( 931.5 MeV/u )
Q = 2.24 MeV
Since Q < 0, the decay cannot occur spontaneously.

(c) For this alpha decay,
Q = ( MX MY 2me ) c 2
= [ 143.910 083 u 4.002 603 u 139.905 434 u ]
( 931.5 MeV/u )
Q = 1.91 MeV
Since Q > 0, the decay can occur spontaneously.

P44.36 (a) The reaction is 3
1 H 23 He + e + .
Adding one electron, the reaction becomes
3
1 H nucleus + e 23 He nucleus + 2e +
Ignoring the slight difference in ionization energies, we have
3
1 H atom 23 He atom +
(b) The total energy released is the Q value:
Q = ( MH-3 MHe-3 ) c 2
Q = ( 3.016049 u 3.016029 u ) ( 931.5 MeV u )
= 0.0186 MeV = 18.6 keV
P44.37 From Equation 44.21, carbon-14 undergoes beta decay:
14
6 C 14
7 N + e +
Adding six electrons to each side, this is the same as
14
6 C atom 14
7 N atom +
The Q value is
Q = ( MC-14 MN-14 m ) c 2
= [14.003 242 u 14.003 074 u 0 ]( 931.5 MeV/u )
= 0.156 MeV
P44.38 Total Z and A are conserved.

(a) A gamma ray has zero charge and it contains no protons or
neutrons. So for a gamma ray Z = 0 and A = 0. Keeping the total
values of Z and A for the system conserved requires Z = 28 and A
= 65 for X. With this atomic number it must be nickel, and the
nucleus must be in an excited state, so X is 65
28 Ni .
(b) An alpha particle, = 24 He, has Z = 2 and A = 4. Total initial Z is

84, and total initial A is 215, so for X we require
Z = 84 = ZX + 2 ZX = 82 Pb, and
211
A = 215 = AX + 4 AX = 211, X is 82 Pb .
(c) A positron, e+ = 01 e , has charge the same as a nucleus with Z = 1.

A neutrino, 00 , has no charge. Neither contains any protons or
neutrons. So X must have by conservation Z = 26 + 1 + 0 = 27; so,
55
X is Co. And A = 55 + 0 + 0 = 55: X is 27 Co .
P44.39 Atomic masses are given in Table 44.2. We calculate the energy
released by the reaction, its Q-value, as
Q = ( MU-238 MTh-234 MHe-4 ) c 2
Q = ( 238.050783 234.043596 4.002603 ) u ( 931.5 MeV u )

= 4.27 MeV
P44.40 (a) The decay constant is = ln2/10 h = 0.0693/h. The number of
(
parent nuclei is given by N P = N P, 0 e t = 1.00 106 e 0.0693t , where )
t is in hours.
The number of daughter nuclei is equal to the number of missing
parent nuclei,
( )( )
N d = N P, 0 N P, 0 e t = 1.00 106 1 e 0.0693t , where t is in hours.
(b) The number of daughter nuclei starts from zero at t = 0. The

number of stable product nuclei always increases with time and
asymptotically approaches 1.00 106 as t increases without limit.
(c) The minimum number of daughter nuclei is zero at t = 0. The

maximum number of daughter nuclei asymptotically approaches
1.00 106 as t increases without limit.
Chapter 44 1123
(d) The rate of change is

dN d
= ( 1.00 106 ) (0 + 0.0693 e 0.0693t ) = 6.93 10 4 e 0.0693t
dt
dN d
where is in decays per hour and t is in hours. The rate of
dt
change has its maximum value, 6.93 104 h1, at t = 0, after which
the rate decreases more and more, approaching zero as t
increases without limit.
P44.41 (a) The reaction for one particle is e + p n + .
(b) For nuclei, 15

8 O + e 15
7 N + .
Add seven electrons to both sides to obtain
15
8 O atom 15
7 N atom +
From Table 44.2 of atomic masses,
Q = ( 15.003065 u 15.000109 u ) ( 931.5 MeV u )
= 2.75 MeV
P44.42 (a) The number of carbon atoms in the sample is
0.0210 g 6.02 1023 atoms
NC = = 1.05 1021
12.0 g mol mol
(b) 1 in 7.70 1011 carbon atoms is a 14C atom. Then,

1
( N 0 )C-14 = 1.05 1021 7.70 1011 = 1.37 109
(c) The decay constant for 14C is

ln 2 1 yr
C-14 = = 1.21 104 yr 1
5 730 yr 3.16 10 s
7
= 3.83 1012 s 1
(d) We use R = N = N 0 e t . At t = 0,
7 ( 86400 s )
R0 = N 0 = ( 3.83 1012 s 1 ) ( 1.37 109 )
1 week
= 3.17 103 decays week
837
(e) At time t, R= = 951 decays week .
0.880
(f) Taking logarithms,

R 1 R
ln = t so t= ln
R0 R0
and
1 951
t= ln 3
= 9.95 103 yr
4
1.21 10 yr 1
3.17 10
Section 44.6 Natural Radioactivity

