echnical

anguage
Technical Language III
Textbook

Designed and Edited by

Tatiana Vallejo

Reviewed by
Inga. Soraya Martnez

Collaborators
Juan Pablo Garca
Gustavo Foncea
Carlos Monroy

1
 CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................... 6

CHAPTER ONE
TECHNOLOGY............................................................................................. 8
VOCABULARY ........................................................................................................8
TECHNOLOGY.....................................................................................................11
DEFINITION AND USAGE ...............................................................................................12
SCIENCE, ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY ..............................................................12
ROLE IN HUMAN HISTORY ............................................................................................13
EXERCISES ..........................................................................................................17
QUALITY CONTROL.................................................................................. 20
VOCABULARY ......................................................................................................20
QUALITY CONTROL ............................................................................................21
QUALITY ASSURANCE ....................................................................................................21
FAILURE TESTING .........................................................................................................21
STATISTICAL CONTROL .................................................................................................21
COMPANY QUALITY .......................................................................................................21
TOTAL QUALITY CONTROL .................................................................................22
QUALITY MANAGEMENT.....................................................................................23
QUALITY MANAGEMENT STANDARDS ..........................................................................24
EXERCISES ..........................................................................................................26
PRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 28
VOCABULARY ......................................................................................................28
PRODUCTION, COSTS AND PRICING ...................................................................30
ASPECTS OF PRODUCTION AND PRICING THEORY .......................................................30
EFFICIENCY AND CROSS-EFFICIENCY...........................................................................30
FACTORS OF PRODUCTION ............................................................................................30
ECONOMIC RENT ..........................................................................................................31
DISTRIBUTION ..............................................................................................................31
PRODUCTION POSSIBILITIES FRONTIER .......................................................................31
PRODUCTIVE EFFICIENCY, OPPORTUNITY COST, AND ALLOCATIVE EFFICIENCY ......32
PRODUCTION FUNCTION ..............................................................................................32
COST ..............................................................................................................................32
PRICING .........................................................................................................................33

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 EXERCISES ......................................................................................................... 35
PLANNING................................................................................................. 37
VOCABULARY ..................................................................................................... 37
PLANNING.......................................................................................................... 38
THE PLANNING PROCESS ............................................................................................ 38
APPLICATIONS .............................................................................................................. 38
AUTOMATED PLANNING AND SCHEDULING ................................................................ 40
STRATEGIC PLANNING ....................................................................................... 40
VISION, MISSION AND VALUES ...................................................................................... 41
METHODOLOGIES ........................................................................................................ 41
SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS ................................................................................................ 42
GOALS, OBJECTIVES AND TARGETS .............................................................................. 42
MISSION STATEMENTS AND VISION STATEMENTS ...................................................... 43
BALANCED SCORECARD ..................................................................................... 44
THE LEARNING & GROWTH PERSPECTIVE................................................................. 44
THE BUSINESS PROCESS PERSPECTIVE ....................................................................... 45
THE CUSTOMER PERSPECTIVE .................................................................................... 45
THE FINANCIAL PERSPECTIVE .................................................................................... 46
THE BALANCED SCORECARD AND MEASUREMENT-BASED MANAGEMENT ............. 46
ACTUAL USAGE OF THE BALANCED SCORECARD.......................................................... 47
EXERCISES ......................................................................................................... 48
UNIT REVIEW .......................................................................................... 50

CHAPTER TWO
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.................................................................. 55
VOCABULARY ..................................................................................................... 55
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING ............................................................................ 57
TOOLS AND WORK ......................................................................................................... 57
SUBDISCIPLINES............................................................................................................ 57
SPECIALIZED SUBDISCIPLINES ..................................................................................... 60
FRONTIERS OF RESEARCH ............................................................................................ 60
NANOTECHNOLOGY..................................................................................................... 60
EXERCISES ......................................................................................................... 61
HEAT TRANSFER ...................................................................................... 63
VOCABULARY ..................................................................................................... 63
HEAT TRANSFER CONCEPTS ............................................................................. 65
CONDUCTION ............................................................................................................... 65
CONVECTION ................................................................................................................ 66
RADIATION ................................................................................................................... 67
HEAT EXCHANGERS .......................................................................................... 67
BOILING HEAT TRANSFER ............................................................................................ 68

3
 CONDENSATION HEAT TRANSFER ................................................................................68
EXERCISES ..........................................................................................................69
MOTORS .................................................................................................... 71
VOCABULARY ......................................................................................................71
ELECTRIC MOTORS ............................................................................................73
CATEGORIZATION OF ELECTRIC MOTORS ....................................................................73
EXERCISES ..........................................................................................................78
UNIT REVIEW .......................................................................................... 80

CHAPTER THREE
ELECTRICAL NETWORKS ......................................................................... 83
VOCABULARY ......................................................................................................83
ELECTRICAL NETWORKS ....................................................................................85
ELECTRICAL ELEMENTS ...............................................................................................85
ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS .......................................................................................86
ELECTRICAL LAWS ..............................................................................................86
KIRCHHOFF'S CIRCUIT LAWS.........................................................................................86
OHM'S LAW ....................................................................................................................87
ALTERNATING CURRENT....................................................................................88
TRANSMISSION, DISTRIBUTION, AND DOMESTIC POWER SUPPLY................................88
DIRECT CURRENT...............................................................................................88
TYPES OF DIRECT CURRENT .........................................................................................88
EXERCISES ..........................................................................................................90
ELECTROMAGNETISM .............................................................................. 93
VOCABULARY ......................................................................................................93
ELECTROMAGNETISM ........................................................................................95
THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCE .......................................................................95
UNITS.............................................................................................................................95
CLASSICAL ELECTROMAGNETISM .......................................................................96
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES ..........................................................................................96
ELECTROMAGNET ..............................................................................................96
ELECTROMAGNETS AND PERMANENT MAGNETS ........................................................97
APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETS .........................................................................97
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM ........................................................................98
EXERCISES ..........................................................................................................99
TELECOMMUNICATION ......................................................................... 101
VOCABULARY ....................................................................................................101
TELECOMMUNICATIONS ..................................................................................102
KEY CONCEPTS .................................................................................................103
BASIC ELEMENTS.........................................................................................................103

4
 TYPES OF TELECOMMUNICATION NETWORKS ................................................. 104
COMPUTER NETWORKS: ............................................................................................. 104
PUBLIC TELEPHONE NETWORKS ............................................................................... 104
RADIO NETWORKS ...................................................................................................... 105
TELEVISION NETWORKS ............................................................................................. 105
INTERNET ................................................................................................................... 105
ASPECTS OF TELECOMMUNICATION TRANSMISSION ...................................... 105
ANALOG ...................................................................................................................... 105
DIGITAL ...................................................................................................................... 106
OPTICAL ...................................................................................................................... 106
EXERCISES ....................................................................................................... 107
UNIT REVIEW ........................................................................................ 109

5
INTRODUCTION

6
 Chapter
O NE

7
 Technology

TECHNOLOGY
VOCABULARY

Tools: Devices used to perform or facilitate manual or mechanical work.

Crafts: Skills in doing or making something.
Machines: Mechanical or electrical devices that transmits or modifies energy to perform or
assist in the performance of human tasks.
Hardware Machines and other physical equipment directly involved in performing an
industrial, technological, or military function.
Utensils They are implements for practical use (especially in a household).
Wheel A solid disk or a rigid circular ring connected by spokes to a hub, designed to
turn around an axle passed through the center.
Printing press It is a machine used for printing.
Weapons They are instrument of attack or defense in combat, as a gun, missile, or
sword.
Clubs A strong heavy stick, usually thicker at one end, suitable for use as a weapon;
a cudgel.
Develop Make something new, such as a product or a mental or artistic creation.
Pollution The contamination of air, water, or soil by substances which are harmful to
living organisms.
Deplete Refers to using up gradually and only hints at harmful consequences.
Detriment Its a damage or loss.
Productivity Its the quality of being productive or having the power to produce.
Challenge A demanding or stimulating situation.
Neo-Luddism Its a modern movement of opposition to specific or general technological
development.
Anarcho-primitivism
Its an anarchist critique of the origins and progress of civilization. Primitivisms
argue that the shift from hunter-gatherer to agricultural subsistence gave rise
to social stratification, coercion, and alienation. They advocate a return to non-
"civilized" ways of life through deindustrialization,
abolition of division of labor or specialization, and
abandonment of technology.
Harms Any physical damage caused by violence or accident
or fracture etc.
Alienates: To cause to become unfriendly or hostile.
Crowbar A straight bar of iron or steel, with the working end Fig. 1
Crowbar
shaped like a chisel and often slightly bent and
forked, used as a lever.
Space station A large satellite equipped to support a human crew and designed to remain in
orbit around Earth for an extended period and serve as a base for launching
exploratory expeditions, conducting research, repairing satellites, and
performing other space-related activities.

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 Unit 1

Particle Accelerator
It is a scientific instrument that increases the kinetic energy of charged
particles.
Raw materials An unprocessed natural product used in manufacture.
Skills An ability that has been acquired by training.
Spawn The source of something.
Predates To precede in time; antedate.
Endeavour Purposeful or industrious activity; enterprise.
Utility The quality or condition of being useful; usefulness.
Usability The quality of being able to provide good service.
Safety The condition of being safe; freedom from danger, risk, or injury.
Foraging The act of looking or searching for food or provisions.
Hominids Any of various primates of the family Hominidae, whose only living members
are modern humans.
Bipedal Having two feet.
Oldowan industry
Oldowan (earlier spelled Olduwan or sometimes Oldawan) is an anthropological
designation for an industry of stone tools used by prehistoric homininans of the
Lower Paleolithic.
Paleolithic Of or relating to the cultural period of the Stone Age beginning with the earliest
chipped stone tools, about 750,000 years ago, until the beginning of the
Mesolithic Age, about 15,000 years ago.
Crude Not refined or processed.
Spans The extent or measure of space between two points or extremities.
Core The center of an object.
Flaking A small piece; a bit.
Flint A hard kind of stone.
Hammerstone A hand-held stone or cobble used by hominids perhaps as
early as 2.5 million years ago as a crude pounding or
pecking tool.
Choppers A crudely flaked core tool, especially one of the early
Paleolithic Period.
Scrapers Any of various hand tools for scraping. (To rub (a Fig. 2
surface) with considerable pressure, as with an edged Scrapper
instrument or a hard object)
Cracking The process of breaking down.
Skinning To remove skin from the animal.
Antler One of a pair of hornlike, bony, deciduous growths,
usually elongated and branched, on the head of a
deer, moose, elk, caribou, or other member of the
deer family. Fig. 3
Punch A tool for making holes or indentations. Antler

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 Technology
Dwellings A place to live in.
Burins A steel cutting tool with a sharp beveled point, used in engraving or carving
stone. Its also called graver.
Racloirs Its a name given by archaeologists to a certain type of flint tool made by
prehistoric peoples. It is created from a flint flake and looks like a large
scraper.
Lead A soft heavy toxic malleable metallic element. The story The lead little
soldier.
Charcoal A black porous form of carbon produced by heating wood or
bone in little or no air. Charcoal is used as a fuel for example in
old trains; for drawing, and in air and water filters.
Basins An open, shallow, usually round container used especially for
holding liquids.
Fig. 4
Artifacts An object produced or shaped by human craft, especially a tool, Peg
weapon, or ornament of archaeological or historical interest.
Slab A broad, flat, thick piece, as of stone or cheese.
Peg A wooden pin pushed or driven into a surface.
Tugs To pull hard.
Pottery Ceramic ware made from clay and baked in an oven.
Windmills A mill that is powered by the wind.
Treadmills A mill that is powered by men or animals walking on a
circular belt or climbing steps.
Integrated circuit
Device made of interconnected electronic components,
Fig. 5
such as transistors and resistors, which are etched or
Windmill
imprinted onto a tiny slice of a semiconducting material,
such as silicon or germanium. An integrated circuit
smaller than a fingernail can hold millions of circuits, it is also called chip,
microchip.
Synergistic Producing or capable of producing synergy (Cooperative interaction among
groups, especially among the acquired subsidiaries or merged parts of a
corporation, that creates an enhanced combined effect).
Symbiotic Used of organisms (especially of different species) living together but not
necessarily in a relation beneficial to each.

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 Unit 1

TECHNOLOGY
Technology is a broad concept that deals with a species' usage and knowledge of tools
and crafts, and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt to its environment.
In human society, it is a consequence of science and engineering, although several
technological advances predate the two concepts. Technology is a term with origins in
the Greek "technologia", "" "techne", "" ("craft") and "logia", ""
("saying"). However, a strict definition is elusive; "technology" can refer to material
objects of use to humanity, such as machines, hardware or utensils, but can also
encompass broader themes, including systems, methods of organization, and
techniques. The term can either be applied generally or to specific areas: examples
include "construction technology", "medical technology", or "state-of-the-art
technology".

People's use of technology began with the conversion of natural resources into simple
tools. The prehistorical discovery of the ability to control fire increased the available
sources of food and the invention of the wheel helped humans in traveling in and
controlling their environment. Recent technological developments, including the
printing press, the telephone, and the Internet, have lessened physical barriers to
communication and allowed humans to interact on a global scale. However, not all
technology has been used for peaceful purposes; the development of weapons of ever-
increasing destructive power has progressed throughout history, from clubs to nuclear
weapons.

Technology has affected society and its surroundings in a number of ways. In many
societies, technology has helped develop more advanced economies (including today's
global economy) and has allowed the rise of a leisure class. Many technological
processes produce unwanted by-products, known as pollution, and deplete natural
resources, to the detriment of the Earth and its environment.

Philosophical debates have arisen over the present

and future use of technology in society, with
disagreements over whether technology improves the
human condition or worsens it. Neo-Luddism,
anarcho-primitivism, and similar movements criticize
the pervasiveness of technology in the modern world,
claiming that it harms the environment and alienates
people; proponents of ideologies such as
transhumanism and techno-progressivism view
Fig. 6 continued technological progress as beneficial to
By the mid 20th century humans society and the human condition. Indeed, until
had achieved a mastery of
technology sufficient to leave the recently, it was believed that the development of
surface of the Earth for the first time technology was restricted only to human beings, but
and explore space. recent scientific studies indicate that other primates
and certain dolphin communities have developed
simple tools and learned to pass their knowledge to other generations.

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 Technology

DEFINITION AND USAGE

In general technology is the relationship that society has with its tools and crafts, and
to what extent society can control its environment.

Technology can be most broadly defined as the entities, both material and immaterial,
created by the application of mental and physical effort in order to achieve some value.
In this usage, technology refers to tools and machines that may be used to solve real-
world problems. It is a far-reaching term that may include simple tools, such as a
crowbar or wooden spoon, or more complex machines, such as a space station or
particle accelerator. Tools and machines need not be material; virtual technology,
such computer software and business methods fall under this definition of technology.

The word "technology" can also be used

to refer to a collection of techniques. In
this context, it is the current state of
humanity's knowledge of how to
combine resources to produce desired
products, to solve problems, fulfill
needs, or satisfied wants; it includes
technical methods, skills, processes,
techniques, tools and raw materials.
When combined with another term,
such as "medical technology" or "space
technology", it refers to the state of the
respective field's knowledge and tools.
"State-of-the-art technology" refers to
the high technology available to
humanity in any field.

Technology can be viewed as an activity Fig. 7

The invention of the printing press made it possible for
that forms or changes culture. scientists and politicians to communicate their ideas with
Additionally, technology is the ease, leading to the Age of Enlightenment; an example of
application of math, science, and the technology as a cultural force.

arts for the benefit of life as it is

known. A modern example is the rise of communication technology, which has
lessened barriers to human interaction and, as a result, has helped spawn new
subcultures; the rise of cyber culture has, at its basis, the development of the Internet
and the computer. Not all technology enhances culture in a creative way; technology
can also help facilitate political oppression and war via tools such as guns. As a
cultural activity, technology predates both science and engineering, each of which
formalizes some aspects of technological endeavor.

SCIENCE, ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

The distinction between science, engineering and technology is not always clear.
Science is the reasoned investigation or study of phenomena, aimed at discovering
enduring principles among elements of the phenomenal world by employing formal
techniques such as the scientific method. Technologies are not usually exclusively

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 Unit 1

products of science, because they have to satisfy requirements such as utility,

usability and safety.
Technology is often a consequence of science and engineering although technology
as a human activity precedes the two fields. For example, science might study the flow
of electrons in electrical conductors, by using already-existing tools and knowledge.
This new-found knowledge may then be used by engineers to create new tools and
machines, such as semiconductors, computers, and other forms of advanced
technology. In this sense, scientists and engineers may both be considered
technologists; the three fields are often considered as one for the purposes of research
and reference.

ROLE IN HUMAN HISTORY

PALEOLITHIC (2.5 MILLION 10,000 BCE)
The use of tools by early humans was partly a process of discovery, partly of evolution.
Early humans evolved from a race of foraging hominids which were already bipedal,
with a brain mass approximately one third that of modern humans. Tool use remained
relatively unchanged for most of early human history, but approximately 50,000 years
ago, a complex set of behaviors and tool use emerged, believed by many archaeologists
to be connected to the emergence of fully-modern language.

Stone tools
Human ancestors have been using stone and other tools since long before the
emergence of Homo sapiens approximately 200,000 years ago. The earliest methods of
stone tool making, known as the Oldowan "industry", date back to at least 2.3 million
years ago, with the earliest direct evidence of tool usage found in Ethiopia within the
Great Rift Valley, dating back to 2.5 million years
ago. This era of stone tool
use is called the Paleolithic,
or "Old stone age", and spans
all of human history up to
the development of
agriculture approximately Fig. 8:
12,000 years ago. A primitive chopper.

To make a stone tool, a "core"

of hard stone with specific flaking properties (such as flint) was
Fig. 9
struck with a hammerstone. This flaking produced a sharp edge
Hand axes from the on the core stone as well as on the flakes, either of which could
Acheulian period. be used as tools, primarily in the form of choppers or scrapers.
These tools greatly aided the early humans in their hunter-
gatherer lifestyle to perform a variety of tasks including butchering carcasses (and
breaking bones to get at the marrow); chopping wood; cracking open nuts; skinning an
animal for its hide; and even forming other tools out of softer materials such as bone
and wood.

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 Technology

The earliest stone tools were crude, being little more than a fractured rock. In the
Acheulian era, beginning approximately 1.65 million years ago, methods of working
these stone into specific shapes, such as hand axes emerged. The Middle Paleolithic,
approximately 300,000 years ago, saw the introduction of the prepared-core
technique, where multiple blades could be rapidly formed from a single core stone.[16]
The Upper Paleolithic, beginning approximately 40,000 years ago, saw the
introduction of pressure flaking, where a wood, bone, or antler punch could be used to
shape a stone very finely.

Fire
The discovery and utilization of fire, a simple energy source with many profound uses,
was a turning point in the technological evolution of humankind. The exact date of its
discovery is not known; evidence of burnt animal bones at the Cradle of Humankind
suggests that the domestication of fire occurred before 1,000,000 BCE; scholarly
consensus indicates that Homo erectus had controlled fire by between 500,000 BCE
and 400,000 BCE. Fire, fueled with wood and charcoal, allowed early humans to cook
their food to increase its digestibility, improving its nutrient value and broadening the
number of foods that could be eaten.

Clothing and shelter

Other technological advances made during the Paleolithic era were clothing and
shelter; the adoption of both technologies cannot be dated exactly, but they were the
key to humanity's progress. As the Paleolithic era progressed, dwellings became more
sophisticated and more elaborate; as early as 380,000 BCE, humans were
constructing temporary wood huts. Clothing, adapted from the fur and hides of
hunted animals, helped humanity expand into colder regions; humans began to
migrate out of Africa by 200,000 BCE and into other continents, such as Eurasia.

