MODAL

VERBS

2.
Epistemic necessity must, need
and possibility can, may

must: logical deduc;on: there is no other
possibility
may: one possibility of many: strong
implica;on that p is not true

He must be all alone.

He may be all alone.


 can , need: non-arma;ve

But they cant be/neednt be real.

 may: one possible conclusion, specula;ve
must: evidence, deduc;on, the only possible
conclusion
will: general knowledge, assump;on

John may/must/will/should be in his oce.
/could/might/would
mustnt : interpreted deon;cally

a. He mustnt do it. = deon;c
b. ?He mustnt have done it deliberately = it is
necessary that he did not
c. Danny must not have heard the news.
= epistemic
= I think he has not heard the news.

He must have done it.
a. He cant have done it.
b. He neednt have done it.
c. He must not have done it.

a. He [cant] have done it. = external
b. He [neednt] have done it. = external
c. He must [not have done] it. = internal
nega;on = I am certain that he did not do it.
d. He may [not have done] it.
MUST

subjec4ve: pragma;c weakening: the only explana;on
I can think of
modal seman;cally entails proposi;on, another
explana;on incompa;ble with speakers set of beliefs

*He must have overslept but maybe he had problems
with his car.

objec4ve: only possibility there is
If Ed is older than Jo and I am older than Ed, I must be
older than Jo.


MAY
subjec;ve: put forward the proposi;on as
possibility

We may be out of fuel.
= one possibility of many; strong implicature that
the speaker does not know whether p is true

objec;ve: public knowledge, not speakers
knowledge
He may have misled Parliament: theres going to be
an inquiry.


 special case of pragma;c strengthening:
concessive may
cancel implicature that p is not true
may = presupposed
speaker accepts p as true in order to contrast two
situa;ons

a. He may have remembered the password, but he
s;ll didnt have access.

 must, need: past reference epistemic
He must have told her. ( )
He must tell her tomorrow. ( )
It must surely rain tomorrow. ( )

may: freely future
You may do be`er next ;me.
We may have a problem.

epistemic can: not possible with future
They cant nish un;l tomorrow. (deon;c/dynamic)


Epistemic NEED = interroga;ve and nega;ve
counterpart of logical necessity MUST

a. He neednt be guilty.
b. Need the quarrel with Cuba ever have
happened, and can it be put into reverse?
He neednt have told her.

1. epistemic

2. deon;c
He [neednt have] told her. = deon;c
He neednt [have told] her. = epistemic
Epistemic HAVE GOT TO - AmE very common

Youve got to be kidding me!
cf. BrE You must be joking!

BrE: theore;cal necessity, very strong
Someone must/has (got) to be telling lies.

suspicion accusa;on
Epistemic SHOULD

inference :
a. The next road should be King Street.
deon;c use more basic than epistemic: *epistemic +
perfect :
b. She should have lei.

rare examples of pure epistemic: always + deon;c (the
right thing, place):
c. The key should be in the drawer.
d. The pa;ent should recover soon.

=> epistemic : favourable situa;ons
e. ?The pa;ent should die soon.

SHOULD: infer consequence from cause; evidence =
norms, expecta;on

vs. MUST: direct evidence

MUST = proposi;on is veriable in the present
SHOULD = future conrma;on

a. Hes be`er now: he must/should be able to return to
work.
b. Hes back at work: he must/*should be be`er.
 epistemic should: internal nega;on:
It should [not snow] any more.
Epistemic WILL
a. They will have made the decision last week.

not normally 1st person (-> voli;on)

strength of modality: strong : entails factuality
c. *They will have made the decision although its
possible that they have not.



Epistemic WILL

avoided in contexts where it can be interpreted as
future
d. This must be the best restaurant.
e. This will be the best restaurant (predic;on).

future conrma;on, vs. must: conclusion
f. You were mad to tell her. You must/*will have known it
would upset her.


 objec4ve will:
Ed is Toms father and Tom is Bills father, so Ed
will be Bills grandfather.
 redoubled qualica;on: epistemic:

a. Certainly it would appear that ...

b. it would seem that
c. Whisky would seem to be what he lled the
radiator with.
d. Is it conceivable that you might travel with
two hairdryers?
Deon4c necessity and possibility

deon;c necessity = strong obliga;on: MUST
deon;c possibility = permission: MAY CAN

a. The chief must cast out all failures.
-> modal base: the rules of the tribe- deon;c source
b. You must bring him to me.
-> deon;c source: speaker


Pragma;c factors: infelicitous because giving
permission => power to withhold permission/ ??
context:
a. *You may have more cake.
b. *You may not take any no;ce of him.

pragma;c weakening: empha;c advice,
invita;on: hearer = beneciary
c. You must have more cake.
d. You mustnt take any no;ce of him.

 deon;c modality: typically subjec;ve
a. You may join us with pleasure. (my pleasure)
pragma;c weakening only in subjec;ve cases:

objec;ve deon;c:
b. We must/have to make an appointment.

preferred

c. We may borrow up to six books.


 deon;c: usu. future
past/present: general requirements

Candidates must have completed at least two
years of undergraduate study.
Nega;on:

You mustnt a`end the lectures. internal

= it is necessary that you do not
You may not/cant a`end. external
= you are not permi`ed to


MUST, HAVE GOT TO vs. HAVE TO

par;cular occasions habitual, general

a. I must/have got to feed the baby: shes hungry.
b. I have to feed the baby six ;mes a day.

c. Do I have to/need to show him my ID card every ;me?

d. Must I/Have I got to show him my ID card? (i.e. now)
 have to = external-, neutral-oriented (vs. must
discourse-oriented):

b. You have to le a ight plan before you start.