P44.43 (a) The conversion is
4.00 1012 Ci 3.70 1010 Bq 1.00 103 L
4.00 pCi L =
1L 1 Ci 1 m3
= 148 Bq m 3
(b) Each cubic meter of air contains

R T1 2 3.82 d 86 400 s
N= = R = ( 148 Bq/m 3 )

ln 2 ln2 1 d
= 7.05 107 atoms/m 3

(c) The density of radon in each cubic meter of air is
1 mol 222 g
density = ( 7.05 107 atoms/m 3 )
6.02 10 atoms 1 mol
23
= 2.60 1014 g/m 3
Since air has a density of 1.20 kg/m3, the fraction consisting of

radon is
2.60 1014 g/m 3
fraction = = 2.17 1017
1 200 g/m 3
P44.44 The number of radon atoms remaining is
( ln 2 ) t T1 2
N = N 0e
And the fraction remaining is
N ( ln 2 ) t T1 2
= e t = e
N0
Chapter 44 1125
(a) With T1/2 = 3.82 d and t = 7.00 d,

N
= e ( ln 2 )(7.00) ( 3.82 ) = 0.281
N0
(b) When t = 1.00 yr = 365.25 d,
N
= e ( ln 2 )( 365.25) ( 3.82 ) = 1.65 1029
N0
(c) Radon is continuously created as one daughter in the series of

decays starting from the long-lived isotope 238U.
P44.45 We find the chemical name by looking up Z in a periodic table. The
values in the shaded boxes (235 U and 207 Pb) in Figure P44.45 were
given; all others have been filled in as part of the solution shown in
ANS. FIG. P44.45 below.
ANS. FIG. P44.45
P44.46 (a) Let N be the number of 238U nuclei and N be 206Pb nuclei.
Then N = N 0 e t and N0 = N + N so N = ( N + N ) e t or
N
e t = 1 + . Taking logarithms,
N
N ln 2
t = ln 1 + where =
N T1 2
Thus,
T1 2 N
t= ln 1 +
ln 2 N
N
If = 1.164 for the 238
U 206
Pb chain with T1/2 = 4.47 109 yr,
N
the age is:
4.47 109 yr 1
t= ln 1 + = 4.00 10 yr
9
ln 2 1.164
N N N e t
(b) From above, e t = 1 + . Solving for gives = .
N N N 1 e t
With T = 4.00 109 yr and T1/2 = 7.04 108 yr for the 235
U 207
Pb
chain,
ln 2 ( ln 2 ) ( 4.00 109 yr )
t = t= = 3.938
T1 2 7.04 108 yr
N
= 0.019 9 for the U to Pb chain.
235 207
and
N
With T = 4.00 109 yr and T1/2 = 1.41 1010 yr for the
232
Th 208
Pb chain,
( ln 2 ) ( 4.00 109 yr )
t = = 0.196 6
1.41 10 yr 10
N
= 4.60 for the Th to Pb chain.
232 208
and
N
Chapter 44 1127
Section 44.7 Nuclear Reactions

P44.47 Neglect recoil of product nucleus (i.e., do not require momentum
conservation for the system of colliding particles). The energy balance
gives Kemerging = K incident + Q. To find Q,
Q = ( MH + MAl ) ( MSi + mn ) c 2
Q = [( 1.007825 + 26.981539 ) ( 26.986705 + 1.008665 )] u
( 931.5 MeV u )
= 5.59 MeV
Thus, Kemerging = 6.61 MeV 5.59 MeV = 1.02 MeV .
P44.48 (a) The Q value of the reaction is given by
Q = M 9 Be + M 4 He M 12 C mn c 2
Q = [ 9.012182 u + 4.002603 u
12.000000 u 1.008665 u ]
( 931.5 MeV u )
= 5.70 MeV
(b) For this reaction,
Q = 2M 2 H M 3 He mn
Q = [ 2 ( 2.014102 u ) 3.016029 u 1.008665 u ]

( 931.5 MeV u )
= 3.27 MeV
(c) The reaction in part (b) is exothermic because the Q value is

positive.
P44.49 Total A and total Z are conserved.
21
(a) For X, A = 24 + 1 4 = 21 and Z = 12 + 0 2 = 10, so X is 10 Ne .
(b) A = 235 + 1 90 2 = 144 and Z = 92 + 0 38 0 = 54,

144
so X is 54 Xe .
(c) A = 2 2 = 0 and Z = 2 1 = +1, so X must be a positron.