Humans began to work bones, antler, and hides, as evidenced by burins and racloirs
produced during this period.

NEOLITHIC THROUGH CLASSICAL ANTIQUITY (10,000BCE 300CE)

Man's technological ascent began in earnest in what is known as the Neolithic period
("New stone age"). The discovery of agriculture allowed for the feeding of larger
populations, and the transition to a sedentist lifestyle increased the number of
children that could be simultaneously raised, as young children no longer needed to
be carried, as was the case with the nomadic lifestyle. Additionally, children could
contribute labor to the raising of crops more readily than they could to the hunter-
gatherer lifestyle.

With this increase in population and availability of labor came an increase in labor
specialization. What triggered the progression from early Neolithic villages to the first
cities, such as Uruk, and the first civilizations, such as Sumer, is not specifically
known; however, the emergence of increasingly hierarchical social structures, the
specialization of labor, trade and war amongst adjacent cultures, and the need for

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 Unit 1

collective action to overcome environmental challenges, such as the building of dikes

and reservoirs, are all thought to have played a role.

Continuing improvements led to the furnace and bellows and provided the ability to
smelt and forge native metals (naturally occurring in relatively pure form). Gold,
copper, silver, and lead, were such early metals. The advantages of copper tools over
stone, bone, and wooden tools were quickly apparent to early humans, and native
copper was probably used from near the beginning of Neolithic times (about 8000
BCE). Native copper does not naturally occur in large amounts, but copper ores are
quite common and some of them produce metal easily when burned in wood or
charcoal fires. Eventually, the working of metals led to the discovery of alloys such as
bronze and brass (about 4000 BCE). The first uses of iron alloys such as steel dates to
around 1400 BCE.

Meanwhile, humans were learning to harness other forms of energy. The earliest
known use of wind power is the sailboat. The earliest record of a ship under sail is
shown on an Egyptian pot dating back to 3200 BCE. From prehistoric times,
Egyptians probably used "the power of the Nile" annual floods to irrigate their lands,
gradually learning to regulate much of it through purposely-built irrigation channels
and 'catch' basins. Similarly, the early peoples of Mesopotamia, the Sumerians,
learned to use the Tigris and Euphrates rivers for much the same purposes. But more
extensive use of wind and water (and even human) power required another invention.

According to archaeologists, the wheel was invented around 4000 B.C. The wheel was
likely independently invented in Mesopotamia (in present-day Iraq) as well. Estimates
on when this may have occurred range from 5500 to 3000 B.C., with most experts
putting it closer to 4000 B.C. The oldest artifacts with drawings that depict wheeled
carts date from about 3000 B.C.; however, the wheel may have been in use for
millennia before these drawings were made. There is also evidence from the same
period of time that wheels were used for the
production of pottery. (Note that the original
potter's wheel was probably not a wheel, but rather
an irregularly shaped slab of flat wood with a small
hollowed or pierced area near the center and
mounted on a peg driven into the earth. It would
have been rotated by repeated tugs by the potter or
his assistant.) More recently, the oldest-known
wooden wheel in the world was found in the
Ljubljana marshes of Slovenia.
Fig. 10
The invention of the wheel revolutionized activities The Wheel was invented in Circa
as disparate as transportation, war, and the 4000 BCE
production of pottery (for which it may have been
first used). It didn't take long to discover that wheeled wagons could be used to carry
heavy loads and fast (rotary) potters' wheels enabled early mass production of pottery.
But it was the use of the wheel as a transformer of energy (through water wheels,

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 Technology
windmills, and even treadmills) that revolutionized the application of nonhuman
power sources.

MODERN HISTORY (0CE )

Tools include both simple machines (such as the lever, the screw, and the pulley), and
more complex machines (such as the clock, the engine, the electric generator and the
electric motor, the computer, radio, and the Space Station, among many others). An
integrated circuit a key foundation for modern computers. As tools increase in
complexity, so does the type of knowledge needed to support them. Complex modern
machines require libraries of written technical manuals of collected information that
has continually increased and improved their designers, builders, maintainers, and
users often require the mastery of decades of sophisticated general and specific
training. Moreover, these tools have become so complex that a comprehensive
infrastructure of technical knowledge-based lesser tools, processes and practices
(complex tools in themselves) exist to support them, including engineering, medicine,
and computer science. Complex manufacturing and construction techniques and
organizations are needed to construct and maintain them. Entire industries have
arisen to support and develop succeeding generations of increasingly more complex
tools. The relationship of technology with society (culture) is generally characterized as
synergistic, symbiotic, co-dependent, co-influential, and co-producing, i.e. technology
and society depend heavily one upon the other (technology upon culture, and culture
upon technology). It is also generally believed that this synergistic relationship first
occurred at the dawn of humankind with the invention of simple tools, and continues
with modern technologies today. Today and throughout history, technology influences
and is influenced by such societal issues/factors as economics, values, ethics,
institutions, groups, the environment, government, among others. The discipline
studying the impacts of science, technology, and society and vice versa is called
Science and technology in society.

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 Unit 1

EXERCISES
Vocabulary Review:
Match the words with the correct meaning.
1. Neo-Luddism ( ) A scientific instrument that increases the kinetic
energy of charged particles.
2. Printing press ( ) Its critique of the origins and progress of
civilization.
3. Anarcho-primitivism ( ) Not refined or processed.
4. Particle accelerator ( ) One of a pair of horns on the head of members of
the deer family.
5. Raw materials ( ) A soft heavy malleable metal.
6. Crude ( ) An unprocessed natural product used in
manufacture.
7. Antler ( ) Used of organisms living together but not
necessarily in a relation beneficial to each
8. Lead ( ) Ceramic.
9. Symbiotic ( ) A modern movement of opposition to specific or
general technological development.
10. Pottery ( ) A machine used for printing

True or False:
Write T if the statement is true or F if the statement is false. If the answer is false, give
your reason above it.

1. People use of technology began with the conversion of natural

resources into simple tools. ________

2. All the technology has been used for peaceful purposes. ________

3. Technology can be viewed as an activity that forms or changes culture. ________

4. Technology is the application of math, science and the arts in benefit

of the rich people ________

5. In the Paleolithic people invented the wheel. ________

6. The invention of wheel didnt change the art of war. ________

7. Tools include simple machines, but do not include complex machines. ________

8. Complex modern machines do not require manuals, their usage is simple.______

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 Technology
9. The adoption of clothing and shelter were the key to humanitys progress_______

10. The integrated circuit was a key foundation for modern computers ________

Reading Comprehension:
Fill in the blanks or answer the questions.
1. What is the strict definition of technology?

2. Do the pollution and depletion of natural resources are produced by

technological process? Explain.

3. In general, _______________________________ is the relationship that society has

with its tools and crafts.

4. ________________________________________ refers to the high technology available

to humanity in any field.

5. When did the Mans Technological ascent begin?

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 Unit 1

Writing Exercise:
Write a paragraph where you explain the causes of the development of technology and
what is the effect in the humanity.

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19
 Quality Control

QUALITY CONTROL
VOCABULARY
Accurate Careful and exact; without mistakes.
Approach The way of dealing with somebody or something.
Assemblies Plural form of assembly. The act of fitting the parts of something together.
Assessment The act of judging or forming an opinion about somebody or something.
Awareness Knowledge, consciousness or interest.
Banking The type of business done by bank.
Clerical Connected with the work of a clerk in an office.
Complaints Satisfied with something.
Equated P.T and P.P. of equate. To consider one thing as being the same as something
else.
Exceed To be greater than something. To go beyond what is allowed or necessary.
Feedback Information about something that you have done or made.
Fit to purpose To be the right size for the purpose.
Fore To see in advance.
Improvements Changes which make the quality better.
Mold A type of fungus that grows in warm, damp places or food that has kept too
long.
Pattern An arrangement of something.
Raw In the natural state.
Retailing The selling of goods to the public in small parts.
Six-Sigma It's a kind of standard deviations on a distribution
applied to the quality control.
Tracked P.T and P.P. form of track. To follow signs in order to
find something.
Vessel A hollow utensil, such as a cup, vase, or pitcher, used as
a container, especially for liquids Fig. 11
Vessel
Weakness The state of being weak. Easy to influence or not
physically strong.
Certification Validating the authenticity of something or someone.
Audit Examine carefully for accuracy with the intent of verification.
Requirement Its a singular documented need of what a particular product or service should
be or do.
Standardized Evaluated by comparing with a standard.
Customer someone who pays for goods or services; client.
Supplier someone whose business is to provide a particular service or commodity;
provider.

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 Unit 1

QUALITY CONTROL
In engineering and manufacturing, quality control and quality engineering are
involved in developing systems to ensure products or services are designed and
produced to meet or exceed customer requirements. These systems are often
developed in conjunction with other business and engineering disciplines using a
cross-functional approach.

QUALITY ASSURANCE
Quality Assurance covers all activities from design, development, production,
installation, servicing and documentation. This introduced the rules: "fit for purpose"
and "do it right the first time". It includes the regulation of the quality of raw
materials, assemblies, products and components; services related to production; and
management, production, and inspection processes.

One of the most widely used paradigms for QA management is the PDCA (Plan-Do-
Check-Act) approach, also known as the Shewhart cycle.

FAILURE TESTING
A valuable process to perform on a whole consumer product is failure testing, the
operation of a product until it fails, often under stresses such as increasing vibration,
temperature and humidity. This exposes many unanticipated weaknesses in a
product, and the data is used to drive engineering and manufacturing process
improvements. Often quite simple changes can dramatically improve product service,
such as changing to mold-resistant paint or adding lock-washer placement to the
training for new assembly personnel.

STATISTICAL CONTROL
Many organizations use statistical process control to bring the organization to Six
Sigma levels of quality, in other words, so that the likelihood of an unexpected failure
is confined to six standard deviations on the normal distribution. This probability is
less than four one-millionths. Items controlled often include clerical tasks such as
order-entry as well as conventional manufacturing tasks.

Traditional statistical process controls in manufacturing operations usually proceed

by randomly sampling and testing a fraction of the output. Variances of critical
tolerances are continuously tracked, and manufacturing processes are corrected
before bad parts can be produced.

COMPANY QUALITY
During the 1980s, the concept of company quality with the focus on management
and people came to the fore. It was realized that, if all departments approached quality
with an open mind, success was possible if the management led the quality
improvement process.

21
 Quality Control
The company-wide quality approach places an emphasis on three aspects:
1. Elements such as controls, job management, adequate processes, performance
and integrity criteria and identification of records
2. Competence such as knowledge, skills, experience, qualifications
3. Soft elements, such as personnel integrity, confidence, organizational culture,
motivation, team spirit and quality relationships.

The quality of the outputs is at risk if any of these three aspects are deficient in any
way.

The approach to quality management given here is therefore not limited to the

Design work
manufacturing theatre only but can be applied to any business activity:

Administrative services
Consulting
Banking
Insurance
Computer software
Retailing
Transportation

It comprises a quality improvement process, which is generic in the sense it can be

applied to any of these activities and it establishes a behavior pattern, which supports
the achievement of quality.

This in turn is supported by quality management practices which can include a

number of business systems and which are usually specific to the activities of the
business unit concerned.

In manufacturing and construction activities, these business practices can be equated

to the models for quality assurance defined by the International Standards contained
in the ISO 9000 series and the specified Specifications for quality systems.

Still, in the system of Company Quality, the work being carried out was shop floor
inspection which did not control the major quality problems. This led to quality
assurance or total quality control, which has come into being recently.

TOTAL QUALITY CONTROL

Total Quality Control is the most necessary inspection control of all in cases where,
despite statistical quality control techniques or quality improvements implemented,
sales decrease.

The major problem which leads to a decrease in sales was that the specifications did
not include the most important factor, What the customer required.
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 Unit 1

The major characteristics, ignored during the search to improve manufacture and
overall business performance were:
Reliability
Maintainability
Safety

As the most important factor had been ignored, a few refinements had to be

Marketing had to carry out their work properly and define the customers
introduced:

specifications.
Specifications had to be defined to conform to these requirements.
Conformance to specifications i.e. drawings, standards and other relevant
documents, were introduced during manufacturing, planning and control.
Management had to confirm all operators are equal to the work imposed on
them and holidays, celebrations and disputes did not affect any of the quality
levels.
Inspections and tests were carried out, and all components and materials,
bought in or otherwise, conformed to the specifications, and the measuring
equipment was accurate, this is the responsibility of the QA/QC department.
Any complaints received from the customers were satisfactorily dealt with in a
timely manner.
Feedback from the user/customer is used to review designs.
Consistent data recording and assessment and documentation integrity.
Product and/or process change management and notification.

If the original specification does not reflect the correct quality requirements, quality
cannot be inspected or manufactured into the product.

For instance, all parameters for a pressure vessel should include not only the material
and dimensions but operating, environmental, safety, reliability and maintainability
requirements.

To conclude, the above forms the basis from which the philosophy of Quality
Assurance has evolved, and the achievement of quality or the fitness-for-purpose is
Quality Awareness throughout the company.

QUALITY MANAGEMENT
Quality management is a method for ensuring that all the activities necessary to
design, develop and implement a product or service are effective and efficient with
respect to the system and its performance.

23
 Quality Control
The following diagram is the Shewhart cycle (PDCA) for quality improvements.

The philosophy is to keep improving the quality of an organization. It is defined by

four keys:
Plan: Design or revise business process components to
improve results
Do: Implement the plan and measure its performance
Check: Assess the measurements and report the results
to decision makers
Act: Decide on changes needed to improve the process

The consolidation phase enables the organization to take

stock of what has been taking place and to ensure made to
Fig. 12
Shewhart Cycle
processes that require documentation.

QUALITY MANAGEMENT STANDARDS

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) created the Quality
Management System (QMS) standards in 1987. These were the ISO 9000:1987 series
of standards comprising ISO 9001:1987, ISO 9002:1987 and ISO 9003:1987; which
were applicable in different types of industries, based on the type of activity or
process: designing, production or service delivery.

The Quality Management System standards created by ISO are meant to certify the
processes and the system of an organization and not the product or service itself. ISO
9000 standards do not certify the quality of the product or service.

ISO standards provide requirements or give guidance on good management practice

are among the best known of ISO's offering. Of these, two have achieved truly global
status and are now thoroughly integrated with the world economy:

ISO 9001:2000
This gives the requirements for quality management systems, is now firmly
established as the globally implemented standard for providing assurance about the
ability to satisfy quality requirements and to enhance customer satisfaction in
supplier-customer relationships.

The organization may thus avoid multiple audits by its clients, or reduce the frequency
or duration of client audits. The certificate can also serve as a business reference
between the organization and potential clients, especially when supplier and client are
new to each other, or far removed geographically, as in an export context.

ISO 9000 ESSENTIALS

This section concisely describes the essential features of the ISO 9000 family. The
ISO 9000 family of standards represents an international consensus on good quality

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management practices. It consists of standards and guidelines relating to quality

management systems and related supporting standards.
ISO 9001:2000 is the standard that provides a set of standardized requirements for a
quality management system, regardless of what the user organization does, its size, or
whether it is in the private, or public sector. It is the only standard in the family
against which organizations can be certified although certification is not a
compulsory requirement of the standard.

The other standards in the family cover specific aspects such as fundamentals and
vocabulary, performance improvements, documentation, training, and financial and
economic aspects.

WHY AN ORGANIZATION SHOULD IMPLEMENT ISO 9001:2000

Without satisfied customers, an organization is in peril! To keep customers
satisfied, the organization needs to meet their requirements. The ISO 9001:2000
standard provides a tried and tested framework for taking a systematic approach to
managing the organization's processes so that they consistently turn out product
that satisfies customers' expectations.

HOW THE ISO 9001:2000 MODEL WORKS

The requirements for a quality system have been standardized - but many
organizations like to think of themselves as unique. So how does ISO 9001:2000
allow for the diversity of say, on the one hand, a "Mr. and Mrs." enterprise, and on
the other, to a multinational manufacturing company with service components, or a
public utility, or a government administration?

The answer is that ISO 9001:2000 lays down what requirements your quality
system must meet, but does not dictate how they should be met in any particular
organization. This leaves great scope and flexibility for implementation in different
business sectors and business cultures, as well as in different national cultures.

CHECKING THAT IT WORKS

1. The standard requires the organization itself to audit its ISO 9001:2000-based
quality system to verify that it is managing its processes effectively - or, to put it
another way, to check that it is fully in control of its activities.
2. In addition, the organization may invite its clients to audit the quality system in
order to give them confidence that the organization is capable of delivering
products or services that will meet their requirements.
3. Lastly, the organization may engage the services of an independent quality
system certification body to obtain an ISO 9001:2000 certificate of conformity.
This last option has proved extremely popular in the market-place because of
the perceived credibility of an independent assessment.

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 Quality Control

EXERCISES
Vocabulary Review:
Write the word that corresponds to the definition.
1. Developing from simple forms to complex forms. ________________________
2. Standard deviations on a distribution applied to the
quality control. ________________________
3. Changes which make the quality better ________________________
4. Information about something that has already done
or made. _________________________
5. To have the right size for the purpose. _________________________
6. In a natural state. _________________________
7. The type of business done by bank _________________________
8. Client. _________________________
9. Provider. _________________________
10. Something that validate the authenticity. _________________________

True or False:
Write T if the statement is true or F if the statement is false.

1. PDCA stands for People-Domestic-Consumer-Act _______

2. ISO 9000 standards do not certify the quality of the product or service. _______
3. Quality Control is a discipline that cant be combine with other
disciplines. _______
4. Materials in a raw state are not important for quality control. _______
5. A valuable process to perform on a whole consumer product is failure
testing. _______

Reading Comprehension:
Fill in the blanks or answer the questions.
1. Why do many organizations use statistical process control?

2. Which activities does Quality Assurance cover?

3. The company-wide quality approach places an emphasis on three aspects. They

are:

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4. ISO stands for:

5. What do ISO standards provide?

6. In which cases is Quality Control most necessary?

Writing Exercise:
Write a compare/contrast paragraph in which you make comparison about products that
havent passed through quality control and products that have passed through it.

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27
 Production

PRODUCTION
VOCABULARY
Production The act of making objects.
Cost The total spent for goods or services including money and time and labor.
Manufacturing The act of making something (a product) from raw materials.
Storing To reserve or put away for future use.
Shipping The act or business of transporting goods.
Packaging The business of parking. (the enclosure of something in a package or box)
Consumption The utilization of economic goods to satisfy needs.
Rate A quantity or amount or measure considered as a proportion of another
quantity or amount or measure.
Capital goods Goods, such as machinery, used in the production of commodities; producer
goods.
Entrepreneur A person who has possession over a new enterprise or venture and assumes
full accountability for the inherent risks and the outcome.
Equipment An instrumentality needed for an undertaking or to perform a service.
Managerial Of or relating to the function or responsibility or activity of management.
Economic rent The return derived from cultivated land in excess of that derived from the
poorest land cultivated under similar conditions.
Distribution The commercial activity of transporting and selling goods from a producer to a
consumer.
Feasible Of being done with means at hand and circumstances as they are.
Commodity Articles of commerce.
Assert To declare or affirm solemnly and formally as true.
Income The amount of money or its equivalent received during a period of time in
exchange for labor or services.
Marginal Of questionable or minimal quality, just barely adequate or within a lower limit
Accounting The bookkeeping methods involved in making a financial record of business
transactions and in the preparation of statements concerning the assets,
liabilities, and operating results of a business.
Mark-up A term for the increase in the price of goods to create a profit margin for a
business.
Profit An advantageous gain or return; benefit.
Pricing The evaluation of something in terms of its price.
Revenue A business term for the amount of money that a company receives from its
activities in a given period, mostly from sales of products and/or services to
customers. It is not to be confused with the terms "profits" or "net income"
which generally means total revenue minus total expenses in a given period.
Campaign Several related operations aimed at achieving a particular goal.