c. I cant come because I have to go to a mee;ng.
-> no par;cular deon;c source, source not specied

overlap must/have to:
d. The verdict must/has to be unanimous. If the members
are unable to reach agreement, the case must/has to be
retried before a new jury .
-> neutral deon;c source
 have to, have got to -> actuality
must: future

a. The snow lay four feet deep around the house and he
had to dig a path from the front door to the road.

b. Chance had placed a great opportunity within his grasp

and he must not let it slip.
 deon;c NEED: necessity usu. nega;ve
external nega;on

a. Im very grateful. You neednt be.

b. I need hardly tell you that ...
c. I do not think I need read subsec;on 2.
d. You neednt answer any ques;on.
e. All you need do is go there and pay the money
f. I wonder if I need be present.
g. They need have no fear on that account
a. Must I wait? (open ques;on)
b. Need I wait? (nega;ve answer expected)

c. I neednt have gone. -> implies: I went.

d. I didnt need to/didnt have to go. (open)

e. You neednt cut the grass speaker: deon;c source

f. You dont need to cut the grass. - external deon;c
source
HAVE TO/HAVE GOT TO

deon;c/epistemic reading indis;nguishable in
scien;c wri;ng
a. Every nite clause has to contain a nite verb.
-> deon;c source: rules of language / epistemic
necessity



Deon;c SHOULD
subjec;ve: what the speaker considers right (morally
right, expedient)
a. Oaths should not be lightly u`ered, especially before
witnesses.
b. You should leave now.

past/present: when the situa;on was/is not actualized

cri;cism:
d. You should have done/be doing your homework.

+ ought to: not in indirect direc;ves, e.g. instruc;ons
e. The column should/*ought to be lei blank.


 weaker than must: allows for non-
actualiza;on:
c. I should/*must stop but Im not going to.
 internal nega;on:

A man who wants to keep secrets should not
babble in his sleep.
-> advice to not do
 low-degree modality: subordinate clauses
(manda;ve, emo;onal, condi;onal) /*ought to

a. How striking that both should disappear.
b. If, at any ;me thereaier, you should run out of
supplies


 open interroga;ves: deon;c, ambiguous: deon;c/
epistemic

a. If this house was not permi`ed to stand, why should

not other mansions and towers also crumble and fall?

a. Should we fear contamina;on of our values by
accidental eld collisions? Might not scorpion poli;cs
fatally infect our own poor psyches?

Deon;c HAD BETTER
a. You had be`er telephone her.

does not countenance non-actualiza;on: seman;cally

strong (pragma;cally weaker than MUST)
b. *You had be`er/might as well tell her but dont if
youd rather not.

internal nega;on:
c. He had be`er not tell her = it is advisable that he
should not
Deon4c SHALL, WILL
a. You will bring the prisoners to me. = pragma;c
implicature Speaker predicts the Agents
ac;ons in a context where Speaker has
authority

b. The commi`ee shall meet four ;mes per year. =

cons;tu;ve/regula;ve

c. You shall be rewarded. = Speakers guarantee

d. Shall/*Will I open the window?

Dynamic possibility can/may

what is reasonable or acceptable:
The most we can/may accept is a slight cut in sales-tax.
what is circumstan;ally possible
Water can s;ll get in.
ability
I can reach tall places.
existen;al can:
These animals can some;mes be dangerous.
Lilies can be white or red.
may: formal
 ability
poten;al
a. He can make anything! Mr Willy Wonka can
make marshmallows that taste of violets. He can
make chewing-gum that you can blow up to
enormous sizes.

currently actualized
b. Listen! You can hear the machines! And you can
smell the mel;ng chocolate in the air!
 can ability; ability = contextual

We can/??are able to oer you a discount if you
wish. => poten;al
As you can see from the report, we are able to
oer discounts to all new clients. => actualized
 restric;on on COULD in arma;ve contexts:

a. I lei early but couldnt get a seat

b. *I lei early and could get a seat
-> actualiza;on of a single situa;on viewed
perfec;vely; actualized ability:
c. I can/could hear something ra`ling /*ra`le.
-> imperfec;ve needed

 can no root/epistemic dis;nc;on; ->
restricted to factual domain
epistemic cant= non-asser;ve contexts,
supple;ve to must paradigm

I can do it.
a. = permission: rules/authority
b. = possibility: external circumstances
c. = ability: inherent proper;es
d. *epistemic
a. Bad weather can ruin the crops.
b. Solu;ons can be found which will prove
sa;sfactory.
c. I can quote some interes;ng examples.
d. There is a place where you can get what you
want.
 external nega;on
George [cannot] swim.

Dynamic WILL
voli;on:
a. She wont sign.
b. I WILL solve the problem.

condi;onal:
c. Ill wash if you will dry.

extension to inanimates:
d. The computer wont start.

propensity:
e. He will lie in bed all day.
f. Oil will oat on water.


WOULD
voli;on:
a. I had no money but he wouldnt lend me any. /*and he
would lend me some.

propensity: allows reference to a single actualiza;on:

b. He would call round just when I was the busiest.
cf. will:
c. He will have his li`le joke habitual

WOULD

future-in-the-past : requires actualiza;on
d. His sons would turn against him , he could
already see it in their eyes.
e. He pinched him just in ;me, hard enough to
make him forget what he was going to /*would say.

DARE
dynamic - subject-referent disposi;on: have
the courage

I [darent] tell her. external nega;on
Dynamic necessity: disposi;onal must; ironic

a. Eds a guy who must always be poking his

nose into other peoples business.
b. Must you make such a dreadful noise?
c. If you must smoke, use an ashtray.
hedged performa4ve:
There is a confession I must make.
I must admit that
harmonic must needs
 hedged performa;ve:
a. I would not advocate it.
b. I would imagine
c. If I might make a sugges;on
d. I can promise you.