As it is ejected, it is accompanied by a neutrino:
0 +
X + X = 1e +
P44.50 (a) 197

79 Au + 01 n 198
79 Au * 198
80 Hg + 0
1 e+
Note the conservation of baryon number (which you can think of

as nucleon census number and call mass number in this chapter)
in the superscripts: 197 + 1 = 198 + 0. Note the conservation of
charge in the subscripts: 79 + 0 = 80 1.
(b) Consider adding 79 electrons:
197
79 Au atom + 01 n 198
80 Hg atom + + Q
Then,
Q = M 197 Au + mn M 198 Hg c 2

Q = [196.966552 u + 1.008665 u 197.966752 u ]
( 931.5 MeV u )
= 7.89 MeV
P44.51 We consult Table 44.2 for the masses. For the first reaction,
9
4 Be + 1.665 MeV 84 Be + 01 n
Q
so M 8 Be = M 9 Be mn
4 4
c2
( 1.665 MeV )
M 8 Be = 9.012 182 u 1.008 665 u
4
931.5 MeV u
= 8.005 3 u
For the second reaction,

9
4 Be + 01 n 104 Be + 6.812 MeV
Q
so M 10 Be = M 9 Be + mn
4 4
c2
6.812 MeV
M 10 Be = 9.012 182 u + 1.008 665 u
4
931.5 MeV u
= 10.013 5 u
Chapter 44 1129
Section 44.8 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance and

Magnetic Resonance Imaging
P44.52 It is the quantum particle under boundary conditions model that is
behind the general rules: With angular momentum quantum number I,
the magnitude of the angular momentum must be I(I + 1) . Whether
I is an integer or a half-integer, the allowed values for one component
of angular momentum being measured range from +I to +(I 1) to
to I . Conditions that the wave function for a quantum particle
must satisfy, for self-consistency under rotations in three-dimensional
space, impose these requirements. We call a component being
measured the z component. It can be measured more directly, as in a
nuclear magnetic resonance experiment, or less directly, as from the
way the angular momentum influences the intrinsic energy levels of a
system and the number of available states within an energy level.
(a) With I = 5/2, the magnitude of the angular momentum is
I(I + 1) = 5
2 ( 25 + 1) = 35 / 2
= 2.958 04(6.626 1034 J s)/2
= 3.119 1034 kg m 2 /s
The z component can take the values +5 /2 , +3 /2 , + /2 , /2 ,
3/2 , and 5/2 . These identifications are shown in ANS. FIG.
P44.52(a).
(b) Similarly, with I = 4, the magnitude of the angular momentum of
a nucleus is I(I + 1) = 4(4 + 1) = 20 and its z component
must have one of the nine values +4 , +3 , +2 , + , 0, , 2 ,
3 , 4 , as shown in ANS. FIG. P44.52(b).
ANS. FIG. P44.52

P44.53 From page 1406 and Equation 44.31, the magnetic moment is
1.913 5 n for the neutron and 2.792 8 n for the proton, where
n = 5.05 1027 J T is the nuclear magneton.
(a) The Larmor frequency of free neutrons is
2 B 2 ( 1.913 5 ) ( 5.05 10 J T ) ( 1.00 T )

27
fn = =
h 6.626 1034 J s
= 29.2 MHz
(b) The Larmor frequency of free protons is
2 ( 2.792 8 ) ( 5.05 1027 J T ) ( 1.00 T )
fp = = 42.6 MHz
6.626 1034 J s
(c) In the Earths magnetic field,
2 ( 2.792 8 ) ( 5.05 1027 J T ) ( 50.0 106 T )
fp = = 2.13 kHz
6.626 1034 J s
Additional Problems
*P44.54 From R = R0 e t and T1/2 = 5 730 yr for 14C, the age of the sample is
1 R ln ( R / R0 ) ln ( 0.600 )
t= ln = T1/2 = ( 5 730 yr )
R0 ln 2 ln 2
= 4.22 103 yr
*P44.55 From R = R0 e t , the elapsed time is
20.0 mCi
1 R ln ( R / R0 ) ln 200 mCi
t = ln = T1/2 = ( 14.0 d )
R0 ln 2 ln 2

= 46.5 d
P44.56 The proposed reaction can be written as
10
5
B+ 24 He 11 H+ 126 C
While electric charge is conserved (5 + 2 = 1 + 6), the number of
nucleons is not (10 + 4 1 + 12). Therefore, this reaction cannot occur.
Chapter 44 1131
P44.57 (a) From Equation 44.1,

r = aA1 3 = ( 1.2 fm ) A1 3 = 1.2 1015 m A1 3( )
When A = 12, r = 1.2 fm ( 12 )
13
= 2.7 1015 m = 2.7 fm
ke ( Z 1) e 2 ( 8.99 10 ) (
N m 2 C2 ( Z 1) 1.60 1019 C )
2
9
(b) F= =
r2 r2
(
When Z = 6 and r = 1.2 1015 m ( 12 ) , F = 1.5 102 N . ) 13
ke q1q2 ke ( Z 1) e (
8.99 109 ( Z 1) 1.6 1019 ) ( )
2
2
(c) U= = =
r r r
(
When Z = 6 and r = 1.2 1015 m ( 12 ) , ) 13
U = 4.2 1013 J = 2.6 MeV
(d) A = 238, Z = 92, and r = 1.2 fm ( 238 )