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Quote To state (a price) for securities, goods, or services.

Shipment The act of sending off something; goods carried by
a large vehicle.
Invoice A detailed list of goods shipped or services
rendered, with an account of all costs; an itemized
bill.
Effective price Its the price the company receives after
accounting for discounts, promotions, and other
incentives.
Price lining The offering of merchandise at a number of specific
but predetermined prices. Fig. 13
Invoice
Offerings Something offered.
Loss leader A loss leader or leader (also called a key value item in the United Kingdom) is
a product sold at a low price.
Enterprise A business organization.
Customer Someone who pays for goods or services.
Promotional pricing
Refers to an instance where pricing is the key element of the marketing mix.
Premium price Is the strategy of consistently pricing at, or near, the high end of the possible
price range to help attract status-conscious consumers.
Skimming Failure to declare income in order to avoid paying taxes on it.
Framing Formulation of the plans and important details.
Yield The quantity of something (as a commodity) that is created (usually within a
given period of time).
.

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 Production

PRODUCTION, COSTS AND PRICING

In microeconomics, production is the act of making things; in particular the act of
making products that will be traded or sold commercially. Production decisions
concentrate on what goods to produce, how to produce them, the costs of producing
them, and optimizing the mix of resource inputs used in their production. This
production information can then be combined with market information to determine
the quantity of products to produce and the optimum 'pricing'.

ASPECTS OF PRODUCTION AND PRICING THEORY

In microeconomics, Production is simply the conversion of inputs into outputs. It is an
economic process that uses resources to create a commodity that is suitable for
exchange. This can include manufacturing, storing, shipping, and packaging. Some
economists define production broadly as all economic activity other than
consumption. They see every commercial activity other than the final purchase as
some form of production.

Production is a process, and as such it occurs through time and space. Because it is a
flow concept, production is measured as a rate of output per period of time. There
are three aspects to production processes:
1. the quantity of the commodity produced,
2. the form of the good created,
3. the temporal and spatial distribution of the commodity produced.

A production process can be defined as any activity that increases the similarity
between the pattern of demand for goods, and the quantity, form, and distribution of
these goods available to the market place.

EFFICIENCY AND CROSS-EFFICIENCY

A production process is efficient if a given quantity of outputs cannot be produced
with any less inputs. It is said to be inefficient when there exists another feasible
process that, for any given output, uses less inputs. Some economists (in particular
Leibenstein) use the term X-efficiency to indicate that production processes tend to be
inherently inefficient due to satisficing behavior. The rate of efficiency is simply the
amount of (or value of) outputs divided by the amount of (or value of) inputs.

FACTORS OF PRODUCTION
The inputs or resources used in the production process are called factors by
economists. The myriad of possible inputs are usually grouped into four or five
categories. These factors are:
Raw materials
Labor services
Capital goods
Land
Enterpreneur

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A fixed factor of production is one whose quantity cannot readily be changed.

Examples include major pieces of equipment, suitable factory space, and key
managerial personnel.

A variable factor of production is one whose usage rate can be changed easily.
Examples include electrical power consumption, transportation services, and most
raw material inputs. In the short run, a firms scale of operations determines the
maximum number of outputs that can be produced. In the long run, there are no
scale limitations.

ECONOMIC RENT
Economic rent is the difference between what a factor of production is paid and how
much it would need to be paid to remain in its current use. There are multiple
mechanisms that can create economic rent: political contrivance, network effect,
monopoly power, star power, etc.

In neoclassical parlance, an economic rent is the difference between the income from a
factor of production in a particular use, and either the cost of bringing the factor into
economic use (Classical factor rent), or the opportunity cost of using the factor, where
opportunity cost is defined as the current income minus the income available in the
next best use (Paretian factor rent). In other words, economic rent is generally defined
as the difference between the income in the current use of the factor and the absolute
minimum required to draw a factor into a particular use. But this neoclassical
treatment does not tell us whether the income is earned by virtue of a contribution to
the society, or simply created by natural happenstance or government sanction and
taken by virtue of unearned privilege. And it is that distinction which is essential to
any proper understanding of the term.

DISTRIBUTION
Distribution in economics refers to the way total output or income is distributed
among individuals or among the factors of production (labor, land, and capital)
(Samuelson and Nordhaus, 2001, p. 762). In general theory and the national income
and product accounts, each unit of output corresponds to a unit of income. One use of
national accounts is for classifying factor incomes and measuring their respective
shares, as in National Income. But, where focus is on income of persons or
households, adjustments to the national accounts or other data sources are frequently
used.

PRODUCTION POSSIBILITIES FRONTIER

In economics, a production possibilities frontier (PPF) or transformation curve is a
graph that shows the different quantities of two goods that an economy (or agent)
could efficiently produce with limited productive resources. Points along the curve
describe the trade-off between the two goods, that is, the opportunity cost.
Opportunity cost here measures how much an additional unit of one good costs in
units forgone of the other good. The curve illustrates that increasing production of one

31
 Production
good reduces maximum production of the other good as resources are transferred
away from the other good.

PRODUCTIVE EFFICIENCY, OPPORTUNITY COST, AND ALLOCATIVE

EFFICIENCY
The production possibilities curve shows the maximum feasible (obtainable) amount of
one commodity for any given amount of another commodity, as of the society's
technology and the amount of factors of
production available. The concept is used
to show the options open to a firm,
individual, household, or economy for a 2-
good world. In microeconomics, the 2-good
case readily generalizes to the n-good case.
In macroeconomics, it illustrates the
production possibilities available to a
nation or economy (corresponding roughly
to macroeconomic notions of potential
output at a given point on the curve) for
Fig. 14
broad categories of output. All points on a
Example of production possibilities curve production possibilities curve are points of
maximum productive efficiency or
minimum productive inefficiency: allocated such that it is impossible to increase the
output of one commodity without reducing the output of the other. That is, there must
be a sacrifice, an opportunity cost (given by the slope of the curve in absolute value),
for increasing the production of a good by one unit. Conversely, points inside the
frontier are feasible but productively inefficient.

PRODUCTION FUNCTION
In microeconomics, a production function asserts that the maximum output of a
technologically-determined production process is a mathematical function of input
factors of production. Considering the set of all technically feasible combinations of
output and inputs, only the combinations encompassing a maximum output for a
specified set of inputs would constitute the production function. Alternatively, a
production function can be defined as the specification of the minimum input
requirements needed to produce designated quantities of output, given available
technology. It is usually presumed that unique production functions can be
constructed for every production technology.

The primary purpose of the production function is to address allocative efficiency in

the use of factor inputs in production and the resulting distribution of income to those
factors. Under certain assumptions, the production function can be used to derive a
marginal product for each factor, which implies an ideal division of the income
generated from output into an income due to each input factor of production.

COST
In economics, business, and accounting, a cost is the value of money that has been
used up to produce something, and hence is not available for use anymore. In
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business, the cost may be one of acquisition, in which case the amount of money
expended to acquire it is counted as cost. In this case, money is the input that is gone
in order to acquire the thing. This acquisition cost may be the sum of the cost of
production as incurred by the original producer, and further costs of transaction as
incurred by the acquirer over and above the price paid to the producer. Usually, the
price also includes a mark-up for profit over the cost of production.

Costs are often further described based on their timing or their applicability.

PRICING
Pricing is one of the four p's of the marketing mix. The other three aspects are
product, promotion, and place. It is also a key variable in microeconomic price
allocation theory. Price is the only revenue generating element amongst the 4ps, the
rest being cost centers. Pricing is the manual or automatic process of applying prices
to purchase and sales orders, based on factors such as: a fixed amount, quantity
break, promotion or sales campaign, specific vendor quote, price prevailing on entry,
shipment or invoice date, combination of multiple orders or lines, and many others.
Automated systems require more setup and maintenance but may prevent pricing
errors.

DEFINITIONS
The effective price is the price the company receives after accounting for discounts,
promotions, and other incentives.

Price lining is the use of a limited number of prices for all your product offerings. This
is a tradition started in the old five and dime stores in which everything cost either 5
or 10 cents. Its underlying rationale is that these amounts are seen as suitable price
points for a whole range of products by prospective customers. It has the advantage of
ease of administering, but the disadvantage of inflexibility, particularly in times of
inflation or unstable prices.

A loss leader is a product that has a price set below the operating margin. This
results in a loss to the enterprise on that particular item, but this is done in the hope
that it will draw customers into the store and that some of those customers will buy
other, higher margin items.

Promotional pricing refers to an instance where pricing is the key element of the
marketing mix.

The price/quality relationship refers to the perception by most consumers that a

relatively high price is a sign of good quality. The belief in this relationship is most
important with complex products that are hard to test, and experiential products that
cannot be tested until used (such as most services). The greater the uncertainty
surrounding a product, the more consumers depend on the price/quality hypothesis
and the more of a premium they are prepared to pay.

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 Production
Premium pricing (also called prestige pricing) is the strategy of consistently pricing
at, or near, the high end of the possible price range to help attract status-conscious
consumers. A few examples of companies which partake in premium pricing in the
marketplace include Rolex and Bentley. People will buy a premium priced product
because:
1. They believe the high price is an indication of good quality;
2. They believe it to be a sign of self worth - "They are worth it" - It authenticates
their success and status - It is a signal to others that they are a member of an
exclusive group; and
3. They require flawless performance in this application - The cost of product
malfunction is too high to buy anything but the best - example : heart
pacemaker

The term Goldilocks pricing is commonly used to describe the practice of providing a
"gold-plated" version of a product at a premium price in order to make the next-lower
priced option look more reasonably priced

The name derives from the Goldilocks story, in which Goldilocks chose neither the
hottest nor the coldest porridge, but instead the one that was "just right". More
technically, this form of pricing exploits the general cognitive bias of aversion to
extremes. This practice is known academically as "framing". By providing three
options (i.e. small, medium, and large; first, business, and coach classes) you can
manipulate the consumer into choosing the middle choice and thus, the middle choice
should yield the most profit to the seller, since it is the most chosen option.

Demand-based pricing is any pricing method that uses consumer demand - based on
perceived value - as the central element. These include : price skimming, price
discrimination and yield management, price points, psychological pricing, bundle
pricing, penetration pricing, price lining, value-based pricing, geo and premium
pricing.

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 Unit 1

EXERCISES
Vocabulary Review:
Match words with their correct definitions.

1. Commodity _______ The act of making products.

2. Accounting _______ The utilization of economic goods to satisfy needs.
3. Loss leader _______ Articles of commerce.
4. Skimming _______ An advantageous gain or return; benefit.
5. Profit _______ It is a product sold at a low price.
6. Production _______ The commercial activity of transporting and selling
goods from a producer to a consumer.
7. Consumption _______ The evaluation of something in terms of its price.
8. Enterprise _______ A business organization.
9. Distribution _______ Failure to declare income in order to avoid paying
taxes on it.
10. Pricing _______ The bookkeeping methods involved in making a
financial record of business transactions and in the
preparation of statements concerning the assets,
liabilities, and operating results of a business.

True or False:
Write T if the statement is true or F if the statement is false.
1. Production information can be combined with market information
to determine the quantity of products to produce and the optimum
'pricing'. _______
2. We can say that production is simply the conversion of inputs into
outputs. _______
3. The unique mechanism that can create economic rent is low prices. _______
4. Premium pricing is the strategy of give product under their real cost
in order to attract poor costumers. _______
5. Economic rent is the difference between the income in the current use
of the factor and the absolute minimum required to draw a factor into a
particular use. _______

Reading Comprehension:
Fill in the blanks or answer the questions.
1. What are the four ps of marketing?

35
 Production
2. Do you think that premium pricing is a good way to obtain profits?

3. Why raw material is a factor of production?

4. Whats the difference between cost and price?

5. What can we obtain with a production possibilities curve?

Writing Exercise:
Write in your own words the differences between effective price, price lining, promotional
pricing, premium pricing and goldilocks pricing

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 Unit 1

PLANNING
VOCABULARY
Organizational It is related to an organization.
Scale A system of ordered marks at fixed intervals used as a reference standard in
measurement.
Endeavor Purposeful or industrious activity; enterprise.
Issues Something produced, published, or offered.
Framework A fundamental structure.
Policy plan of action adopted by an enterprise.
Blue print is a type of paper-based reproduction usually of a technical drawing
documenting an architecture or an engineering design. More generally, the
term "blueprint" has come to be used to refer to any detailed plan.
Pursue to try hard to achieve.
Benchmarking A standard by which something can be measured or judged.
Target A desired goal. a fixed goal or objective.
Goal The purpose toward which an endeavor is directed; an objective.
Mission A specific task or duty assigned to a person or group of people.
Vision The manner in which one sees or conceives of something.
Manager One who directs a business or other enterprise.
Scheduling A plan for performing work or achieving an objective, specifying the order and
allotted time for each part.
Trial An effort or attempt.
Balance scorecard
A performance metric used in strategic management to identify and improve
various internal functions and their resulting external outcomes. The balanced
scorecard attempts to measure and provide feedback to organizations in order
to assist in implementing strategies and objectives.
Mentors A wise and trusted guide and advisor.
Tutors A person who gives private instruction.
Metrics The science of meter.
Coined A mode of expression considered standard.
Deployed To distribute (persons or forces) systematically or strategically.
Feedback The return of information about the result of a process or activity; an
evaluative response.
Watchwords A slogan, a secret word or phrase known only to a restricted group.

37
 Planning

PLANNING
Planning is both the organizational process of creating and maintaining a plan;
and the psychological process of thinking about the activities required to create a
desired future on some scale. As such, it is a fundamental property of intelligent
behavior. This thought process is essential to the creation and refinement of a plan, or
integration of it with other plans, that is, it combines forecasting of developments with
the preparation of scenarios of how to react to them.

The term is also used to describe the formal procedures used in such an
endeavor, such as the creation of documents, diagrams, or meetings to discuss the
important issues to be addressed, the objectives to be met, and the strategy to be
followed. Beyond this, planning has a different meaning depending on the political or
economic context in which it is used.

THE PLANNING PROCESS

The planning process provides the framework for developing conservation plans on the
basis of ecological, economic, social,
and policy considerations.
Implementation of these plans may
then be facilitated by utilizing
technical, educational, and
financial assistance programs from
NRCS or other sources.

The same planning process is

Fig. 15
Planning Process
implementing planned activities.
used to develop conservation plans
and area wide conservation plans or
assessments, but different activities
are required to complete each step
of the process. This reflects the
desired future conditions developed
in conjunction with the client and
other stakeholders in the area. The
stakeholders may, or more likely
may not, be decision-makers for

APPLICATIONS
IN PUBLIC POLICY
Planning refers to the practice and the profession associated with the idea of
planning an idea yourself, (land use planning, urban planning or spatial planning). In
many countries, the operation of a town and country planning system is often referred
to as 'planning' and the professionals which operate the system are known as

38
 Unit 1

'planners'....... Planning is a process for accomplishing purpose. It is blue print of

business growth and a road map of development. It helps in deciding objectives both
in quantitative and qualitative terms. It is setting of goals on the basis of objectives
and keeping in view the resources.

It is an anticipatory decision making process that helps in coping with

complexities. It is deciding future course of action from amongst alternatives. It is a
process that involves making and evaluating each set of interrelated decisions. It is
selection of missions, objectives and translation of knowledge into action.

A planned performance brings better results compared to unplanned one. A

Managers job is planning, monitoring and controlling. Planning and goal setting are
important traits of an organization. It is done at all levels of the organization. Planning
includes the plan, the thought process, action, and implementation. Planning gives
more power over the future. Planning is deciding in advance what to do, how to do it,
when to do it, and who should do it. It bridges the gap from where the organization is
to where it wants to be. The planning function involves establishing goals and
arranging them in logical order.

1. Purpose of Plan:
It is important to prepare a plan keeping in view the necessities of the
enterprise. A plan is important aspect of business. It serves following three

Helps management to clarify, focus and research their businesses or

critical functions:

Provides a considered and logical framework within which a

project's development and prospects.

business can develop and pursue business strategies over the next

Offers a benchmark against which actual performance can be

three to five years.

measured and reviewed.

2. How a plan should be?

A plan should be a realistic view of the expectations. Depending upon the
activities, a plan can be Long Range, Intermediate range and of Short
range. For management seeking external support, the plan is the most
important document and key to growth.

3. Importance of the planning Process:

A plan can avoid mistakes or recognize hidden opportunities. Preparing a
satisfactory plan of the organization is essential. The planning process
enables management to understand more clearly what they want to
achieve, and how and when they can do it.
A well-prepared business plan demonstrates that the managers know the
business and that they have thought through its development in terms of
products, management, finances, and most importantly, markets and
competition.

39
 Planning
4. Preparing Plan:
For a comprehensive business plan, management has to clearly define the

target / goal in writing.

It should be set by person having authority

The goal should be realistic

Specific

Acceptability
Easily measurable

IN ORGANIZATIONS
Planning is also a management function, concerned with defining goals for
future organizational performance and deciding on the tasks and resources to be used
in order to attain those goals. To meet the goals, managers may develop plans such as
a business plan or a marketing plan. Planning always has a purpose. The purpose
may be achievement of certain goals or targets. The planning helps to achieve these
goals or target by using the available time and resources. To minimize the timing and
resources also require proper planning.

AUTOMATED PLANNING AND SCHEDULING

Automated planning and scheduling is a branch of artificial intelligence that
concerns the realization of strategies or action sequences, typically for execution by
intelligent agents, autonomous robots and unmanned vehicles. Unlike classical
control and classification problems, the solutions are complex, unknown and have to
be discovered and optimized in multidimensional space.

A typical planner takes three inputs: a description of the initial state of the
world, a description of the desired goal, and a set of possible actions, all encoded in a
formal language such as STRIPS. The planner produces a sequence of actions that
lead from the initial state to a state meeting the goal. An alternative language for
describing planning problems is that of hierarchical task networks, in which a set of
tasks is given, and each task can be either realized by a primitive action or
decomposed in a set of other tasks.

STRATEGIC PLANNING
Strategic planning is an organization's process of defining its strategy, or
direction, and making decisions on allocating its resources to pursue this strategy,
including its capital and people. Various business analysis techniques can be used in
strategic planning, including SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities,
and Threats) and PEST analysis (Political, Economic, Social, and Technological
analysis).

Strategies are different from tactics in that:

1. They are proactive and not re-active as tactics are.

40
 Unit 1

2. They are internal in source and the business venture has absolute control over
its application.
3. Strategy can only be applied once, after that it is process of application with no
unique element remaining.
4. The outcome is normally a strategic plan which is used as guidance to define
functional and divisional plans, including technology, marketing, etc.

Strategic Planning is the formal consideration of an organization's future course.

All strategic planning deals with at least one of three key questions:
1. "What do we do?"
2. "For whom do we do it?"
3. "How do we excel?"

VISION, MISSION AND VALUES

Vision: Defines where the organization wants to be in the future. It reflects the

optimistic view of the organization's future.
Mission: Defines where the organization is going now, basically describing the

purpose, why this organization exists.
Values: Main values protected by the organization during the progression,
reflecting the organization's culture and priorities.

Strategic planning saves wasted time, every minute spent in planning saves ten
minutes in execution. The purpose of individual strategic planning is for you to
increase your return on energy, the return on the mental, emotional, physical and
spiritual capital you have invested in your life and career.

METHODOLOGIES
There are many approaches to strategic planning but typically a three-step process
may be used:
Situation - evaluate the current situation and how it came about.
Target - define goals and/or objectives (sometimes called ideal state)
Path - map a possible route to the goals/objectives

One alternative approach is called Draw-See-Think

Draw - what is the ideal image or the desired end state?
See - what is today's situation? What is the gap from ideal and why?
Think - what specific actions must be taken to close the gap between today's
situation and the ideal state?
Plan - what resources are required to execute the activities?

An alternative to the Draw-See-Think approach is called See-Think-Draw

See - what is today's situation?
Think - define goals/objectives
Draw - map a route to achieving the goals/objectives

In other terms strategic planning can be as follows:

41
 Planning
Vision - Define the vision and set a mission statement with hierarchy of goals
SWOT - Analysis conducted according to the desired goals
Formulate - Formulate actions and processes to be taken to attain these goals
Implement - Implementation of the agreed upon processes
Control - Monitor and get feedback from implemented processes to fully control
the operation

SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS
The analysis has to be executed at an internal level as well as an external level to
identify all opportunities and threats of the new strategy.
There are several factors to assess in the external situation analysis:
1. Markets (customers)
2. Competition
3. Technology
4. Supplier markets
5. Labor markets
6. The economy
7. The regulatory environment

It is rare to find all seven of these factors having critical importance. It is also
uncommon to find that the first two - markets and competition - are not of critical
importance. Analysis of the external environment normally focuses on the customer.
Management should be visionary in formulating customer strategy, and should do so
by thinking about market environment shifts, how these could impact customer sets,
and whether those customer sets are the ones the company wishes to serve.
Analysis of the competitive environment is also performed, many times based on the
framework suggested by Michael Porter.

GOALS, OBJECTIVES AND TARGETS

Strategic planning is a very important business activity. It is also important in
the public sector areas such as education. It is practiced widely informally and
formally. Strategic planning and decision processes should end with objectives and a
roadmap of ways to achieve those objectives.

desired end states,

The following terms have been used in Strategic Planning:

plans,
policies,
goals,
objectives,
strategies,
tactics and
actions.

One model of organizing objectives uses hierarchies. The items listed above may be
organized in a hierarchy of means and ends and numbered as follows: Top Rank
Objective (TRO), Second Rank Objective, Third Rank Objective, etc. From any rank,

42
 Unit 1

the objective in a lower rank answers to the question "How?" and the objective in a
higher rank answers to the question "Why?"

People typically have several goals at the same time. "Goal congruency" refers to how
well the goals combine with each other. Does goal A appear compatible with goal B?
Do they fit together to form a unified strategy? "Goal hierarchy" consists of the nesting
of one or more goals within other goal(s).

One approach recommends having short-term goals, medium-term goals, and

long-term goals. In this model, one can expect to attain short-term goals fairly easily:
they stand just slightly above one's reach. At the other extreme, long-term goals
appear very difficult, almost impossible to attain. Strategic management use one goal
as a stepping-stone to the next involves goal sequencing. A person or group starts by
attaining the easy short-term goals, then steps up to the medium-term, then to the
long-term goals. Goal sequencing can create a "goal stairway".

MISSION STATEMENTS AND VISION STATEMENTS

Organizations sometimes summarize goals and objectives into a mission statement
and/or a vision statement:
While the existence of a shared mission is extremely useful, many strategy specialists
question the requirement for a written mission statement. However, there are many
models of strategic planning that start with mission statements, so it is useful to
examine them here.
A Mission statement: tells you what the company is now. It concentrates on
present; it defines the customer(s), critical processes and it informs you about
the desired level of performance.
A Vision statement: outlines what a company wants to be. It concentrates on
future; it is a source of inspiration; it provides clear decision-making criteria.
Many people mistake vision statement for mission statement. The Vision describes
a future identity and the Mission describes why it will be achieved. A Mission
statement defines the purpose or broader goal for being in existence or in the
business. It serves as an ongoing guide without time frame. The mission can remain
the same for decades if crafted well. Vision is more specific in terms of objective and
future state. Vision is related to some form of achievement if successful.

A mission statement can resemble a vision statement in a few companies, but that
can be a grave mistake. It can confuse people. The vision statement can galvanize the
people to achieve defined objectives, even if they are stretch objectives, provided the
vision is SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant and Timebound). A
mission statement provides a path to realize the vision in line with its values. These
statements have a direct bearing on the bottom-line and success of the organization.

To become really effective, an organizational vision statement must (the theory states)
become assimilated into the organization's culture. Leaders have the responsibility of
communicating the vision regularly, creating narratives that illustrate the vision,
acting as role-models by embodying the vision, creating short-term objectives

43
 Planning
compatible with the vision, and encouraging others to craft their own personal vision
compatible with the organization's overall vision.

BALANCED SCORECARD
The balanced scorecard is a strategic planning and management system that is
used extensively in business and industry, government, and nonprofit organizations
worldwide to align business activities to the vision and strategy of the organization,
improve internal and external communications, and monitor organization performance
against strategic goals. It was originated by Drs. Robert Kaplan (Harvard Business
School) and David Norton as a performance measurement framework that added
strategic non-financial performance measures to traditional financial metrics to give
managers and executives a more 'balanced' view of organizational performance. While
the phrase balanced scorecard was coined in the early 1990s, the roots of the this type
of approach are deep, and include the pioneering work of General Electric on
performance measurement reporting in the 1950s and the work of French process
engineers (who created the Tableau de Bord literally, a "dashboard" of performance
measures) in the early part of the 20th century.

The balanced scorecard has evolved from its early use as a simple performance
measurement framework to a full strategic planning and management system. The
new balanced scorecard transforms an organizations strategic plan from an
attractive but passive document into the "marching orders" for the organization on a
daily basis. It provides a framework that not only provides performance
measurements, but helps planners identify what should be done and measured. It
enables executives to truly execute their strategies.

Recognizing some of the weaknesses and vagueness of previous management

approaches, the balanced scorecard approach provides a clear prescription as to what
companies should measure in order to 'balance' the financial perspective. The
balanced scorecard is a management system (not only a measurement system) that
enables organizations to clarify their vision and strategy and translate them into
action. It provides feedback around both the internal business processes and external
outcomes in order to continuously improve strategic performance and results. When
fully deployed, the balanced scorecard transforms strategic planning from an
academic exercise into the nerve center of an enterprise.

The balanced scorecard suggests that we view the organization from four perspectives,
and to develop metrics, collect data and analyze it relative to each of these
perspectives:

THE LEARNING & GROWTH PERSPECTIVE

This perspective includes employee training and corporate cultural attitudes related to
both individual and corporate self-improvement. In a knowledge-worker organization,
people are the main resource. In the current climate of rapid technological change, it
is becoming necessary for knowledge workers to be in a continuous learning mode.

44
 Unit 1

Government agencies often find themselves unable to hire new technical workers, and
at the same time there is a decline in training of existing employees. Learning and
growth constitute the essential foundation for success of any knowledge-worker
organization.

Kaplan and Norton emphasize that 'learning' is more than 'training'; it also includes
things like mentors and tutors within the organization, as well as that ease of
communication among workers that allows them to readily get help on a problem
when it is needed. It also includes technological tools called "high performance work
systems."

THE BUSINESS PROCESS

PERSPECTIVE
This perspective refers to
internal business processes.
Metrics based on this
perspective allow the managers
to know how well their
business is running, and
whether its products and
services conform to customer
requirements (the mission).
These metrics have to be
carefully designed by those
who know these processes
most intimately; with our
Fig. 16 unique missions these are not
Balanced Scorecard something that can be
developed by outside
consultants.

In addition to the strategic management process, two kinds of business processes may
be identified: a) mission-oriented processes, and b) support processes. Mission-
oriented processes are the special functions of government offices, and many unique
problems are encountered in these processes. The support processes are more
repetitive in nature and hence easier to measure and benchmark using generic
metrics.

THE CUSTOMER PERSPECTIVE

Recent management philosophy has shown an increasing realization of the importance
of customer focus and customer satisfaction in any business. These are leading
indicators: if customers are not satisfied, they will eventually find other suppliers that
will meet their needs. Poor performance from this perspective is thus a leading
indicator of future decline, even though the current financial picture may look good.

45
 Planning
In developing metrics for satisfaction, customers should be analyzed in terms of kinds
of customers and the kinds of processes for which we are providing a product or
service to those customer groups.

THE FINANCIAL PERSPECTIVE

Timely and accurate funding data will always be a priority, and managers will do
whatever necessary to provide it. In fact, often there is more than enough handling
and processing of financial data. With the implementation of a corporate database, it
is hoped that more of the processing can be centralized and automated. But the point
is that the current emphasis on financials leads to the "unbalanced" situation with
regard to other perspectives.

There is perhaps a need to include additional financial-related data, such as risk

assessment and cost-benefit data, in this category.

THE BALANCED SCORECARD AND MEASUREMENT-BASED

MANAGEMENT
The balanced scorecard methodology builds on some key concepts of previous
management ideas such as Total Quality Management (TQM), including customer-
defined quality, continuous improvement, employee empowerment, and -- primarily --
measurement-based management and feedback.

DOUBLE-LOOP FEEDBACK
In traditional industrial activity, "quality control" and "zero defects" were the
watchwords. In order to shield the customer from receiving poor quality products,
aggressive efforts were focused on inspection and testing at the end of the production
line. The problem with this approach is that the true causes of defects could never be
identified, and there would always be inefficiencies due to the rejection of defects. If
the causes of variation are identified and fixed, people can reduce defects and improve
product quality indefinitely. To establish such a process all business processes should
be part of a system with feedback loops. The feedback data should be examined by
managers to determine the causes of variation, what are the processes with significant
problems, and then they can focus attention on fixing that subset of processes.

The balanced scorecard incorporates feedback around internal business process

outputs, as in TQM, but also adds a feedback loop around the outcomes of business
strategies. This creates a "double-loop feedback" process in the balanced scorecard.

OUTCOME METRICS
You can't improve what you can't measure. So metrics must be developed based on
the priorities of the strategic plan, which provides the key business drivers and criteria
for metrics that managers most desire to watch. Processes are then designed to collect
information relevant to these metrics and reduce it to numerical form for storage,
display, and analysis. Decision makers examine the outcomes of various measured

46
 Unit 1

processes and strategies and track the results to guide the company and provide
feedback.

MANAGEMENT BY FACT
Modern businesses depend upon measurement and analysis of performance.
Measurements must derive from the company's strategy and provide critical data and
information about key processes, outputs and results. Data and information needed
for performance measurement and improvement are of many types, including:
customer, product and service performance, operations, market, competitive
comparisons, supplier, employee-related, and cost and financial. Analysis entails
using data to determine trends, projections, and cause and effect -- that might not be
evident without analysis. Data and analysis support a variety of company purposes,
such as planning, reviewing company performance, improving operations, and
comparing company performance with competitors' or with 'best practices'
benchmarks.

A major consideration in performance improvement involves the creation and use of

performance measures or indicators. Performance measures or indicators are
measurable characteristics of products, services, processes, and operations the
company uses to track and improve performance. The measures or indicators should
be selected to best represent the factors that lead to improved customer, operational,
and financial performance. A comprehensive set of measures or indicators tied to
customer and/or company performance requirements represents a clear basis for
aligning all activities with the company's goals. Through the analysis of data from the
tracking processes, the measures or indicators themselves may be evaluated and
changed to better support such goals.

ACTUAL USAGE OF THE BALANCED SCORECARD

Kaplan and Norton found that companies are using the scorecard to:
Drive strategy execution
Clarify strategy and make strategy operational
Identify and align strategic initiatives
Link budget with strategy
Align the organization with strategy
Conduct periodic strategic performance reviews to learn about and improve
strategy.

Balanced scorecards have been implemented by government agencies, military units,

corporate units and corporations as a whole, nonprofits, and schools; many sample
scorecards can be found via Web searches, though adapting one organization's
scorecard to another is generally not advised by theorists, who believe that much of
the benefit of the scorecard comes from the implementation method.

47
 Planning

EXERCISES
Vocabulary Review:
Underline the word that corresponds to the definition.
1. Related to an organization.
Organizational Policy Benchmarking
2. Plan of action adopted by an enterprise.
Politics Planning Policy
3. A standard by which something can be measured
Benchmarking Target Scorecard
4. A specific task or duty assigned to a person or group of people
Value Mission Vision
5. Person who directs a business or other enterprise
Manager Director Conductor

True or False:
Write T if the statement is true or F if the statement is false.

1. Planning has a different meaning depending on the political or

economic context in which it is used. _______
2. It is important to prepare a plan keeping in view the necessities of
the enterprise. _______
3. Vision defines or describes where the purpose of the organization. _______
4. Strategic planning consumes a lot of time but improves the distribution
of products. _______
5. Balance scorecard uses a view of the organization from four perspectives,
but the most important is the customer perspective. _______

Reading Comprehension:
Fill in the blanks or answer the questions.
1. In a public policy, what does planning include?

2. Why do you think a plan has to be realistic?

48
 Unit 1

3. SWOT stands for?

4. In your own words, what are the differences between strategies and tactics?

5. What are the four perspectives of the balanced scorecard? Explain each one.

Writing Exercise:
Why is Planning important in business?

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49
 Review

UNIT REVIEW
A Underline the word that corresponds to the definition.
1. It is a scientific instrument that increases the kinetic energy of charged
particles
Raw Materials Particle Accelerator Antler

2. Using up gradually and only hints at harmful consequences

Deplete Challenge Productivity

3. A large satellite equipped to support a human crew and designed to remain in

orbit around Earth for an extended period and serve as a base or other space-
related activities.
Utility Oldowan Space Station

4. Any of various hand tools for scraping.

Crowbar Scraper Chopper

5. A mill that is powered by the wind.

Windmill Treadmill Pottery

6. Collection of techniques
Tools Technology Planning

7. It refers to an instance where pricing is the key element of the marketing mix:
Effective price Premium pricing Promotional pricing

8. It is the value of money that has been used up to produce something, and
hence is not available for use anymore.
Pricing Cost Production

9. In the sentence: Traditional statistical process controls in manufacturing

operation usually proceed by randomly sampling and testing a fraction of the
output. What is the closest meaning of sampling?
The process of copying and recording products.
The use of a small amount of a product in order to find out information.
A small amount of product that is given free to the public in order to show
them the product.

10. This defines where the organization wants to be in the future.

Mission Vision Values

11. It is a strategic planning and management system that is used extensively. It

was originated by Drs. Robert Kaplan and David Norton. This provides a clear
prescription and enables organizations to clarify their vision and strategy.
The customer Perspective Balanced Scorecard Pricing

50
 Unit 1

12. It is the relationship that society has with its tools and crafts.
Technology Management Control

13. In the sentence The earliest stone tools were crude, being little more than a
fractured rock. The closest meaning of crude is:
In its natural state. Done or made in a simple way.

Rude and offensive Not cooked

14. In the sentence When the production process is inefficient can be exist
another feasible process that uses less inputs or reasons. The closest
meaning of feasible is:
Ugly Determinant Possible to do

15. Careful and exact; without mistakes

Fit Pattern Accurate

16. It's a kind of standard deviations on a distribution applied to the quality

control.
Retailing Six-Sigma Shipping

17. Someone whose business is to provide a particular service or commodity;

provider.
Client Customer Supplier

18. QMS stands for

Quality Management System Quantity, Merchandising and Selling

Quart Money System

19. The utilization of economic goods to satisfy needs

Consumption Selling Productivity

20. Related to the function or responsibility or activity of management

Administrative Managerial Rent

21. The act of making things

Production Cost Pricing

22. Production is simply the conversion of inputs into outputs. This point of view
comes from:
Macroeconomics International Economy Microeconomics

23. It is the price that the company receives after accounting for discounts,
promotions, and other incentives.
Price lining Effective price Premium pricing

51
 Review
24. A product that has a price set below the operating margin
Sale Pricing Loss leader Economic rent

25. It is an organization's process of defining strategies or pursuing of them.

Balanced Scorecard Strategic Planning Pricing

Answer the questions or write in the provided spaces.

B 1. Sketch the Shewart Cycle:

2. Explain in your own words the development of technology.

3. Do you know what has to include an invoice, here in Guatemala? Explain

52
Unit 1

4. When is a production process is efficient

5. Name 3 factors of production and explain why they are important.

6. What are the 4 ps or marketing mix

7. Why is the purpose of plan very important in business.

8. SWOT stands for:

53
 Chapter
T WO

54
 Unit 2

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
VOCABULARY
Kinematics A branch of physics that deals with the motion of a body or system without
reference to force and mass.
Thermodynamics The branch of physics that deals with the conversions from one to another of
various forms of energy and how these affect temperature, pressure,
volume, mechanical action, and work.
Watercraft Skill in swimming, handling boats or other water-related activities.
Prototype A standard example of a particular kind, class, or group.
Tissue Organic body material in animals and plants made up of large numbers of
cells that are similar in form and function and their related intercellular
substances. The four basic types of tissue are nerve, muscle, epidermal, and
connective.
Mechanics The branch of physics and mathematics that deals with the effect of energy
and forces on systems. The application of the science of mechanics to the
design, making, and operating of machines.
Elastic Strips or threads of rubber or similar stretchable material, or fabric or tape
with a stretchy material woven into it so that it can fit tightly around
something
Plastic An extremely versatile synthetic material made from the polymerization of
organic compounds. It can be molded into shapes or fabricated in many
different forms for use in commerce and industry.
Force The power, strength, or energy that somebody or something possesses.
Statics A branch of mechanics that deals with forces and systems in equilibrium
Dynamics The branch of mechanics that deals with motion and the way in which forces
produce motion
Hydraulics The study of water or other fluids at rest or in
motion, especially with respect to engineering
applications.
Design To make a detailed plan of the form or structure of
something, emphasizing features such as its
Fig. 17
appearance, convenience, and efficient functioning. 4-piston Engine

Piston A metal cylinder that slides up and down inside a tubular housing, receiving
pressure from or exerting pressure on a fluid, especially one of several in an
internal-combustion engine
Cams A rotating disk shaped to convert circular into linear
motion.
Crane A large machine used to lift and move heavy objects
by means of a hook attached to cables suspended
from a supporting, usually movable, beam
Linkage A link or connection, or the fact of being connected.
Robotics The science and technology relating to computer-
controlled mechanical devices such as the automated Fig. 18
tools commonly found on automobile assembly lines. Crane
Software Programs and applications that can be run on a
computer system, e.g. word processing or database packages

55
 Mechanical Engineering
Laser A device that utilizes the ability of some substances to absorb
electromagnetic energy and re-radiate it as a highly focused beam of
synchronized single-wavelength radiation.
Assemble Put components together: to fit the parts of something together to make a
finished whole
Structural Relating to the way parts are put together or how they work together

56
 Unit 2

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Mechanical Engineering is an engineering discipline that involves the application of
principles of physics for analysis, design, manufacturing, and maintenance of
mechanical systems. It requires a solid understanding of key concepts including
mechanics, kinematics, thermodynamics and energy. Mechanical engineers use these
principles and others in the design and analysis of automobiles, aircraft, heating &
cooling systems, watercraft, manufacturing plants, industrial equipment and
machinery, medical devices and more.