13
= 7.4 1015 m = 7.4 fm
F = 3.8 102 N and U = 2.8 1012 J = 18 MeV

P44.58 (a) The process cannot occur because energy input would be
required. Note that the mass of the proton is less than the sum of
the masses of the neutron and positron (electron):
mn + me+ > mp
1.008 665 u + 0.000 549 u
1.009 214 u > 1.007 276 u
Therefore, the reaction p n + e+ + would violate the law of
conservation of energy.
(b) The required energy can come from the electrostatic repulsion of
protons in the parent nucleus.
(c) Add seven electrons to both sides of the reaction for nuclei
13
7
N 136 C + e+ + to obtain the reaction for neutral atoms
13
7 N atom 136 C atom + e+ + e + .
Q = m ( 13 N ) m ( 13 C ) me+ me m c 2
Q = 13.005 739 u 13.003 355 u 2 ( 5.49 104 u ) 0

( 931.5 MeV u )
= 1.20 MeV

P44.59 E = B so the energies are E1 = + B and E2 = B , where B = 12.5 T,
= 2.792 8 n , and n = 5.05 1027 J T . The energy difference is
(
E = 2 B = 2 ( 2.792 8 ) 5.05 1027 J T ( 12.5 T ) )
= 3.53 1025 J = 2.20 106 eV = 2.20 eV
P44.60 We check the Q value of this reaction:

Q = [ 238.050 788 u 237.051 144 u 1.007 825 u ]
( 931.5 MeV u )
= 7.62 MeV
The Q value of this hypothetical decay is calculated to be
7.62 MeV, which means you would have to add this
much energy to the 238 U nucleus to make it emit a proton.
P44.61 (a) The system of a separated proton and electron puts out energy
13.606 eV to become a hydrogen atom in its ground state. This
decrease in its rest energy appears also as a decrease in mass: the
mass is smaller .
(b) The mass difference is
E 13.6 eV 1.60 1019 J

m = 2 = 2
c ( 3.00 108 m s ) 1 eV
1u
= ( 2.42 1035 kg )
8
27 = 1.46 10 u
1.66 10 kg
(c) As a percentage of the total mass,
1.46 108 u
= 1.45 108 = 1.45 106%
1.007 825 u
(d) No. The textbook table lists 1.007 825 u as the atomic mass of
hydrogen. This correction of 0.000 000 01 u is on the order of 100
times too small to affect the values listed.
P44.62 We check the Q value of the 57Co nuclei decay by e+:
57
27
Co 57
26
Fe + +10 e +
Mass values appear in Table 44.2. For this reaction,
Q = 56.936 291 56.935 394 2 ( 0.000 549 ) u ( 931.5 MeV u )

= 0.187 MeV
Chapter 44 1133
The nucleus 57 Co cannot decay by e+ emission because

the Qvalue is 0.187 MeV.
P44.63 (a) The number of nuclei at t = 0 is given by

mass 1.00 kg
N0 = =
mass per atom (239.05 u) ( 1.66 1027 kg u )
= 2.52 1024
(b) To find the initial activity, we first compute the ecay constant:
ln 2 ln 2
= = = 9.106 1013 s 1
T1 2 ( )(
2.412 10 yr 3.156 10 s yr
4 7
)
Then,
( )(
R0 = N 0 = 9.106 1013 s 1 2.52 1024 = 2.29 1012 Bq )
(c) From R = R0 e t ,
1 R 1 R0
t= ln = ln
R0 R
1 2.29 1012 Bq
t= ln
9.106 1013 s 1 0.100 Bq
1 yr
= 3.38 1013 s = 1.07 10 yr
6
3.156 107 s
40
P44.64 (a) One liter of milk contains this many K nuclei:
6.02 1023 nuclei mol 0.0117
N = (2.00 g) 100
39.1 g mol
= 3.60 1018 nuclei
ln 2 ln 2 1 yr 17 1
= = = 1.72 10 s
T1 2 1.28 10 yr 3.156 107
9
s
R = N = ( 1.72 1017 s 1 ) ( 3.60 1018 ) = 61.8 Bq
The activity is 61.8 Bq L .
ln 2
(b) For the iodine, R = R0 e t , with = . Then,
8.04 d
1 R0 8.04 d 2 000
t= ln = ln = 40.3 d
R ln 2 61.8

We have N U-235 = N 0, U- 235 e U- 235
t
P44.65
and N U-238 = N 0, U-238 e U- 238 t ,
so
N U-235
= 0.00725 = e
( ( ln 2 )t T1/2 , U- 235 + ( ln 2 )t T1/2 , U- 238 )
N U-238
Taking logarithms,
ln 2 ln 2
4.93 = + t
0.704 10 yr 4.47 10 yr
9 9
1 1
4.93 = + ( ln 2 ) t
0.704 10 yr 4.47 10 yr
9 9
4.93
t= = 5.94 109 yr = 5.94 Gyr
( 1.20 10 9
yr 1
) ln 2
P44.66 (a) See ANS. FIG. P44.66. A least-square fit to the graph yields:
(
= slope = 0.250 h 1 = 0.250 h 1 )
and
ln (cpm) t = 0 = intercept = 8.30
ANS. FIG. P44.66

(b) From part (a),
1h
= 0.250 h 1 = 4.17 103 min 1
60.0 min
ln 2 ln 2
and T1 2 = = = 166 min = 2.77 h
4.17 103 min 1
(c) From part (a), intercept = ln ( cpm )0 = 8.30.
Thus, ( cpm )0 = e 8.30 counts min = 4.02 103 counts min .
Chapter 44 1135
(d) At t = 0,
R0 1 ( cpm )0 4.02 103 counts min
N0 = = =
Eff ( 4.17 103 min 1 )( 0.100)
= 9.65 106 atoms
P44.67 (a) If E is the energy difference between the excited and ground
states of the nucleus of mass M, and hf is the energy of the
emitted photon, conservation of energy for the nucleus-photon
system gives
E = hf + Er [1]
where Er is the recoil energy of the nucleus, which can be

expressed as
Mv 2 ( Mv )
2
Er = = [2]
2 2M
Since system momentum must also be conserved, we have
hf
Mv = [3]
c
( hf )
2
Hence, Er can be expressed as Er = .

2Mc 2
When hf << Mc 2 , we can make the approximation that hf E,
so Er
( E )
2
.
2Mc 2
( E )
2
(b) Er = , where E = 0.0144 MeV

2Mc 2
and Mc 2 = (57 u)(931.5 MeV u) = 5.31 10 4 MeV.
Therefore,
(1.44 10 MeV ) = 1.95 10

2
2
3
Er = 9
MeV = 1.95 10 eV
2 ( 5.31 10 MeV ) 4
P44.68 (a) If we assume all the 87

Sr came from 87 Rb, then N = N 0 e t yields
1 N T1 2 N 0
t= ln = ln
N 0 ln 2 N
where N = N Rb-87
and N 0 = N Sr-87 + N Rb-87 .
t=
( 4.75 10 10
yr ) ln 1.82 10 + 1.07 109
10
= 3.91 109 yr
ln 2 1.82 10 10

(b) It could be no older. The rock could be younger if some

87
Sr were originally present. We must make some assumption
about the original quantity of radioactive material. In part (a) we
assumed that the rock originally contained no strontium.
1 2
P44.69 The time of flight is given by t = d/v. Since K = mv ,
2
d 10.0 103 m
t = = = 3.61s
2K 2(0.0400eV) ( 1.60 10 19 J/eV )
m 1.67 10 27 kg
The decay constant is
0.693 0.693
= = = 1.11 103 s l
T1/2 (10.4min)(60s/min)
Therefore we have
t = ( 1.11 103 s ) (3.61s) = 4.01 10 3 = 0.00401
And the fraction remaining is
N
= e t = e 0.00401 = 0.9960.
N0
Hence, the fraction that has decayed in this time interval is
N
1 = 0.00401 or 0.401%
N0
P44.70 (a) For cobalt-56,
ln 2 ln 2 365.25 d
= = = 3.28 yr 1
T1 2 77.1 d 1 yr
The elapsed time from July 1054 to July 2010 is 956 yr. Then,
R = R0 e t implies
R
= e t = e (
3.28 yr 1 )( 956 yr )
= e 3 139 = e ( ln 10)1 363 = ~ 101 363
R0
Chapter 44 1137
(b) For carbon-14,

ln 2
= = 1.21 104 yr 1
5 730 yr
and
R
= e t = e (
1.21104 yr 1 )( 956 yr )
= e 0.116 = 0.891
R0
P44.71 (a) For the electron capture,
93
43
Tc + 0
1
e 93
42
Mo +
For positron emission,
93
43
Tc 93
42
Mo + 0
+1
e+
93
The daughter nucleus in both forms of decay is 42
Mo .
(b) We usually calculate

the Q value under the
assumption that the
daughter nucleus is in
its ground state, but for
these decays, the Q
value gives the upper
limit of energy
available to the
daughter nucleus to be
above its ground state. ANS. FIG. P44.71
For electron capture,
the disintegration energy is
Q = M 93 Tc M 93 Mo c 2
Q = [ 92.910 2 u 92.906 8 u ]( 931.5 MeV u )

= 3.17 MeV > 2.44 MeV
93
so electron capture provides enough energy for 42
Mo to be in all
levels above its ground state.
For e+ emission, the disintegration energy is
Q = M 93 Tc M 93 Mo 2me c 2 .
Q = [ 92.910 2 u 92.906 8 u 2(0.000 549 u)](931.5MeV/u)

= 2.14MeV
so e+ emission does not supply enough energy for 4293

Mo to be in
the 4.22 MeV state, only 1.35 MeV, 1.48 MeV, and 1.35 MeV above
ground (see ANS. FIG. P44.71).
P44.72 We start with R = R0 e t , and take the natural logarithm of both sides,
giving ln R = ln R0 t, which is the equation of a straight line with
slope = . The logarithmic plot shown in Figure P44.72 is fitted by
ln R = 8.44 0.262t
If t is measured in minutes, then decay constant is 0.262 per minute.
The halflife is
ln 2 ln 2
T1 2 = = = 2.64 min
0.262 min
The reported halflife of 137 Ba is 2.55 min. The difference reflects