TOOLS AND WORK

Modern analysis and design processes in mechanical engineering are aided by various
computational tools including finite element analysis (FEA), computational fluid
dynamics (CFD), computer-aided design (CAD)/computer-aided manufacturing (CAM)
and Failure Modes & Effect Analysis (FMEA). These modern processes facilitate
engineers to model (create a 3D model or object in a computer), analyze the quality of
design etc, before a prototype is created. By this the invention and experimenting with
new designs becomes very easy and can be done without any money invested in
tooling and prototypes. Simple models can be free and instantaneous, but complicated
models, like those describing the mechanics of living tissue, can require years to
develop, and the actual computation can be very processor intensive, requiring
powerful computers and a lot of cycle time.

SUBDISCIPLINES
The field of mechanical engineering can be thought of as a collection of many
mechanical disciplines. Several of these subdisciplines which are typically taught at
the undergraduate level are listed below, with a brief explanation and the most
common application of each. Some of these subdisciplines are unique to mechanical
engineering, while others are a combination of mechanical engineering and one or
more other disciplines. Most work that a mechanical engineer does uses skills and
techniques from several of these subdisciplines, as well as specialized subdisciplines.
Specialized subdisciplines, as used in this article, are usually the subject of graduate
studies or on-the-job training more than undergraduate research. Several specialized
subdisciplines are discussed at the end of this section.

SOLID MECHANICS
Mechanics is, in the most general sense, the study of forces and their effect upon
matter. Typically, engineering mechanics is used to analyze and predict the
acceleration and deformation (both elastic and plastic) of objects under known forces

Statics, the study of non-moving bodies under known loads

(also called loads) or stresses. Subdisciplines of mechanics include

Dynamics (or kinetics), the study of how forces affect moving bodies
Mechanics of materials, the study of how different materials deform under
various types of stress

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 Mechanical Engineering
Fluid Mechanics, the study of how fluids react to forces. Fluid mechanics can be
further split into fluid statics and fluid dynamics, and is itself a subdiscipline of
continuum mechanics. The application of fluid mechanics in engineering is

called hydraulics.
Continuum mechanics is a method of applying mechanics that assumes that
objects are continuous. It is contrasted by discrete mechanics.

Mechanical engineers typically use mechanics in the design or analysis phases of

engineering. If the engineering project were the design of a vehicle, statics might be
employed to design the frame of the vehicle, in order to evaluate where the stresses
will be most intense. Dynamics might be used when designing the car's engine, to
evaluate the forces in the pistons and cams as the engine cycles.

KINEMATICS
Kinematics is the study of the motion of bodies (objects) and systems (groups of
objects), while ignoring the forces that cause the motion. The movement of a crane and
the oscillations of a piston in an engine are both simple kinematics systems. The
crane is a type of open kinematics chain; while the piston is part of a closed four bar
linkage.

Mechanical engineers typically use kinematics in the design and analysis of

mechanisms. Kinematics can be used to find the possible range of motion for a given
mechanism, or, working in reverse, can be used to design a mechanism that has a
desired range of motion.

MECHATRONICS AND ROBOTICS

Mechatronics is an interdisciplinary branch of mechanical engineering, electrical
engineering and software engineering that is concerned with integrating electrical and
mechanical engineering to create hybrid systems. In this way, machines can be
automated through the use of electric motors, servo-mechanisms, and other electrical
systems in conjunction with special software. A common example of a mechatronics
system is a CD-ROM drive. Mechanical systems open and close the drive, spin the CD
and move the laser, while an optical system reads the data on the CD and converts it
to bits. Integrated software controls the process and communicates the contents of the
CD to the computer.

The purpose of this interdisciplinary engineering field is the study of automata from
an engineering perspective and serves the purposes of controlling advanced hybrid
systems.

Automation, and in the area of robotics.

Mechatronics is currently used in the following areas of engineering:

Servo-Mechanics
Sensing and Control Systems
Automotive engineering, in the design of subsystems such as anti-lock braking

Computer engineering, in the design of mechanisms such as hard drives, CD-

systems

ROM drives, etc.

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Industrial robots perform repetitive tasks, such as assembling vehicles.

Robotics is the application of mechatronics to create robots, which perform tasks that
are dangerous, unpleasant, or repetitive. These robots may be of any shape and size,
but all are preprogrammed and interact physically with the world. To create a robot,
an engineer typically employs kinematics (to determine the robot's range of motion)
and mechanics (to determine the stresses within the robot).

Robots are used extensively in Industrial engineering. They allow businesses to save
money on labor and perform tasks that are either too dangerous or too precise for
humans to perform them economically. Many companies employ assembly lines of
robots, and some factories are so robotized that they can run by themselves. Outside
the factory, robots have been employed in bomb disposal, space exploration, and
many other fields. Robots are also sold for various residential applications.

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Structural analysis is the branch of mechanical engineering (and also civil
engineering) devoted to examining why and how objects fail. Structural failures occur
in two general modes: static failure, and fatigue failure. Static structural failure occurs
when; upon being loaded (having a force applied) the object being analyzed either
breaks or is deformed plastically, depending on the criterion for failure. Fatigue
failure occurs when an object fails after a number of repeated loading and unloading
cycles. Fatigue failure occurs because of imperfections in the object: a microscopic
crack on the surface of the object, for instance, will grow slightly with each cycle
(propagation) until the crack is large enough to cause failure.
Failure is not simply defined as when a part breaks, however; it is defined as when a
part does not operate as intended. Some systems, such as the perforated top sections
of some plastic bags, are designed to break. If these systems do not break, failure
analysis might be employed to determine the cause.

Structural analysis is often used by mechanical engineers after a failure has occurred,
or when designing to prevent failure. Engineers may use various books and
handbooks such as those published by ASM [14] to aid them in determining the type of
failure and possible causes.

Structural analysis may be used in the office when designing parts, in the field to
analyze failed parts, or in laboratories where parts might undergo controlled failure
tests.

THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics is an applied science used in several branches of engineering,
including Mechanical and Chemical Engineering. At its simplest, thermodynamics is
the study of energy, its use and transformation through a system. Typically,
engineering thermodynamics is concerned with changing energy from one form to
another. As an example, automotive engines convert chemical energy (enthalpy) from
the fuel into heat, and then into mechanical work that eventually turns the wheels.

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 Mechanical Engineering

Thermodynamics principles are used by mechanical engineers in the fields of heat

transfer, thermofluids, and energy conversion. Mechanical engineers use thermo-
science to design engines and power plants, heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning
(HVAC) systems, heat exchangers, heat sinks, radiators, refrigeration, insulation, and
others.

DRAFTING
Drafting or technical drawing is the means by which mechanical engineers create
instructions for manufacturing parts. A technical drawing can be a computer model or
hand-drawn schematic showing all the dimensions necessary to manufacture a part,
as well as assembly notes, a list of required materials, and other pertinent
information.

Instructions for manufacturing a part must be fed to the necessary machinery, either
manually, through programmed instructions, An engineer may manually manufacture
a part using the technical drawings, but this is becoming an increasing rarity, except
in the areas of applied spray coatings, finishes, and other processes that cannot
economically be done by a machine.

SPECIALIZED SUBDISCIPLINES
The following is a list of some additional subdisciplines and topics within mechanical
engineering. These topics may be considered specialized because they are not typically
part of undergraduate mechanical engineering requirements, or require training
beyond an undergraduate level to be useful.
Acoustical engineering Heating, ventilation, and air
Aerospace engineering conditioning (HVAC)
Alternative energy Marine engineering
Automotive engineering Nanotechnology
Biomedical engineering Nuclear engineering
Computer-aided engineering Piping
Design optimization Power generation
Engineering-based programming

FRONTIERS OF RESEARCH
Mechanical engineers are constantly pushing the boundaries of what is physically
possible in order to produce safer, cheaper, and more efficient machines and
mechanical systems.

NANOTECHNOLOGY
At the smallest scales, mechanical engineering becomes nanotechnology and
molecular engineering - one speculative goal of which is to create a molecular
assembler to build molecules and materials via mechanosynthesis. For now this goal
remains within exploratory engineering.

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EXERCISES
Vocabulary Review:
Write the word that corresponds to the definition.
1. A standard example. ______________________________
2. A rotating disk shaped to convert circular into
linear motion ______________________________
3. Something made up of a mixture of different
aspects or components ______________________________
4. Relating to the way parts are put together or
how they work together ______________________________
5. The power, strength, or energy that somebody
or something possesses ______________________________

True or False:
Write T if the statement is true or F if the statement is false.

1. Subdisciplines of mechanical engineering are typically taught at the

undergraduate level. _______
2. Fluid mechanics is the study of forces in fluids. _______
3. Robots are used extensively in industrial engineering _______
4. The purpose of mechatronics is the study of automata from an
engineering perspective _______
5. Crafting is a synonym of technical drawing. _______

Reading Comprehension:
Fill in the blanks or answer the questions.
1. Why do many organizations use statistical process control?

2. Why do the fatigue failures occur?

3. Whats the difference between mechatronics and robotics?

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4. How is mechanical engineering related to kinematics?

5. Give some examples of robot applications

6. Which branch of mechanical engineering examine why and how objects fail?

7. What science is applied by engineers when they design heating plants?

Writing Exercise:
Write about the two branches of mechanical engineering that you think are the most
important.

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HEAT TRANSFER
VOCABULARY
Heat transfer This is the transfer of thermal energy, (i.e., of energy and entropy) from
hotter material to cooler material. Heat transfer may change the internal
energy of materials.
Internal energy The internal vibrational energy that the molecules or electrons composing all
materials contain (except at absolute zero)
Conduction Transfer of heat by electron diffusion or phonon vibrations.

Convection Transfer of heat by conduction in a moving medium, such as a fluid.

Radiation Transfer of heat by electromagnetic radiation or, equivalently, by photons.

Phase change Transfer of heat by the potential energy associated with the heat of phase
change, such as boiling, condensation, or freezing.
Phonon In physics, a phonon is a quantized mode of vibration occurring in a rigid
crystal lattice, such as the atomic lattice of a solid. The study of phonons is
an important part of solid state physics, because phonons play a major role
in many of the physical properties of solids, including a material's thermal
and electrical conductivities.
Lattice In mathematics, a lattice is a partially ordered set in which every pair of
elements has a unique supremum and an infimum.
Caloric In the 18th and early 19th centuries, scientists imagined that all bodies
contained an invisible fluid which they called caloric, which flows from hot
objects to cold ones.
Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier (March 21, 1768 - May 16, 1830)
French mathematician and physicist who is best known for initiating the
investigation of Fourier series and their application to problems of heat flow.
The Fourier transform is also named in his honor.
Thermal Relating to, affected by, or producing heat.

Black bodies In physics, a black body is an object that absorbs all light that falls on it. No
electromagnetic radiation passes through it and none is reflected. Because no
light is reflected or transmitted, the object appears black when it is cold.
Zeroth law of thermodynamics
It is a generalized statement about bodies in contact at thermal equilibrium
and is the basis for the concept of temperature. The most common
enunciation of the zeroth law of thermodynamics is: If two thermodynamic
systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third, they are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
First law of thermodynamics
It is often incorrectly confused with the more universal physical law of the
conservation of energy. Succinctly, the first law of thermodynamics should
instead state: The increase in the internal energy of a system can be
achieved in many ways, among which is by heating the system. The First
Law is thus not equivalent to the conservation of energy, but an addendum
to the latter.

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 Heat Transfer
Second law of thermodynamics
It is an expression of the universal law of increasing entropy, stating that the
entropy of an isolated system which is not in equilibrium will tend to increase
over time, approaching a maximum value at equilibrium.
Third law of thermodynamics
As a system approaches absolute zero, all processes cease and the entropy
of the system approaches a minimum value. The essence of the postulate is
that the entropy of the given system near absolute zero depends only on the
temperature
Entropy It is a measure of the randomness of molecules in a system and is central to
the second law of thermodynamics and the combined law of
thermodynamics, which deal with physical processes and whether they occur
spontaneously.
Enthalpy In thermodynamics and molecular chemistry, the enthalpy or heat content
(denoted as H, 'h') is a quotient or description of thermodynamic potential of
a system, which can be used to calculate the "useful" work obtainable from a
closed thermodynamic system under constant pressure.
Flux The rate of flow of something such as energy, particles, or fluid volume
across or into a given area.
Axiom A statement or idea that people accepts as self-evidently true. A generally
accepted truth.

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 Unit 2

HEAT TRANSFER CONCEPTS

In thermal physics, heat transfer is the passage of thermal energy from a hot to a
colder body. When a physical body, e.g. an object or fluid, is at a different temperature
than its surroundings or another body, transfer of thermal energy, also known as heat
transfer, or heat exchange, occurs in such a way that the body and the surroundings
reach thermal equilibrium. Heat transfer always occurs from a hot body to a cold one,
a result of the second law of thermodynamics. Where there is a temperature difference
between objects in proximity, heat transfer between them can never be stopped; it can
only be slowed down.

Classical transfer of thermal energy occurs only through conduction, convection,

radiation or any combination of these. Heat transfer associated with carriage of the
heat of phase change by a substance (such as steam which carries the heat of boiling)
can be fundamentally treated as a variation of convection heat transfer. In each case,
the driving force for heat transfer is a difference of temperature. There are 3 types of
heat transfer known as convection, conduction and radiation.
Heat transfer is of particular interest to engineers, who attempt to understand and
control the flow of heat through the use of thermal insulation, heat exchangers, and
other devices.

CONDUCTION
Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy from a region of higher temperature to a
region of lower temperature through direct molecular communication within a
medium or between mediums in direct physical contact without a flow of the material
medium. The transfer of energy could be primarily by elastic impact as in fluids or by
free electron diffusion as predominant in metals or phonon vibration as predominant
in insulators. In other words, heat is transferred by conduction when adjacent atoms
vibrate against one another, or as electrons move from atom to atom. Conduction is
greater in solids, where atoms are in constant contact. In liquids (except liquid metals)
and gases, the molecules are usually further apart, giving a lower chance of molecules
colliding and passing on thermal energy.

Heat conduction is directly analogous to diffusion of particles into a fluid, in the

situation where there are no fluid currents. This type of heat diffusion differs from
mass diffusion in behavior, only in as much as it can occur in solids, whereas mass
diffusion is limited to fluids.

Metals (e.g. copper) are usually the best conductors of thermal energy. This is
due to the way that metals are chemically bonded: metallic bonds (as opposed to
covalent or ionic bonds) have free-moving electrons and form a crystalline
structure, greatly aiding in the transfer of thermal energy.
Fluids (except liquid metals and gasses) are not typically good conductors. This
is due to the large distance between atoms in a gas: fewer collisions between
atoms means less conduction. As density decreases so does conduction.
Conductivity of gases increases with temperature but only slightly with pressure

65
 Heat Transfer
near and above atmospheric. Conduction does not occur at all in a perfect
vacuum.

To quantify the ease with which a particular medium conducts, engineers employ
the thermal conductivity, also known as the conductivity constant or conduction
coefficient, k. The main article on thermal conductivity defines k as "the quantity of
heat, Q, transmitted in time t through a thickness L, in a direction normal to a
surface of area A, due to a temperature difference T [...]." Thermal conductivity is
a material property that is primarily dependent on the medium's phase,
temperature, density, and molecular bonding.

A heat pipe is a passive device that is constructed in such a way that it acts as though
it has extremely high thermal conductivity.

CONVECTION
Convection is a combination of conduction and the transfer of thermal energy by fluid
circulation or movement of the hot particles in bulk to cooler areas in a material
medium. Unlike the case of pure conduction, now currents in fluids are additionally
involved in convection. This movement occurs into a fluid or within a fluid, and cannot
happen in solids. In solids, molecules keep their relative position to such an extent
that bulk movement or flow is prohibited, and therefore convection does not occur.

Convection occurs in two forms: natural and forced convection.

In natural convection, fluid surrounding a heat source receives heat, becomes less
dense and rises. The surrounding, cooler fluid then moves to replace it. This cooler
fluid is then heated and the process continues, forming convection current. The
driving force for natural convection is buoyancy, a result of differences in fluid density
when gravity or any type of acceleration is present in the system.

Forced convection, by contrast, occurs when pumps, fans or other means are used to
propel the fluid and create an artificially induced convection current. Forced heat
convection is sometimes referred to as heat advection, or sometimes simply advection
for short. But advection is a more general process, and in heat advection, the
substance being "advected" in the fluid field is simply heat (rather than mass, which is
the other natural component in such situations, as mass transfer and heat transfer
share generally the same equations).

In some heat transfer systems, both natural and forced convection contribute
significantly to the rate of heat transfer.

To calculate the rate of convection between an object and the surrounding fluid,
engineers employ the heat transfer coefficient, h. Unlike the thermal conductivity, the
heat transfer coefficient is not a material property. The heat transfer coefficient
depends upon the geometry, fluid, temperature, velocity, and other characteristics of
the system in which convection occurs. Therefore, the heat transfer coefficient must
be derived or found experimentally for every system analyzed. Formulae and

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 Unit 2

correlations are available in many references to calculate heat transfer coefficients for
typical configurations and fluids.

RADIATION
Radiation is the transfer of heat through electromagnetic radiation. Hot or cold, all
objects radiate energy at a rate equal to their emissivity times the rate at which energy
would radiate from them if they were a black body. No medium is necessary for
radiation to occur; radiation works even in and through a perfect vacuum. The energy
from the Sun travels through the vacuum of space before warming the earth. Also, the
only way that energy can leave earth is by being radiated to space.

Both reflectivity and emissivity of all bodies is wavelength dependent. The temperature
determines the wavelength distribution of the electromagnetic radiation as limited in
intensity by Plancks law of black-body radiation. For any body the reflectivity depends
on the wavelength distribution of incoming electromagnetic radiation and therefore the
temperature of the source of the radiation while the emissivity depends on the wave
length distribution and therefore the temperature of the body itself. For example, fresh
snow, which is highly reflective to visible light, (reflectivity about 0.90) appears white
due to reflecting sunlight with a peak energy wavelength of about 0.5 micrometers. Its
emissivity, however, at a temperature of about -5C, peak energy wavelength of about
12 micrometers, is 0.99.

Gases absorb and emit energy in characteristic wavelength patterns that are different
for each gas.

Visible light is simply another form of electromagnetic radiation with a shorter

wavelength (and therefore a higher frequency) than infrared radiation. The difference
between visible light and the radiation from objects at conventional temperatures is a
factor of about 20 in frequency and wavelength; the two kinds of emission are simply
different "colors" of electromagnetic radiation.

HEAT EXCHANGERS
A Heat exchanger is a device built for efficient heat transfer from one fluid to another,
whether the fluids are separated by a solid wall so that they never mix, or the fluids
are directly contacted. Heat exchangers are widely used in refrigeration, air
conditioning, space heating, power production, and chemical processing. One common
example of a heat exchanger is the radiator in a car, in which the hot radiator fluid is
cooled by the flow of air over the radiator surface.

Common types of heat exchanger flows include parallel flow, counter flow, and cross
flow. In parallel flow, both fluids move in the same direction while transferring heat; in
counter flow, the fluids move in opposite directions and in cross flow the fluids move
at right angles to each other. The common constructions for heat exchanger include
shell and tube, double pipe, extruded finned pipe, spiral fin pipe, u-tube, and stacked
plate.

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 Heat Transfer
When engineers calculate the theoretical heat transfer in a heat exchanger, they must
contend with the fact that the driving temperature difference between the two fluids
varies with position. To account for this in simple systems, the log mean temperature
difference (LMTD) is often used as an 'average' temperature. In more complex systems,
direct knowledge of the LMTD is not available and the number of transfer units (NTU)
method can be used instead.