experimental uncertainties.
P44.73 (a) With mn and vn as the mass and speed of the neutrons, Equation
9.24 for elastic collisions becomes for the two collisions, after
making appropriate notational changes,
2mn 2mn
v1 = v
n , and v = m + m vn
mn + m1
2
n 2
Solving,
(m n
+ m2 ) v2 = ( mn + m1 ) v1 = 2mn vn
m1 v1 m2 v2
mn ( v2 v1 ) = m1 v1 m2 v2 mn =
v2 v1
(b) We obtain the neutron mass from
mn =
(1 u )( 3.30 10 7
) (
m s ( 14 u ) 4.70 106 m s ) = 1.16 u
4.70 10 m s 3.30 10 m s
6 7
P44.74 (a) We treat the collision of the two particles a and X as a perfectly
inelastic collision: the kinetic energy that is converted into
internal energy supplies the missing energy Q, permitting the
conversion of the particles into Y and b.
Initially, the projectile Ma moves with velocity va while the
target MX is at rest. We have from momentum conservation for
the projectile-target system:
Ma va = ( Ma + MX ) vc
Chapter 44 1139
The initial energy is

1
Ei = Ma va2
2
The final kinetic energy is:
2
1 1 Ma va
E f = ( Ma + MX ) vc2 = ( Ma + MX )
2 2 Ma + MX
Ma
= Ei
Ma + MX
From this, we see that E f is always less than Ei and the change in
energy, E f Ei , is given by
Ma MX
E f Ei = 1 Ei = Ei
M
a + M X M
a + M X
This loss of kinetic energy in the isolated system corresponds to

an increase in mass-energy during the reaction. Thus, the absolute
value of this kinetic energy change is equal to Q (remember that
Q is negative in an endothermic reaction). The initial kinetic
energy Ei is the threshold energy Eth . Therefore,
MX
Q = Eth
Ma + MX
M + Ma Ma
or Eth = Q X = Q 1 + .
MX MX
(b) We first calculate the Q value for the reaction:

Q = MN-14 + MHe-4 MO-17 MH-1 c 2
Q = [14.003074 u + 4.002603 u 16.999132 u 1.007825 u ]

( 931.5 MeV u )
= 1.19 MeV
Then,
M + Ma 4.002603 u
Eth = Q X = ( 1.19 MeV ) 1 +
MX 14.003074 u
= 1.53 MeV
P44.75 We have the following information: N X (0) = 2.50N Y (0),

N X (3d) = 4.20N Y (3d), and T1 2 Y = 1.60 d. The nuclei decay
exponentially:
N X (3d) = 4.20N Y (3d)
N X (0) Y ( 3d)
N X (0)e X ( 3d) = 4.20N Y (0)e Y ( 3d) = 4.20 e
2.50
2.5 ( 3d)Y
e( 3d)X =
e
4.2
Taking the natural logarithm of both sides,
2.5
( 3d ) X = ln + ( 3d ) Y
4.2
0.693 2.5 0.693
( 3d ) = ln
+ ( 3d ) = 0.781
T1 2 X 4.2 1.60 d
The half-life of X is T1 2 X = 2.66 d

N X (0) N (t)
P44.76 We have the following information: = r1 , X = r2 , and
N Y (0) N Y (t)
T1 2 Y = TY . The nuclei decay exponentially:
N X (t) = r2 N Y (t)
r
N X (0)e X t = r2 N Y (0)e Y t = 2 N X (0)e Y t
r1
r2 tY
e tX = e
r1
Taking the natural logarithm of both sides,
r
tX = ln 2 tY
r1
ln 2 r ln 2 r ln 2
t = ln 2 + t = ln 1 + t
TX r1 TY r2 TY
1 ln ( r1 r2 ) 1 TY ln ( r1 r2 ) + t ln 2 ln 2 ( r1 r2 )
t
TY

= + = =
TX t ln 2 TY TY t ln 2 TY ln 2
TY ln 2
The half-life of X is TX =
ln 2 ( r1 r2 ) Y
T t

Chapter 44 1141
Challenge Problems
P44.77 The electric charge density in the sphere is
Ze
=
( 4 3) R 3
Using Gausss Law inside the sphere,
:
( 4 3) r 3 Ze
E 4 r = 2

0 ( 4 3) R
3

1 Ze
or E= r (r R)
4 0 R 3
Outside the sphere, the field is
1 Ze
E= (r R)
4 0 r 2
We now find the electrostatic energy

1
U= 2
2 2
0 E 4 r dr
r=0
2
R

1 Ze
2
1 1
r 4 r dr + 0
Ze
U = 0 4 r 2 dr
2
3
2 4 0 R 2 4 0 r
2
0 R

2
Ze
2 R
r2 2 Ze 1 2
= 2 0
4 0 6 r dr + 2 0
0
R

r dr
4 0 R r 4
Z 2 e 2 r 4 Z 2 e 2 R 5 R
R
dr 1
=
8 0 0 R 6
dr
+ = 6
r 8 0 5R
2

r R

R 0
Z2e2 R5 1 3 Z2e2 3 1 Z2e2

= + = =
8 0 5R 6 R 20 0 R 5 4 0 R
3 Z2e2 3k Z 2 e 2
or U= = e
20 0 R 5R
P44.78 (a) Add two electrons to both sides of the reaction to have it in
neutral-atom terms:
4 11 H atom 24 He atom + Q Q = mc 2 = 4M 1 H M 4 He c 2
1 2
The Q value is then