BOILING HEAT TRANSFER

Heat transfer in boiling fluids is complex but of considerable technical importance. It
is characterized by an s-shaped curve relating heat flux to surface temperature.

At low driving temperatures, no boiling occurs and the heat transfer rate is controlled
by the usual single-phase mechanisms. As the surface temperature is increased, local
boiling occurs and vapor bubbles nucleate, grow into the surrounding cooler fluid, and
collapse. This is sub-cooled nucleate boiling and is a very efficient heat transfer
mechanism. At high bubble generation rates the bubbles begin to interfere and the
heat flux no longer increases rapidly with surface temperature (this is the departure
from nucleate boiling DNB). At higher temperatures still, a maximum in the heat flux
is reached (the critical heat flux). The regime of falling heat transfer which follows is
not easy to study but is believed to be characterized by alternate periods of nucleate
and film boiling.

At higher temperatures still, the hydrodynamically quieter regime of film boiling is

reached. Heat fluxes across the stable vapor layers are low, but rise slowly with
temperature. Any contact between fluid and the surface which may be seen probably
leads to the extremely rapid nucleation of a fresh vapor layer ('spontaneous
nucleation').

CONDENSATION HEAT TRANSFER

Condensation occurs when a vapor is cooled and changes its phase to a liquid.
Condensation heat transfer, like boiling, is of great significance in industry. During
condensation, the latent heat of vaporization must be released. The amount of the
heat is the same as that absorbed during vaporization at the same fluid pressure.
There are several modes of condensation:
Homogeneous condensation (as during a formation of fog).
Condensation in direct contact with sub cooled liquid.
Condensation on direct contact with a cooling wall of a heat exchanger-this is
the most common mode used in the industry:
o Film wise condensation (when a liquid film is formed on the sub cooled
surface, usually occurs when the liquid wets the surface).
o Drop wise condensation (when liquid drops are formed on the sub cooled
surface, usually occurs when the liquid does not wet the surface). Drop
wise condensation is difficult to sustain reliably; therefore, industrial
equipment is normally designed to operate in film wise condensation
mode.

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EXERCISES
Vocabulary Review:
Underline the correct word.
1. A transfer of thermal energy from hotter material to cooler material
Heat transfer temperature radiation
2. Transfer of heat by conduction in a moving medium, such as a fluid.
Conduction convection radiation
3. A partially ordered set in which every pair of elements has a unique supremum
and an infimum.
Phonon electron lattice
4. An object that absorbs all light that falls on it.
Black body thermical body artificial body
5. A measure of the unavailability of a systems energy to do work.
Thermodynamics entropy enthalpy

True or False:
Write T if the statement is true or F if the statement is false.
1. Transfer of thermal energy only occurs by conduction, convection
or radiation _______
2. Water is the best conductor of thermal energy. _______
3. Radiation is the transfer of heat through electromagnetic radiation. _______
4. A Heat exchanger is a device built for efficient heat transfer from one
fluid to another. _______
5. Condensation occurs only in an homogeneous way (like fog) _______
6. Heat flows from a cold body to a hot one. _______
7. Conduction needs a fluid to happen. _______
8. Neon is a good conductor. _______
9. Copper is a good conductor. _______
10. The heat we receive from the sun is due to radiation. _______

Reading Comprehension:
Fill in the blanks or answer the questions.
1. What does thermal equilibrium mean?

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 Heat Transfer
2. What does an engineer use to calculate the rate of convection between an object
and the surrounding fluid? On what this depends?

3. In how many ways does convection occur? Explain each.

4. Give two examples of heat exchangers

5. When does the condensation occur?

Writing Exercise:
Write the differences between conduction, convection and radiation.

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 Unit 2

MOTORS
VOCABULARY
Dynamo Generator consisting of a coil (the armature) that rotates between the poles
of an electromagnet (the field magnet) causing a current to flow in the
armature
Brine Water saturated with or containing large amounts of a salt, especially sodium
chloride. The high salt content is usually due to evaporation or freezing
AC motor: An ac motor is an electric motor that is driven by an alternating current
Brushless Without brushes
Synchronous motor
Electric motor in which the speed of rotation is proportional to the frequency
of the ac power
Rotor The rotating armature of a motor or generator
Ubiquitous Being present everywhere at once, omnipresent.
Induction motor
A type of alternating-current motor comprising two wound members, one
stationary, called the stator, and the other rotating, called the rotor, these
two members corresponding to a certain extent to the field and armature of a
direct-current motor
Wound P.P. of wind. To wrap (something) around a center or another object once or
repeatedly
Coil Reactor consisting of a spiral of insulated wire that introduces inductance into
a circuit
Commutator Switch for reversing the direction of an electric current
Stator Mechanical device consisting of the stationary part of a motor or generator in
or around which the rotor revolves
Brushgear A toothed wheel that engages another toothed mechanism in order to change
the speed or direction of transmitted motion
Spindle A stick or pin used to twist the yarn in spinning
Bearing, Machine part designed to reduce between moving parts or to support moving
loads
Hall Effect A phenomenon that occurs when an electric current moving through a
conductor is exposed to an external magnetic field applied at a right angle, in
which an electric potential develops in the conductor at a right angle to both
the direction of current and the magnetic field.
Tachometer Measuring instrument for indicating speed of rotation
Servo-controlled Device controlled by a servomechanism.
Servomechanism Control system that converts a small mechanical motion into one requiring
much greater power; may include a negative feedback system
Winding Twisting or turning; sinuous
Thyristor Semiconductor switch used chiefly in power-control applications. Also called a
silicon-controlled rectifier (scr), it is a variation of the transistor.

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 Motors
Diode Electrical device with two active terminals, an anode and a cathode, through
which current passes more easily in one direction (from anode to cathode)
than in the reverse direction. Diodes have many uses, including conversion of
ac power to dc power, and the decoding of audio-frequency signals from
radio signals.
Load The power output of a generator or power plant
Stall The sudden, unintended loss of power or effectiveness in an engine
Steady Direct and unfaltering; sure
Slip ring Connection consisting of a metal ring on a rotating part of a machine;
provides a continuous electrical connection through brushes on stationary
contacts
Reluctance Opposition to magnetic flux (analogous to electric resistance)

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 Unit 2

ELECTRIC MOTORS
An electric motor uses electrical energy to produce mechanical energy. The reverse
process that of using mechanical energy to produce electrical energy is accomplished
by a generator or dynamo. Traction motors used on locomotives often perform both
tasks if the locomotive is equipped with dynamic brakes. Electric motors are found in
household appliances such as fans, refrigerators, washing machines, pool pumps,
floor vacuums, and fan-forced ovens.

The principle of conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy by

electromagnetic means was demonstrated by the British scientist Michael Faraday in
1821 and consisted of a free-hanging wire dipping into a pool of mercury. A
permanent magnet was placed in the middle of the pool of mercury. When a current
was passed through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the
current gave rise to a circular magnetic field around the wire. This motor is often
demonstrated in school physics classes, but brine (salt water) is sometimes used in
place of the toxic mercury. This is the simplest form of a class of electric motors called
homopolar motors. A later refinement is the Barlow's Wheel. These were
demonstration devices, unsuited to practical applications due to limited power.

The modern DC motor was invented by accident in 1873, when Znobe Gramme
connected the dynamo he had invented to a second similar unit, driving it as a motor.
The Gramme machine was the first electric motor that was successful in the industry.
In 1888 Nikola Tesla invented the first practicable AC motor and with it the polyphase
power transmission system. Tesla continued his work on the AC motor in the years to
follow at the Westinghouse Company.

CATEGORIZATION OF ELECTRIC MOTORS

The classic division of electric motors has been that of DC types vs. AC types. The
ongoing trend toward electronic control further muddles the distinction, as modern
drivers have moved the commutator out of the motor shell. For this new breed of
motor, driver circuits are relied upon to generate sinusoidal AC drive currents, or
some approximation of. The two best examples are: the brushless DC motor, and the
stepping motor, both being polyphase AC motors requiring external electronic control.

There is a clearer distinction between a synchronous motor and asynchronous types.

In the synchronous types, the rotor rotates in synchrony with the oscillating field or
current (e.g. permanent magnet motors). In contrast, an asynchronous motor is
designed to slip.

DC MOTORS
A DC motor is designed to run on DC electric power.
Brushed DC motors
The classic DC motor design generates an oscillating current in a wound rotor with a
split ring commutator, and either a wound or permanent magnet stator. A rotor
consists of a coil wound around a rotor which is then powered by any type of battery.

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 Motors
Brushless DC motors
Many of the limitations of the classic commutator DC motor are due to the need for
brushes to press against the commutator. This creates friction. At higher speeds,
brushes have increasing difficulty in maintaining contact. Brushes may bounce off the
irregularities in the commutator surface, creating sparks. This limits the maximum
speed of the machine. The current density per unit area of the brushes limits the
output of the motor. The imperfect electric contact also causes electrical noise.
Brushes eventually wear out and require replacement, and the commutator itself is
subject to wear and maintenance. The commutator assembly on a large machine is a
costly element, requiring precision assembly of many parts.

These problems are eliminated in the brushless motor. In this motor, the mechanical
"rotating switch" or commutator / brushgear assembly is replaced by an external
electronic switch synchronized to the rotor's position. Brushless motors are typically
85-90% efficient, whereas DC motors with brushgear are typically 75-80% efficient.

Brushless DC motors are commonly used where precise speed control is necessary,
computer disk drives or in video cassette recorders the spindles within CD, CD-ROM
(etc.) drives, and mechanisms within office products such as fans, laser printers and
photocopiers. They have several advantages over conventional motors:
Compared to AC fans using shaded-pole motors, they are very efficient,
running much cooler than the equivalent AC motors. This cool operation
leads to much-improved life of the fan's bearings.
Without a commutator to wear out, the life of a DC brushless motor can be
significantly longer compared to a DC motor using brushes and a
commutator. Commutation also tends to cause a great deal of electrical and
RF noise; without a commutator or brushes, a brushless motor may be used
in electrically sensitive devices like audio equipment or computers.
The same Hall Effect sensors that provide the commutation can also provide
a convenient tachometer signal for closed-loop control (servo-controlled)
applications. In fans, the tachometer signal can be used to derive a "fan OK"
signal.
The motor can be easily synchronized to an internal or external clock, leading
to precise speed control.
Brushless motors have no chance of sparking, unlike brushed motors,
making them better suited to environments with volatile chemicals and fuels.
Brushless motors are usually used in small equipment such as computers
and are generally used to get rid of unwanted heat.
They are also very quiet motors which is an advantage if being used in
equipment that is affected by vibrations.

CORELESS DC MOTORS
Nothing in the design of any of the motors described above requires that the iron
(steel) portions of the rotor actually rotate; torque is exerted only on the windings of
the electromagnets. Taking advantage of this fact is the coreless DC motor, a
specialized form of a brush or brushless DC motor. Optimized for rapid acceleration,
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these motors have a rotor that is constructed without any iron core. The rotor can
take the form of a winding-filled cylinder inside the stator magnets, a basket
surrounding the stator magnets, or a flat pancake (possibly formed on a printed wiring
board) running between upper and lower stator magnets. The windings are typically
stabilized by being impregnated with epoxy resins.

These motors were commonly used to drive the capstan(s) of magnetic tape drives and
are still widely used in high-performance servo-controlled systems, like radio-
controlled vehicles/aircraft, humanoid robotic systems, industrial automation,
medical devices, etc.

UNIVERSAL MOTORS
A variant of the wound field DC motor is the universal motor. The name derives from
the fact that it may use AC or DC supply current, although in practice they are nearly
always used with AC supplies.

The advantage of the universal motor is that AC supplies may be used on motors
which have the typical characteristics of DC motors, specifically high starting torque
and very compact design if high running speeds are used. The negative aspect is the
maintenance and short life problems caused by the commutator. As a result such
motors are usually used in AC devices such as food mixers and power tools which are
used only intermittently. Continuous speed control of a universal motor running on
AC is very easily accomplished using a thyristor circuit, while stepped speed control
can be accomplished using multiple taps on the field coil. Household blenders that
advertise many speeds frequently combine a field coil with several taps and a diode
that can be inserted in series with the motor (causing the motor to run on half-wave
rectified AC).
Universal motors can rotate at relatively high revolutions per minute (rpm). This
makes them useful for appliances such as blenders, vacuum cleaners, and hair dryers
where high-speed operation is desired. Many vacuum cleaner and weed trimmer
motors exceed 10,000 rpm, Dremel and other similar miniature grinders will often
exceed 30,000 rpm. Motor damage may occur due to overspeed (rpm in excess of
design specifications) if the unit is operated with no significant load.

AC MOTORS
In 1882, Nikola Tesla identified the rotating magnetic field principle, and pioneered the
use of a rotary field of force to operate machines. He exploited the principle to design a
unique two-phase induction motor in 1883. In 1885, Galileo Ferraris independently
researched the concept. In 1888, Ferraris published his research in a paper to the
Royal Academy of Sciences in Turin.

Introduction of Tesla's motor from 1888 onwards initiated what is sometimes referred
to as the Second Industrial Revolution, making possible the efficient generation and
long distance distribution of electrical energy using the alternating current
transmission system, also of Tesla's invention (1888). Before the invention of the

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rotating magnetic field, motors operated by continually passing a conductor through a
stationary magnetic field (as in homopolar motors).

Components
A typical AC motor consists of two parts:
1. An outside stationary stator having coils supplied with AC current to produce a
rotating magnetic field, and;
2. An inside rotor attached to the output shaft that is given a torque by the
rotating field.

TORQUE MOTORS
A torque motor is a specialized form of induction motor which is capable of operating
indefinitely at stall (with the rotor blocked from turning) without damage. In this
mode, the motor will apply a steady torque to the load (hence the name). A common
application of a torque motor would be the supply- and take-up reel motors in a tape
drive.

SLIP RING
The slip ring or wound rotor motor is an induction machine where the rotor comprises
a set of coils that are terminated in slip rings to which external impedances can be
connected. The stator is the same as is used with a standard squirrel cage motor!

The slip ring motor is used primarily to start a high inertia load or a load that requires
a very high starting torque across the full speed range. A secondary use of the slip ring
motor is to provide a means of speed control. Reducing the load will cause the motor
to speed up, and increasing the load will cause the motor to slow down until the load
and motor torque are equal. Operated in this manner, the slip losses are dissipated in
the secondary resistors and can be very significant. The speed regulation is also very
poor.

STEPPER MOTORS
They are composed by an internal rotor containing permanent magnets or a large iron
core with salient poles is controlled by a set of external magnets that are switched
electronically. A stepper motor may also be thought of as a cross between a DC electric
motor and a solenoid. As each coil is energized in turn, the rotor aligns itself with the
magnetic field produced by the energized field winding. Unlike a synchronous motor,
in its application, the motor may not rotate continuously; instead, it "steps" from one
position to the next as field windings are energized and de-energized in sequence.
Depending on the sequence, the rotor may turn forwards or backwards.

Computer controlled stepper motors are one of the most versatile forms of positioning
systems, particularly when part of a digital servo-controlled system.
Stepper motors can be rotated to a specific angle with ease, and hence stepper motors
are used in pre-gigabyte era computer disk drives, where the precision they offered
was adequate for the correct positioning of the read/write head of a hard disk drive.

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As drive density increased, the precision limitations of stepper motors made them
obsolete for hard drives, thus newer hard disk drives use read/write head control
systems based on voice coils.

Stepper motors were upscale to be used in electric vehicles under the term SRM
(switched reluctance machine).

LINEAR MOTORS
A linear motor is essentially an electric motor that has been "unrolled" so that, instead
of producing a torque (rotation), it produces a linear force along its length by setting
up a traveling electromagnetic field.
Linear motors are most commonly induction motors or stepper motors. You can find a
linear motor in a maglev (Transrapid) train, where the train "flies" over the ground and
in many roller-coasters where the rapid motion of the motorless railcar is controlled by
the rail.

DOUBLY-FED ELECTRIC MOTOR

Doubly-fed electric motors have two independent multiphase windings that actively
participate in the energy conversion process with at least one of the winding sets
electronically controlled for variable speed operation. A doubly-fed motor allows for a
smaller electronic converter but the cost of the rotor winding and slip rings may offset
the saving in the power electronics components. Difficulties with controlling speed
near synchronous speed limit applications.

SINGLY-FED ELECTRIC MOTOR

Singly-fed electric machines incorporate a single multiphase winding set that is
connected to a power supply. Singly-fed electric machines may be either induction or
synchronous.

NANOTUBE NANOMOTOR
Nanomotor constructed at UC Berkeley. The motor is about 500nm across: 300 times
smaller than the diameter of a human hair

Researchers at University of California, Berkeley, recently developed rotational

bearings based upon multiwall carbon nanotubes. By attaching a gold plate (with
dimensions of the order of 100nm) to the outer shell of a suspended multiwall carbon
nanotube (like nested carbon cylinders), they are able to electrostatically rotate the
outer shell relative to the inner core. These bearings are very robust; devices have
been oscillated thousands of times with no indication of wear. These
nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS) are the next step in miniaturization that may
find their way into commercial aspects in the future.

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EXERCISES
Vocabulary Review:
Write the word that corresponds to the definition.
1. The rotating armature of a motor or generator. _________________________
2. Water with salt. _________________________
3. Without brushes _________________________
4. Measuring instrument for indicating speed of rotation _________________________
5. Opposition to magnetic flux _________________________
6. Mechanism that converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy _________________________
7. A motor designed to run on DC electric power _________________________
8. Switch for reversing the direction of an electric current_________________________
9. A phenomenon that occurs when an electric current
moving through a conductor is exposed to an external
magnetic field _________________________
10. It is also called a silicon-controlled rectifier (scr), it is a
variation of the transistor. _________________________

True or False:
Write in the blanks a T if the sentence is true or F if its false. If the answer is false, give
your reason above it.
1. In school physics classes, students use vinegar instead of mercury._________

2. The modern DC motor was invented by accident. _________

3. The classic division of electric motors has been that of DC vs.

AC motors. _________

4. A torque motor is a specialized form of induction motor. _________

5. If we reduce the load in a slip ring motor, the speed will

decrease, too. _________

Reading Comprehension:
Fill in the blanks or answer the questions.
1. Which applications are common for Brushless DC motors?

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2. Whats a Universal Motor?

3. How does the slip ring motor work?

4. How is the speed regulation in a slip ring motor?

5. Whats the principal characteristic of a nanomotor?

Writing Exercise:
Write in your own words how a motor works, and the differences between an AC motor,
DC motor and a Universal Motor

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UNIT REVIEW
A Underline the word that corresponds to the definition.
1. A branch of physics that deals with the motion of a body or system without
reference to force and mass.
Thermodynamics Kinematics Mechanics

2. A standard example
Tissue Robot Prototype

3. The power or energy that something possesses.

Force Dynamic Energy Kinetic Energy

4. A large machine used to lift and move heavy objects by a hook attached to
cables suspended form a supporting beam.
Crane Cam Piston

5. Programs and applications that can be run on a computer system.

Computational Hardware Software

6. Transfer of heat by conduction in a moving medium.

Convection Conduction Radiation

7. Measure of the randomness of molecules in a system:

Thermal metric Enthalpy Entropy

8. Device built for efficient heat transfer from one fluid to another.
Heat exchanger Radiator Piston

9. Electric motor in which the speed of rotation is proportional to the frequency of

the ac power
AC motor Synchronous motor Universal motor

10. Mechanical device consisting of the stationaru part of a motor or generator in

which the motor revolves.
Stator Brush Rotor

Answer the questions or write in the provided spaces.

B 1. Whats the difference between conduction and convection?

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2. How is heat transfer involved with global warming?

3. Why is heat transfer so important for engineers?

4. Why is radiation so important for the living?

5. How was the DC motor invented?

6. Create a Diagram or chart to explain all types of motors studied in the reading.

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T HREE

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ELECTRICAL NETWORKS
VOCABULARY
Network a system of interconnected electronic components
or circuits. Fig. 19
Resistor A part of an electrical circuit designed to produce a Resistor Schematic
Representation
particular amount of resistance to the flow of
current.
Inductors: An electrical device (typically a conducting
coil) that introduces inductance into a circuit. Fig. 19
Inductor Schematic
Capacitor An electrical device characterized by its
Representation
capacity to store an electric charge
Voltage Source Any device or system that produces an
electromotive force between its terminals OR
derives a secondary voltage from a primary source
Fig. 20
of the electromotive force Without brushes Capacitor Schematic
Switch Control consisting of a mechanical or electrical or Representation
electronic device for making or breaking or changing the connections in a
circuit
Schematic Diagram
A graphical representation of a system. It often refers to electronic circuits on
a printed circuit board or in an integrated circuit (chip).
Amperes the basic unit of electric current adopted under the Systeme International
d'Unites.
Volts: The SI derived unit used to measure electric potential at a given point,
usually a point in an electric circuit. A voltage difference of one volt drives
one ampere of current through a conductor that has a resistance of one ohm
Potentials difference
The difference in electrical charge between two points in a circuit expressed
in volts
Resistance A measure of the degree to which a substance impedes the flow of electric
current induced by a voltage. Resistance is measured in ohms. Good
conductors, such as copper, have low resistance. Good insulators, such as
rubber, have high resistance. Resistance causes electrical energy to be
dissipated as heat
Ohms The SI derived unit used to measure the electrical resistance of a material or
an electrical device
Ohms Law Electric current is directly proportional to voltage and inversely proportional
to resistance; I = V/R
Farads The SI derived unit used to measure electric capacitance
Conductor, A material or an object that conducts heat, electricity, light, or sound
Polarity The condition of having poles or being aligned with or directed toward poles,
especially magnetic or electric poles.

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Henries The unit of inductance in which an induced electromotive force of one volt is
produced when the current is varied at the rate of one ampere per second
Magnetic field The lines of force surrounding a permanent magnet or a moving charged
particle
path a line or route along which current travels or moves
Lumped group or chunk together in a certain order or place side by side.
Transient Passing with time; transitory. High Voltage for less than a second.
Analog A circuit or device having an output that is proportional to the input
Digital A circuit or device that represents magnitudes in two states
VHDL Direct and unfaltering; sure
HSPICE Connection consisting of a metal ring on a rotating part of a machine;
provides a continuous electrical connection through brushes on stationary
contacts
Parallel Circuit Closed circuit in which the current divides into two or more paths before
recombining to complete the circuit
Series Circuit An electric circuit connected so that current passes through each circuit
element in turn without branching.
Charge Density The electric charge per unit area or per unit volume of a body or of a region of
space.
junction the place where two or more things come together.
emf: Electromotive force, the rate at which energy is drawn from a source that
produces a flow of electricity in a circuit; expressed in volts
Voltage drop Decrease in voltage along a conductor through which current is flowing
Signals A fluctuating quantity or impulse whose variations represent information. The
amplitude or frequency of voltage, current, electric field strength, light, and
sound can be varied as signals representing information
Dynamo Generator consisting of a coil (the armature) that rotates between the poles
of an electromagnet (the field magnet) causing a current to flow in the
armature
Wire A metal conductor that carries electricity over a
distance
Modulated To vary the frequency, amplitude, phase, or other
Fig. 21
characteristic of (electromagnetic waves). Transformer
Transformer, An electrical device by which alternating current of Schematic
Representation
one voltage is changed to another voltage
Thermocouples A kind of thermometer consisting of two wires of different metals that are
joined at both ends; one junction is at the temperature to be measured and
the other is held at a fixed lower temperature; the current generated in the
circuit is proportional to the temperature difference
Solar cells A semiconductor device that converts the energy of sunlight into electric
energy.
rectifier An electrical device that converts alternating current to direct current
Inverter An electrical device used to convert direct current into alternating current
Railway line of track providing a runway for wheels.

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ELECTRICAL NETWORKS
An electrical network is an interconnection of electrical elements such as resistors,
inductors, capacitors, transmission lines, voltage sources, current sources, and
switches.

ELECTRICAL ELEMENTS
The concept of electrical elements is used in the
analysis of electrical networks. Any electrical network
can be modeled by decomposing it down to multiple,
interconnected electrical elements in a schematic
diagram or circuit diagram. Each electrical element
affects the voltage in the network or current through
Fig. 22 the network in a particular way. By analyzing the way
Circuit Board with Resistors, a network is affected by its individual elements, it is
Capacitors and Transistors
possible to estimate how a real network will behave
on a macro scale.
Any electrical network can be analyzed algebraically if its components are represented
by a combination the following elements. Only 5 elements are required to represent
any component or network:
Two sources:
o Current source, measured in amperes - produces a current in a
conductor.
o Voltage source, measured in volts - produces a potential difference
between two points.

Three passive elements:

o Resistance, measured in ohms - produces a voltage proportional to the
current flowing through it. A resistor is a two-terminal electrical or
electronic component that opposes an electric current by producing a
voltage drop between its terminals in accordance with Ohm's law: The
electrical resistance is equal to the voltage drop across the resistor divided
by the current through the resistor while the temperature remains the
same.
o Capacitance, measured in farads - produces a current proportional to the
rate of change of voltage across it. A capacitor is an electrical/electronic
device that can store energy in the electric field between a pair of
conductors (called "plates"). The process of storing energy in the capacitor
is known as "charging", and involves electric charges of equal magnitude,
but opposite polarity, building up on each plate. Capacitors are
occasionally referred to as condensers.
o Inductance, measured in henries - produces a voltage proportional to the
rate of change of current through it. An inductor is a passive electrical
device employed in electrical circuits for its property of inductance. The
inductance is produced when an electric current flows around a circuit
producing a magnetic field and hence a magnetic flux through the circuit.
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The ratio of the magnetic flux to the current is called the inductance, or
more accurately self-inductance of the circuit.

ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
An electrical circuit is a network that has a closed loop, giving a return path for the
current. A network is a connection of two or more components, and may not
necessarily be a circuit. Electrical networks that consist only of sources (voltage or
current), linear lumped elements (resistors, capacitors, inductors), and linear
distributed elements (transmission lines) can be analyzed by algebraic and transform
methods to determine DC response, AC response, and transient response.
A network that also contains active electronic components is known as an electronic
circuit. Such networks are generally nonlinear and require more complex design and
analysis tools.

To design any electrical circuit, either analog or digital, electrical engineers need to be
able to predict the voltages and currents at all places within the circuit. Linear
circuits, that is, circuits with the same input and output frequency, can be analyzed
by hand using complex number theory. Other circuits can only be analyzed with
specialized software programs or estimation techniques.

Circuit simulation software, such as VHDL and HSPICE, allows engineers to design
circuits without the time, cost and risk of error involved in building circuit prototypes.

ELECTRICAL LAWS
A number of electrical laws apply to all electrical networks. These include
Kirchhoff's current law: The sum of all currents entering a node is equal to the
sum of all currents leaving the node.
Kirchhoff's voltage law: The directed sum of the electrical potential differences
around a loop must be zero.
Ohm's law: The voltage across a resistor is equal to the product of the resistance
and the current flowing through it (at constant temperature).
Norton's theorem: Any network of voltage and/or current sources and resistors
is electrically equivalent to an ideal current source in parallel with a single
resistor.
Thvenin's theorem: Any network of voltage and/or current sources and
resistors is electrically equivalent to a single voltage source in series with a
single resistor.

KIRCHHOFF'S CIRCUIT LAWS

Kirchhoff's circuit laws are a pair of laws that deal with the conservation of charge and
energy in electrical circuits, and were first described in 1845 by Gustav Kirchhoff.
Widely used in electrical engineering, they are also called Kirchhoff's rules or simply

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Kirchhoff's laws. Both circuit rules can be directly derived from Maxwell's equations,
but Kirchhoff preceded Maxwell and instead generalized work by George Ohm.

KIRCHHOFF'S CURRENT LAW (KCL)

The current entering any junction is equal to the current leaving that junction.

This law is also called Kirchhoff's first law, Kirchhoff's point rule, Kirchhoff's
junction rule (or nodal rule), and Kirchhoff's first rule. The principle of conservation
of electric charge implies that:

At any point in an electrical circuit where charge density is not changing in time,
the sum of currents flowing towards that point is equal to the sum of currents
flowing away from that point.

KIRCHHOFF'S VOLTAGE LAW (KVL)

The sum of all the voltages around the loop is equal to zero.
v1 + v2 + v3 + v4 = 0

This law is also called Kirchhoff's second law, Kirchhoff's loop (or mesh) rule, and
Kirchhoff's second rule. It is a consequence of the principle of conservation of energy.
The principle of conservation of energy implies that:

The directed sum of the electrical potential differences around a closed circuit
must be zero.

OHM'S LAW
Ohm's law states that in an electrical circuit, the current passing through a conductor
between two points is directly proportional to the potential difference (i.e. voltage drop
or voltage) across the two points, and inversely proportional to the resistance between
them.

The mathematical equation that describes this relationship is:

V = IR

where I is the current in amperes, V is the potential difference between two points of
interest in volts, and R is a circuit parameter, measured in ohms (which is equivalent
to volts per ampere), and is called the resistance. The potential difference is also
known as the voltage drop, and is sometimes denoted by U, E or emf (electromotive
force) instead of V.

The law was named after the physicist George Ohm, who, in a treatise published in
1827, described measurements of applied voltage and current passing through simple
electrical circuits containing various lengths of wire. He presented a slightly more
complex equation than the one above to explain his experimental results. The above

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equation is the modern form of Ohm's law; it could not exist until the ohm itself was
defined (1861, 1864).

ALTERNATING CURRENT
An alternating current (AC) is an electrical current whose magnitude and direction
vary cyclically, as opposed to direct current, whose direction remains constant. The
usual waveform of an AC power circuit is a sine wave, as this result in the most
efficient transmission of energy. However in certain applications different waveforms
are used, such as triangular or square waves.

Used generically, AC refers to the form in which electricity is delivered to businesses

and residences. However, audio and radio signals carried on electrical wire are also
examples of alternating current. In these applications, an important goal is often the
recovery of information encoded (or modulated) onto the AC signal.

TRANSMISSION, DISTRIBUTION, AND

Fig. 23
Power lines with transformers
DOMESTIC POWER SUPPLY
AC power can be increased or decreased in voltage with a
transformer. Use of a higher voltage leads to significantly
more efficient transmission of power. The power losses in
a conductor are a product of the square of the current
and the resistance of the conductor. This means that
when transmitting a fixed power on a given wire, if the
current is doubled, the power loss will be four times
greater.

DIRECT CURRENT
Direct current (DC or "continuous current") is the unidirectional flow of electric
charge. Direct current is produced by such sources as batteries, thermocouples, solar
cells, and commutator-type electric machines of the dynamo type. Direct current may
flow in a conductor such as a wire, but can also be through semiconductors,
insulators, or even through a vacuum as in electron or ion beams. In direct current,
the electric charges flow in the same direction, distinguishing it from alternating
current (AC). A term formerly used for direct current was Galvanic current.

TYPES OF DIRECT CURRENT

Direct current may be obtained from an alternating current supply by use of a
current-switching arrangement called a rectifier, which contains electronic elements
(usually) or electromechanical elements (historically) that allow current to flow only in
one direction. Direct current may be made into alternating current with an inverter or
a motor-generator set.

Direct current is used to charge batteries, and in nearly all electronic systems as the
power supply. Very large quantities of direct-current power are used in production of
aluminum and other electrochemical processes; it is used for some railway propulsion,
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especially in urban areas. High voltage direct current is used to transmit large
amounts of power from remote generation sites or to interconnect alternating current
power grids.

Within electrical engineering, the term DC is a synonym for "constant". The DC

solution of an electric circuit is the solution where all voltages and currents are
constant. It can be shown that any voltage or current waveform can be decomposed
into a sum of a DC component and a time-varying component. The DC component is
defined to be the average value of the voltage or current over all time. The average
value of the time-varying component is zero. Although DC stands for "Direct Current",
DC sometimes refers to "constant polarity." With this definition, DC voltages can vary
in time, such as the raw output of a rectifier or the fluctuating voice signal on a
telephone line.

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EXERCISES
Vocabulary Review:
Underline the word that corresponds to the definition.
1. An electrical device characterized by its capacity to store an electric charge
Resistor Inductor Capacitor
2. Any device or system that produces an electromotive force between its terminals
Network Voltage Source Conductor
3. The SI derived unit used to measure the electrical resistance of a material or an
electrical device
Ohms Farads Resistivity
4. A circuit or device having an output that is proportional to the input
Simplex Analog Digital
5. High Voltage for less than a second
Transient Lumped Polarity
6. the place where two or more elements come together
Junction emf VHDL
7. An electrical device used to convert direct current into alternating current
Generator Rectifier Inverter
8. A metal conductor that carries electricity over a distance
Wire Rotor Motor
9. A semiconductor device that converts the energy of sunlight into electric energy
Solar conductors Solar cells Solar ways
10. The basic unit of electric current adopted under the Systeme International
d'Unites.
Farads Henries Amperes

True or False:
Write in the blanks a T if the sentence is true or F if its false. If the answer is false, give
your reason above it.
1. In an electrical network each electrical element affects the voltage
or current through it. _________

2. A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that can produce

current _________

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3. The process of storing energy in the capacitor is known as charging._________

4. A network is a connection of two components. _________

5. The usual wave form of an AC power circuit is a sine wave. _________

Reading Comprehension:
Fill in the blanks or answer the questions.
1. Whats an electrical network?

2. What does the Kirchoffs Current Law say?

3. Whats the difference between AC and DC?

4. How can we obtain DC from an AC supply?

5. What are the names of the five Electric Laws mentioned in the reading?

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Writing Exercise:
Paraphrase the previous reading.

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ELECTROMAGNETISM
VOCABULARY
Electromagnetic Field
The field of force associated with electric charge in motion, having both
electric and magnetic components and containing a definite amount of
electromagnetic energy
Force The capacity to do work or cause physical change; energy, strength, or active
power.
Particles: tiny pieces of anything.
Induction Motor A type of alternating-current motor comprising two wound members, one
stationary, called the stator, and the other rotating, called the rotor, these
two members corresponding to a certain extent to the field and armature of a
direct-current motor
Transformer An electrical device by which alternating current of one
voltage is changed to another voltage
Magnet A device that attracts iron and produces a magnetic
field
Amperes the basic unit of electric current adopted under the
Systeme International d'Unites.
Fig. 24
Coulomb The SI derived unit used to measure electric charge. Magnet
One coulomb is equal to the quantity of charge that
passes through a cross-section of a conductor in one second, given a current
of one ampere
Farads The SI derived unit used to measure electric capacitance
Henry The unit of inductance in which an induced electromotive force of one volt is
produced when the current is varied at the rate of one ampere per second
Ohms The SI derived unit used to measure the electrical resistance of a material or
an electrical device
Volts: The SI derived unit used to measure electric potential at a given point,
usually a point in an electric circuit. A voltage difference of one volt drives
one ampere of current through a conductor that has a resistance of one ohm
Watt The SI derived unit used to measure power, equal to one joule per second. In
electricity, a watt is equal to current (in amperes) multiplied by voltage (in
volts).
Coulomb Force An attractive or repulsive electrostatic force described by Coulomb's law. Also
called electrostatic force
Vacuum an empty area or space
Spectrum an ordered array of the components of an emission or wave
Wavelengths The distance between one peak or crest of a wave and the next peak or
crest. It is equal to the speed of the wave divided by its frequency, and to
the speed of a wave times its period
Wound P.P. of wind. To wrap (something) around a center or another object once or
repeatedly

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Coil Reactor consisting of a spiral of insulated wire that
introduces inductance into a circuit
Wire A metal conductor that carries electricity over a distance
Corkscrew a bottle opener that pulls corks
Core A piece of magnetizable material, such as a rod of soft
iron, that is placed inside an electrical coil or transformer
to intensify and provide a path for the magnetic field Fig. 25
produced by the current running through the wire Corkscrew
windings.
Paramagnetic A substance in which an induced magnetic field is parallel and proportional to
the intensity of the magnetizing field but is much weaker than in
ferromagnetic materials t
Ferromagnetic Of or characteristic of substances such as iron, nickel, or cobalt and various
alloys that exhibit extremely high magnetic permeability, a characteristic
saturation point, and magnetic hysteresis
Hysteresis The magnetization of a material such as iron depends not only on the
magnetic field it is exposed to but on previous exposures to magnetic fields.
This "memory" of previous exposure to magnetism is the working principle in
audio tape and hard disk devices
Electromagnetism
Its the physics of the electromagnetic field: a field which exerts a force on
particles that possess the property of electric charge, and is in turn affected
by the presence and motion of those particles.

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ELECTROMAGNETISM
A changing magnetic field produces an electric field (this is the phenomenon of
electromagnetic induction, the basis of operation for electrical generators, induction
motors, and transformers). Similarly, a changing electric field generates a magnetic
field. Because of this interdependence of the electric and magnetic fields, it makes
sense to consider them as a single coherent entitythe electromagnetic field.

The magnetic field is produced by the motion of electric charges, i.e. electric current.
The magnetic field causes the magnetic force associated with magnets. The theoretical
implications of electromagnetism led to the development of special relativity by Albert
Einstein in 1905.

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCE

The force that the electromagnetic field exerts on electrically charged particles, called
the electromagnetic force, is one of the four fundamental forces. The other
fundamental forces are the strong nuclear force (which holds atomic nuclei together),
the weak nuclear force (which causes certain forms of radioactive decay), and the
gravitational force. All other forces are ultimately derived from these fundamental
forces.

The electromagnetic force is the one responsible for practically all the phenomena
encountered in daily life, with the exception of gravity. All the forces involved in
interactions between atoms can be traced to the electromagnetic force acting on the
electrically charged protons and electrons inside the atoms.

UNITS
Electromagnetic units are part of a system of electrical units based primarily upon
the magnetic properties of electric currents, the fundamental cgs unit being the
ampere. The units are:

ampere (current)
coulomb (charge)
farad (capacitance)
Henry (inductance)
ohm (resistance)
volt (electric potential)
watt (power)

In the electromagnetic cgs system, electrical current is a fundamental quantity defined

via Ampre's law and takes the permeability as a dimensionless quantity (relative
permeability) whose value in a vacuum is unity. As a consequence, the square of the

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 Electromagnetism
speed of light appears explicitly in some of the equations interrelating quantities in
this system.
CLASSICAL ELECTROMAGNETISM
Classical electromagnetism (or classical electrodynamics) is a theory of
electromagnetism that was developed over the course of the 19th century. It provides
an excellent description of electromagnetic phenomena whenever the relevant length
scales and field strengths are large enough that quantum mechanical effects are
negligible (see quantum electrodynamics).
Mathematically it follows from applying the Lorentz transformation to the Coulomb
force of a point electric charge to find the force between moving charges.