Q = 4 ( 1.007 825 u ) 4.002 603 u
1.60 1013 J
( 931.5 MeV u )
1 MeV
= 4.28 1012 J
(b) The Sun is comprised of

1.99 1030 kg
N= = 1.19 1057 atoms
1.67 1027 kg atom
= 1.19 1057 protons
(c) The energy that could be created by this many protons in this
reaction is
4.28 1012 J
(1.19 10 57
protons )
4 protons
= 1.27 10

45
E
Then, since P = ,
t
E 1.27 10 45 J
t = = = 3.31 1018 s = 105 billion years
P 3.85 1026 W
(d) The time interval in (c) is an order of magnitude larger
than the expected remaining lifetime of the Sun. Only
the hydrogen in a relatively small core is available as a
nuclear fuel. Only in the core are temperatures and
densities high enough for the fusion reaction to be
self-sustaining.
Chapter 44 1143
ANSWERS TO EVEN-NUMBERED PROBLEMS
P44.2 (a) 68; (b) 68

30
Zn ; (c) Isotopes of other elements to the left and right of
zinc in the periodic table (from manganese to bromine) may have the
same mass number.
P44.4 ~1028 protons; (b) 1028 neutrons; (c) ~1028 electrons
P44.6 184 m
P44.8 (a) 0.360 MeV; (b) Figure P44.8 shows the highest point in the curve at
about 4 MeV, a factor of ten higher than the value in (a).
m2
P44.10 r2 = r
m1 1
P44.12 (a) 5.18 fm; (b) is much less than the distance of closest approach
P44.14 (a) 2.82 105; (b) 1.38 1014

P44.16 0.210 MeV
P44.18 See P44.18 for full explanation.
P44.20 (a) 84.2 MeV; (b) 342 MeV; (c) The nuclear force is so strong that the
binding energy greatly exceeds the minimum energy needed to
overcome electrostatic repulsion.
P44.22 ~200 MeV
P44.24 (a) Nucleons on the surface have fewer neighbors with which to
interact. The surface term is negative to reduce the estimate from the
volume term, which assumes that all nucleons have the same number
1 1
of neighbors; (b) sphere, r, cube, L. The sphere has a larger ratio to
3 6
its characteristic length, so it would represent a larger binding energy
and be more plausible for a nuclear shape.
P44.26 (a) 1.55 105 s 1 ; (b) 12.4 h; (c) 2.39 1013 atoms; (d) 1.88 mCi
P44.28 See P44.28 for full explanation.
(2 )
R0T1 2 t1 T1 2 t2 T1 2
P44.30 2
ln 2
P44.32 (a) 0.755; (b) 0.570; (c) 9.766 104 ; (d) No. The decay model depends
on large numbers of nuclei. After some long but finite time, only one
undecayed nucleus will remain. It is likely that the decay of this final
nucleus will occur before infinite time.
P44.34 (a) See P44.34(a) for full explanation; (b) See P44.34(b) for full
explanation; (c) See ANS. FIG. P44.34(c); (d) 10.9 min;
(e) tm =
ln 1 2( )
; (f) 10.9 min
1 2
P44.36 (a) See P44.36(a) for full explanation; (b) 18.6 keV

P44.38 (a) 65 211
28 Ni ; (b) 82 Pb; (c)
55
27
Co
P44.40 ( )( )
(a) N d = N P, 0 N P, 0 e t = 1.00 106 1 e 0.0693t , where t is in hours;
(b) The number of daughter nuclei starts from zero at t = 0. The
number of stable product nuclei always increases with time and
asymptotically approaches 1.00 106 as t increases without limit;
(c) The minimum number of daughter nuclei is zero at t = 0. The
maximum number of daughter nuclei asymptotically approaches
1.00 106 as t increases without limit; (d) The rate of change has its
maximum value, 6.93 104 h1, at t = 0, after which the rate decreases
more and more, approaching zero as t increases without limit.
P44.42 (a) 1.05 1021 ; (b) 1.37 109 ; (c) 3.83 1012 s 1 ;
(d) 3.17 103 decays week ; (e) 951 decays/week; (f) 9.95 103 yr
P44.44 (a) 0.281; (b) 1.65 1029 ; (c) Radon is continuously created.
N N
P44.46 (a) 4.00 109 yr ; (b) = 0.019 9 U to Pb chain and
235 207
= 4.60 for
N N
the 232Th to 208Pb chain
P44.48 (a) 5.70 MeV; (b) 3.27 MeV; (c) exothermic
P44.50 (a) 197
79 Au + 01 n 198
79 Au * 198
80 Hg + 0
1 e + ; (b) 7.89 MeV
P44.52 See ANS. FIG. P44.52(a) and (b).
P44.54 4.42 103 yr
P44.56 While electric charge is conserved (5 + 2 = 1 + 6), the number of
nucleons is not (10 + 4 1 + 12). Therefore, this reaction cannot occur.
P44.58 (a) The process cannot occur because energy input would be required;
(b) Required energy can come from the electrostatic repulsion;
(c) 1.20 MeV
P44.60 The Q value of this hypothetical decay is calculated to be 7.62 MeV,
238
which means you would have to add this much energy to the U
nucleus to make it emit a proton.
Chapter 44 1145
P44.62 The nucleus 57Co cannot decay by e+ emission because the Q value is
0.187 MeV.
P44.64 (a) 61.8 Bq/L; (b) 40.3 d
P44.66 (a) See ANS. FIG. P44.66; (b) 4.17 103 min 1 , 2.77 h;
(c) 4.02 103 counts min ; (d) 9.65 106 atoms
P44.68 (a) 3.91 109 yr ; (b) no older
P44.70 (a) ~ 101 363 ; (b) 0.891

P44.72 2.64 min
P44.74 (a) See P44.74(a) for full explanation; (b) 1.53 MeV
TY ln 2
P44.76
ln 2 ( r1 r2 ) Y
t
T

P44.78 (a) 4.28 1012 J; (b) 1.19 1057 atoms; (c) 105 billion years; (d) The
time interval in (c) is an order of magnitude larger than the expected
remaining lifetime of the Sun. Only the hydrogen in a relatively small
core is available as a nuclear fuel. Only in the core are temperatures
and densities high enough for the fusion reaction to be self-sustaining.

Chapter 44

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44

44.1 Some Properties of Nuclei

* An asterisk indicates a question or problem new to this edition.

ANSWERS TO OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

(ii) Answer (b). The shell model predicts magnetic moments by

ANSWERS TO CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS

SOLUTIONS TO END-OF-CHAPTER PROBLEMS

Section 44.1 Some Properties of Nuclei

P44.2 (a) Approximate nuclear radii are given by r = r0A1/3. Thus, if a

(c) Isotopes of other elements to the left and right of zinc in

2 ( 8.99 109 N m 2 / C2 ) ( 2 ) ( 79 ) ( 1.602 1019 C )

vi = 6.05 106 m/s

(b) and ~ 1028 neutrons .

P44.6 From ME = n V = n (4 r 3 3) , we find

P44.7 The number of neutrons in a star of two solar masses is

r = r0 A1 3 = ( 1.20 1015 m ) ( 2.38 1057 )

P44.9 By energy conservation,

P44.10 By energy conservation,

*P44.11 (a) The magnitude of the maximum Coulomb force is given by

( 8.99 10 N m 2 C2 ) ( 2 )( 6 )( 1.60 1019 C )

P44.12 We obtain the alpha particles momentum from

The volume of one molecule is

The volume of all the molecules is

Section 44.2 Nuclear Binding Energy

Eb ZM ( H ) + Nmn M ( Z X ) 931.5 MeV

Eb ( MeV ) = ZM ( H ) + Nmn M ( AZ X ) ( 931.494 MeV/u )

= 11( 1.007 825 u ) + 12 ( 1.008 665 u ) 22.989 769 u

= 12 ( 1.007 825 u ) + 11( 1.008 665 u ) 22.994 124 u

The binding energy per nucleon is greater for 23 11 Na by 0.210 MeV .

Eb ( MeV ) = ZM ( H ) + Nmn M ( AZ X ) ( 931.494 MeV/u )

Eb = [ 8 ( 1.007825 u ) + 7 ( 1.008665 u ) 15.003065 u ]

Eb = [ 7 ( 1.007825 u ) + 8 ( 1.008665 u ) 15.000109 u ]

P44.20 (a) The radius of the 40Ca nucleus is,

3keQ 2 3 ( 8.99 10 N m /C ) 20 ( 1.602 10 C )

(b) The binding energy of 40

Equation 44.2 and masses from Table 44.2),

From Table 44.2,

Section 44.3 Nuclear Models

Thus, it is less stable than its potential fission products, two

ANS. FIG. P44.22

P44.23 (a) In Equation 44.3, the first or Volume term is,

The third, or Coulomb term is,

The binding energy is then

(b) The volume to surface ratio for a sphere of radius r is

The sphere has a larger ratio to its characteristic length, so it

Section 44.4 Radioactivity

R0 3.70 108 decays/s

(d) The decay rate after thirty hours is

Now we find N0:

= 4.98 1011 nuclei

Substituting in these values,

N 1 N 2 = ( 4.98 1011 ) e ( ln 2 64.8 h )(10.0 h ) e ( ln 2 64.8 h )(12.0 h )

N 1 N 2 = 9.47 109 nuclei

Now we find N0:

(d) No. The decay model depends on large numbers of nuclei.

ANS. FIG. P44.34(c)

(f) With 1 = ln 2 ( 3.10 min ) , 2 = ln 2 ( 26.8 min ) , this formula gives

ln 2 ( 3.10 min ) 26.8 min

Section 44.5 The Decay Processes

Since Q < 0, the decay cannot occur spontaneously.

(b) For this alpha decay,

Since Q < 0, the decay cannot occur spontaneously.

Since Q > 0, the decay can occur spontaneously.

P44.38 Total Z and A are conserved.