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
A changing electromagnetic field propagates away from its origin in the form of a wave.
These waves travel in vacuum at the speed of light and exist in a wide spectrum of
wavelengths. Examples of the dynamic fields of electromagnetic radiation (in order of
increasing frequency): radio waves, microwaves, light (infrared, visible light and
ultraviolet), x-rays and gamma rays. In the field of particle physics this
electromagnetic radiation is the manifestation of the electromagnetic interaction
between charged particles.

ELECTROMAGNET
An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by the
flow of an electric current. The magnetic field disappears when the current ceases.
Electromagnet uses electricity to produce magnet force.

British electrician William Sturgeon invented the electromagnet in 1825. The first
electromagnet was a horseshoe-shaped piece of iron that was wrapped with a loosely
wound coil consisting of several turns of wire. When a current was passed through the
coil, the electromagnet became magnetized and when the current was stopped, the coil
was de-magnetized. Sturgeon displayed its power by lifting nine pounds with a seven-
ounce piece of iron wrapped with wires through which the current of a single cell
battery was sent.

Sturgeon could regulate his electromagnet; this was the beginning of using electrical
energy for making useful and controllable machines and laid the foundations for large-
scale electronic communications.

The most fundamental type of electromagnet is a simple segment of wire (see figure).
The amount of magnetic field generated depends upon the amount of electrical current
that flows through the wire. In order to increase the effective current available to
generate magnetic field, the wire is commonly configured as a coil, where many
segments of wire sit side by side. A coil forming the shape of a straight tube (similar to
a corkscrew) is called a solenoid; a solenoid that is bent so that the ends meet is a
toroid. Much stronger magnetic fields can be produced if a "core" of paramagnetic or
ferromagnetic material (commonly soft iron) is placed inside the coil. The core
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concentrates the magnetic field that can then be much stronger than that of the coil
itself.

Current (I) flowing through a wire produces a magnetic field (B) around the wire. The
field is oriented according to the left-hand rule.

Magnetic fields caused by coils of wire follow a form of the right-hand rule (for
conventional current or left hand rule for electron current). If the fingers of the left
hand are curled in the direction of electron current flow through the coil, the thumb
points in the direction of the field inside the coil. The side of the magnet that the field
lines emerge from is defined to be the North Pole.

ELECTROMAGNETS AND PERMANENT MAGNETS

The main advantage of an electromagnet over a permanent magnet is that the
magnetic field can be rapidly manipulated over a wide range
by controlling the amount of electric current. However, a
continuous supply of electrical energy is required to maintain
the field.

As a current is passed through the coil, small magnetic

regions within the material, called magnetic domains, align
Fig. 26 with the applied field, causing the magnetic field strength to
Electromagnet increase. As the current is increased, all of the domains
eventually become aligned, a condition called saturation.
Once the core becomes saturated, a further increase in current will only cause a
relatively minor increase in the magnetic field. In some materials, some of the domains
may realign themselves. In this case, part of the original magnetic field will persist
even after power is removed, causing the core to behave as a permanent magnet. This
phenomenon, called remanent magnetism, is due to the hysteresis of the material.
Applying a decreasing AC current to the coil, removing the core and hitting it, or
heating it above its Curie point will reorient the domains, causing the residual field to
weaken or disappear.

In applications where a variable magnetic field is not required, permanent magnets are
generally superior. Additionally, permanent magnets can be manufactured to produce
stronger fields than electromagnets of similar size.

APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETS
Doorbells, cathode ray tubes, particle beams, and devices used to lift scrap metal all
employ electromagnets. Electromagnets are also used in cars, in the braking and
clutch. Modern engineers have applied electromagnetic technology to other
unessential walks of life. Roller coasters often use electromagnets to propel the car at
very high speeds. Trams use electromagnets to firmly grasp the rails. All of these
modern devices employ some form of variation in the field strength/current, making
an electromagnet advantageous. A more modern application of the electromagnet is
magnetic levitation transport, or maglev. Maglev is a possible alternate form of mass

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transportation to regular trains. Maglevs are "levitated" trains, guided and propelled
by electromagnets. Ideally, they could reach speeds of just over 400 mph. at a
relatively cheap energy cost, rivaling short distance airline flights. However, economic
and spatial restrictions have made Maglevs difficult to come by. They are expensive to
build and are not compatible with conventional railroad tracks; thus, an entirely new
system must be put in place whenever a maglev is built. The worlds first commercial
maglev was built in Shanghai.

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum is the range of all possible electromagnetic
radiation.[1] The "electromagnetic spectrum" (usually just spectrum) of an object is the
characteristic distribution of electromagnetic radiation from that object.

The electromagnetic spectrum extends from below the frequencies used for modern
radio (at the long-wavelength end) through gamma radiation (at the short-wavelength
end), covering wavelengths from thousands of kilometers down to a fraction the size of
an atom. It's thought that the short wavelength limit is the vicinity of the Planck
length, and the long wavelength limit is the size of the universe itself (see physical
cosmology), although in principle the spectrum is infinite and continuous

Fig. 27
Electromagnetic Spectrum

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EXERCISES
Vocabulary Review:
Write the word that corresponds to the definition.
1. A substance in which an induced magnetic field is
parallel and proportional to the intensity of the
magnetizing field but is much weaker than in
ferromagnetic materials. ______________________
2. The SI derived unit used to measure electric potential
at a given point, usually a point in an electric circuit. ______________________
3. An attractive or repulsive electrostatic force also called
electrostatic force. ______________________
4. A piece of magnetizable material that is placed inside
an electrical coil or transformer to intensify and provide
a path for the magnetic field produced by the current
running through the wire windings. ______________________
5. A device that attracts iron and produces a magnetic
field. ______________________

True or False:
Write in the blanks a T if the sentence is true or F if its false. If the answer is false, give
your reason above it.
1. The basic unit of inductance is Farad. _________

2. A changing electromagnetic field is propagated in the form of waves.________

3. The most common core used in an electromagnet is steel. _________

4. The electromagnetic spectrum is infinite and continuous. _________

5. A continuous supply of electrical energy is required to maintain

a field in an electromagnet. _________

Reading Comprehension:
Fill in the blanks or answer the questions.
1. Whats the main advantage of an electromagnet?

2. Whats the most fundamental type of electromagnet?

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3. On what does the amount of Magnetic Field generated by an electromagnet

depend?

4. What are Maglevs?

5. Whats the Electromagnetic Spectrum?

Writing Exercise:
Prepare a summary about electromagnets

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TELECOMMUNICATION
VOCABULARY
Noise Electrical or acoustic activity that can disturb communication
Modulation The variation of a property of an electromagnetic wave or signal, such as its
amplitude, frequency, or phase.
Transmitter A device that converts sound, light, or electrical signals into radio,
microwave.
Receiver A device that converts incoming radio, microwave, or electrical signals to a
form, such as sound or light that can be perceived by humans
Router A device that extracts the destination of a packet it receives, selects the best
path to that destination, and forwards data packets to the next device along
this path
Switch is a device for changing the course (or flow) of a circuit.
Repeater Electronic device that amplifies a signal before transmitting it again.
Attenuation Is the reduction in amplitude and intensity of a signal.
Channel Or Communications Channel, It refers to the used to convey information from
a sender (or transmitter) to a receiver
Stream of information
A steady flow or succession of information.
Frequency: The number of repetitions per unit time of a complete waveform, as of an
electric current
Keying is a form of modulation where the modulating signal takes one of two or
more values at all times. The name derives from the Morse code key used
for telegraph signaling.
Carrier wave An electromagnetic wave that can be modulated, as in frequency, amplitude,
or phase, to transmit speech, music, images, or other signals
Twisted pair It is a form of wiring in which two conductors are wound together for the
purposes of canceling out electromagnetic interference (EMI) from external
sources,
Coax cable A transmission line for high-frequency signals.
Waveguide Hollow metal conductor that provides a path to guide microwaves
Single-mode It is an optical fiber designed to carry only a single ray of light (mode). This
ray of light often contains a variety of different wavelengths.
Multi-mode Its a type of optical fiber mostly used for communication over shorter
distances, such as within a building or on a campus. Multi-mode fibers
support applications from 10 Mbit/s to 10 Gbit/s over link lengths of up to
550 meters, more than sufficient for the majority of premises applications
semiconductor Substance as germanium or silicon whose electrical conductivity is
intermediate between that of a metal and an insulator; its conductivity
increases with temperature and in the presence of impurities

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TELECOMMUNICATIONS
Suppose that two people, separated by a considerable distance, wish to communicate
with one another. If there is a pair of conducting wires extending from one location to
another, and if each place is equipped with a microphone
and earpiece, the communication problem may be solved.
The microphone, at one end of the wire communications
channel, impresses an electrical signal voltage on the line,
which voltage is then received at the other end. The
received signal, however, will have associated with an
erratic, random, unpredictable voltage waveform which is
described by the term noise. Because of the length of the
wire link, the received message signal voltage will be greatly
attenuated in comparison with its level al the transmitting
end of the link. As a result, the message signal voltage may
not be very large in comparison with the noise voltage, and
Fig. 27
Telecommunications tower the message will be perceived with difficulty or possibly not
at all. An amplifier at the receiving end will not solve the
problem, since the amplifier will amplify signal and noise alike. The amplifier may be
a source of additional noise.

A principal concern of communication theory is the study of methods to suppress the

effect of noise. With this purpose, it may be better not to transmit directly the original
signal. Instead, the original signal is used to generate a different signal waveform,
which new signal waveform is then impressed on the line. This processing of the
original signal to generate the transmitted signal is called encoding or modulation. At
the receiving end an inverse process called decoding or demodulation is required to
recover the original signal.

It may well be that there is a considerable expense in providing the wire

communication link. We are, therefore, naturally led to inquire whether we may use
the link more effectively by arranging for the simultaneous transmission over the link
of more than just a single waveform. It turns out that such multiple transmissions is
indeed possible and may be accomplished in a number of ways. Such simultaneous
multiple transmissions are called multiplexing and are again a principal area of
concern of communication theory. The communications medium is the free space.

A branch of mathematics which is of inestimable value in the study of

communications systems is the spectral analysis. It concerns itself with the
description of waveforms in the frequency domain and with the correspondence
between the frequency-domain description and the time-domain description.

A waveform can be expressed as an explicit function of time v (t)). The waveforms

encountered in telecommunications are in many instances unpredictable. The
waveform can be called signal. If the signal were predictable, the transmission would
be unnecessary, and the entire communications system would serve no purpose.

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One of the basic problems of communication engineering is the design and the
analysis of systems which allow many individual messages to be transmitted
simultaneously over a single communication channel. A method by which such
multiple transmission, called multiplexing, may be achieved consists in translating
each message to a different position in the frequency spectrum. Such multiplexing is
called frequency multiplexing. The individual message can eventually be separated by
filtering. Frequency multiplexing involves the use of an auxiliary waveform, usually
sinusoidal called carrier.

KEY CONCEPTS
BASIC ELEMENTS
A telecommunication system consists of three basic elements:

a transmitter that takes information and converts it to a signal;

a transmission medium that carries the signal; and,
A receiver that receives the signal and converts it back into usable information.

For example, in a radio broadcast the broadcast tower is the transmitter, free space is
the transmission medium and the radio is the receiver. Often telecommunication
systems are two-way with a single device acting as both a transmitter and receiver or
transceiver. For example, a mobile phone is a transceiver.

Telecommunication over a phone line is called point-to-point communication because

it is between one transmitter and one receiver. Telecommunication through radio
broadcasts is called broadcast communication because it is between one powerful
transmitter and numerous receivers.

NETWORKS
A collection of transmitters, receivers or transceivers that communicate with each
other is known as a network. Digital networks may consist of one or more routers that
route information to the correct user. An analogue network may consist of one or more
switches that establish a connection between two or more users. For both types of
network, repeaters may be necessary to amplify or recreate the signal when it is being
transmitted over long distances. This is to combat attenuation that can render the
signal indistinguishable from noise.

CHANNELS
A channel is a division in a transmission medium so that it can be used to send
multiple streams of information. For example, a radio station may broadcast at 96.1
MHz while another radio station may broadcast at 94.5 MHz. In this case, the medium
has been divided by frequency and each channel has received a separate frequency to
broadcast on. Alternatively, one could allocate each channel a recurring segment of
time over which to broadcast this is known as time-division multiplexing and is
sometimes used in digital communication.

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MODULATION
The shaping of a signal to convey information is known as modulation. Modulation
can be used to represent a digital message as an analogue waveform. This is known as
keying and several keying techniques exist (these include phase-shift keying,
frequency-shift keying and amplitude-shift keying). Bluetooth, for example, uses
phase-shift keying to exchange information between devices.

Modulation can also be used to transmit the information of analogue signals at higher
frequencies. This is helpful because low-frequency analogue signals cannot be
effectively transmitted over free space. Hence the information from a low-frequency
analogue signal must be superimposed on a higher-frequency signal (known as a
carrier wave) before transmission.

There are several different modulation schemes available to achieve this; the most
basic are amplitude modulation, frequency modulation, phase modulation and pulse
modulation.

TYPES OF TELECOMMUNICATION NETWORKS

COMPUTER NETWORKS:
A computer network is an interconnection of a group of computers. Networks may be
classified by what is called the network layer at which they operate according to basic
reference models considered as standards in the industry such as the four-layer
Internet Protocol Suite model. While the seven-layer Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) reference model is better known in academia, the majority of networks use the
Internet Protocol Suite (IP) as their network model.
TYPES OF NETWORKS:

Below is a list of the most common types of computer networks in order of scale.

Personal Area Network (PAN)

Local Area Network (LAN)

Campus Area Network (CAN)

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Wide Area Network (WAN)

Global Area Network (GAN)

Internetwork

Intranet

Extranet
Internet

PUBLIC TELEPHONE NETWORKS

The public switched telephone network (PSTN) is the network of the world's public
circuit-switched telephone networks, in much the same way that the Internet is the
network of the world's public IP-based packet-switched networks. Originally a network
of fixed-line analog telephone systems, the PSTN is now almost entirely digital, and
now includes mobile as well as fixed telephones.

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RADIO NETWORKS
A radio network is a network system which distributes programming to multiple
stations simultaneously or slightly delayed, for the purpose of extending total coverage
beyond the limits of a single broadcast signal. The resulting expanded audience for
programming essentially applies the benefits of mass-production to the broadcasting
enterprise.

TELEVISION NETWORKS
A television network is a distribution network for television content whereby a central
operation provides programming for many television stations. Until the mid-1980s,
television programming in most countries of the world was dominated by a small
number of broadcast networks. Many early television networks (e.g. the BBC, NBC or
CBS) evolved from earlier radio networks. It may be confused with a television
channel.

A network may or may not produce its own primetime programs. If not, production
houses such as Warner Brothers and Sony Pictures can distribute their content to the
different networks and it is common that a certain production house may have
programs on two or more rival networks.

INTERNET
The Internet is a worldwide, publicly accessible series of interconnected computer
networks that transmit data by packet switching using the standard Internet Protocol
(IP). It is a "network of networks" that consists of millions of smaller domestic,
academic, business, and government networks, which together carry various
information and services, such as electronic mail, online chat, file transfer, and the
interlinked web pages and other resources of the World Wide Web (WWW).

ASPECTS OF TELECOMMUNICATION TRANSMISSION

ANALOG
Analog transmission is a method of conveying voice, data, image, signal or video
information using a continuous signal which varies in amplitude, phase, or some
other property in proportion to that of a variable. Analog transmission can be
conveyed in many different fashions:
twisted-pair or coax cable
fiber-optic cable
Via air
Via water

There are two basic kinds of analog transmission, both based on how they modulate
data to combine an input signal with a carrier signal. Usually, this carrier signal is a
specific frequency, and data is transmitted through its variations. The two techniques

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are amplitude modulation (AM), which varies the amplitude of the carrier signal, and
frequency modulation (FM), which modulates the frequency of the carrier.

Types of analog transmissions

Most analog transmissions fall into one of several categories. Until recently, most
telephony and voice communication was primarily analog in nature, as was most
television and radio transmission. Early telecommunication devices utilized analog-to-
digital conversion devices called modulator/demodulators, or modems, to convert
analog data to digital data and back.

DIGITAL
A digital system uses discrete (that is, discontinuous) values to represent information
for input, processing, transmission, storage, etc. By contrast, non-digital (or analog)
systems use a continuous range of values to represent information. Although digital
representations are discrete, the information represented can be either discrete, such
as numbers, letters or icons, or continuous, such as sounds, images, and other
measurements of continuous systems.

The word digital comes from the same source as the word digit and digitus (the Latin
word for finger), as fingers are used for discrete counting. The word digital is most
commonly used in computing and electronics, especially where real-world information
is converted to binary numeric form as in digital audio and digital photography. Such
data-carrying signals carry electronic or optical pulses, the amplitude of each of which
represents a logical 1 (pulse present and/or high) or a logical 0 (pulse absent and/or
low).

OPTICAL
An optical waveguide is a physical structure that guides electromagnetic waves in the
optical spectrum. Common types of optical waveguides include optical fiber and
rectangular waveguides.
Optical waveguides are used as components in integrated optical circuits or as the
transmission medium in local and long haul optical communication systems.

Optical waveguides can be classified according to their geometry (planar, strip, or fiber
waveguides), mode structure (single-mode, multi-mode), refractive index distribution
(step or gradient index) and material (glass, polymer, semiconductor).

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EXERCISES
Vocabulary Review:
Write the word that corresponds to the definition.
1. A device that converts an incoming wave or electrical signals
to a form that can be perceived by humans ___________________
2. It is the reduction in amplitude and intensity of a signal. ___________________
3. Electronic device that amplifies a signal before transmitting
it again ___________________
4. Discontinuous values ___________________
5. Hollow metal conductor that provides a path to guide
microwaves ___________________

True or False:
Write in the blanks a T if the sentence is true or F if its false. If the answer is false, give
your reason above it.
1. The waveforms are predictable all the time. _________

2. A transmitter receives a signal from the free space. _________

3. IP stands for Internet Page. _________

4. Intranet is called network of networks. _________

5. The waveguides are made of polymer. _________

Reading Comprehension:
Fill in the blanks or answer the questions.
1. What are the basic elements of a telecommunication system?

2. Whats a transceiver?

3. Whats the purpose of the communication theory?

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4. What process do we need to recover the message in the receiver?

5. OSI stands for?

Writing Exercise:
Write an outline about Why is/was important the development of communications in
the earth. Include all the parts of an essay.

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UNIT REVIEW
A Underline the word that corresponds to the definition.
1. Opposition to the flow of current.
Capacitance Resistance Inductance

2. A graphical representation of a system

Circuit Network Schematic Diagram

3. Unit used to measure electric potential in a circuit.

Amperes Volts Farads

4. Electric current is directly proportional to voltage an inversely proportional to

resistance.
Ohms Law Thevenin Law Kirchoffs Laws

5. The lines of force surrounding a permanent magnet or a moving charged

particle.
Magnetite Magnetic Field Electromagnetism

6. An electrical device by which alternating current of one voltage is changed to

another voltage.
Generator Rectifier Transformer

7. A device that attracts iron and produces a magnetic field:

Magnet Magnetic Circuit Maglev

8. An empty area.
Space Vacuum Air

9. Electrical or acoustic activity that can disturb communication.

Noise Electromagnetism Frequency

10. The number of repetitions per unit of time of a complete waveform.

Frequency Carrier Wave Channel

Answer the questions or write in the provided spaces.

B 1. Sketch a telecommunications system?

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2. How does a maglev work?

3. Whats is the difference between a series circuit and a parallel one?

4. What are the most common parts of an electric circuit.

5. Give two examples of how the electromagnetism is involved in our life.

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