(I.T. Leong) Math 200 in 2010 2010 C 11 10 F 1 / 18

Definition.
A subset D in R2 (or R3 ) is said to be

open if for any point P in D, there is a disk (ball)
with center at P that lies entirely in D, i.e. D
does not contain any boundary points.
Definition. A subset D in R2 (or R3 ) is said to be

connected if any two points in D can be joined
by a path that lies in D.
(I.T. Leong) Math 200 in 2010 2010 c 11 10 F 1 / 18

Definition. A subset D in R2 (or R3 ) is said to be connected if any two points
in D can be joined by a path that lies in D.
Definition. A simple curve is a curve which does not intersect itself.
Definition. A simply-connected region in the

plane is a connected region such that every
simple closed curve in D encloses only
points that are in D.
Remark. The actual definition of simply connectedness is more complicated if
the underlying space is not a plane. However, the definition above is more
intuitive.
Theorem. Suppose F is a vector field
that is continuous on an open connected
region D Rn . If the line integral F Tds is independent of path in D, then F
C
is conservative, i.e. there exists a scalar function f defined on D such that
f = F on D.
Remarks. 1. The connected assumption is quite mild, and its presence is to

establish the existence of f via line integral. Otherwise, one needs to consider
the connected components individually, i.e. divide D into subsets in which
each one is connected.
2. The proof reduces to the fact that the limit of line integral
1 (x+h,y,z)

lim F (1, 0, 0)dt = F(x, y, z) (1, 0, 0) along the x-axis direction
h0 h (x,y,z)
from the point (x, y, z) to (x + h, y, z), and this fact follows from the
fundamental theorem of Calculus.

Definition. A simply-connected region in the
plane is a connected region such that every
simple closed curve in D encloses only
points that are in D.
Theorem. Let F(x, y) = P(x, y)i + Q(x, y)j be a vector field on an open
simply-connected region D R2 , where P and Q have continuous partial
P Q
derivatives in D. If = , then F is conservative on D, i.e. F = f for
y x
some function f defined on D.
Remark. This is a consequence of Greens Theorem.
Example. Determine if F(x, y) = (6 + 4xy)i + (2x2 3y2 )j is conservative.

Solution. As (2x2 3y2 ) = 4x = (6 + 4xy), and the domain of F is R2
y x
which is open and simply-connected, F is conservative by the theorem above.
In fact, F(x, y) = (6x + 2x2 y y3 ).

Example. Let F(x, y) = (3 + 2xy)i + (x2 3y2 )j. Find a function f (x, y) such

that f (x, y) = F(x, y). Also evaluate the line integral C F Tds, where C is the
curve given by r(t) = et sin ti + cos tj, where t [0, ].
Solution. As f = F, we have fx (x, y) = 3 + 2xy. Integrating with respect to x,1

we get f (x, y) = 3x + x2 y + g(y), where g(y) is an integration constant, but it
could be a function of y. Thus fy (x, y) = x2 + g (y) so that
x2 + g (y) = x2 3y2 . That is g (y) = 3y2 . Integrating g (y) with respect to y,
we obtain g(y) = y3 + K, where K is a constant. Consequently,
f (x, y) = 3x + x2 y y3 + K. Since F is conservative, the line integral

C F Tds
is independent of path in the whole plane. In fact, f is a potential function for
F. Let C be parameterized curve joining from the point r(0) = (0, 1) to
1), it follows from the fundamental theorem for line integrals that
r( ) = (0,
we have F Tds = f (0, 1) f (0, 1) = 2.
C
1 regarding the other variable y as constant, i.e. integrating along the segment from (a, y) to
(x, y)
Example. Find all the potential functions for the conservative vector field
F(x, y, z) = (3ez 5y sin x)i + (5 cos x)j + (17 + 3xez )k.
Solution. Recall the domain of F is R3 . Let f (x, y, z) be any potential function

on R3 of F(x, y, z), i.e. fx (x, y, z) = (3ez 5y sin x) (1), fy (x, y, z) = 5 cos x (2),
fz (x, y, z) = 17 + 3xez (3).


fz (x, y, z) = 17 + 3xez (3). Again integrate (1) with respect to x to determine
the potential function f up to a missing function g(y, z), i.e.
f (x, y, z) = (3ez 5y sin x)dx = 3xez + 5y cos x + g(y, z) (4) for some g(y, z).




Differentiate (4) with respect to y, and compare it with (2), so

5 cos x = fy (x, y, z) = y (3xez + 5y cos x + g(y, z)) = 5 cos x + gy (y, z), i.e.
gy (y, z) = 0 (5) on R3 .




gy (y, z) = 0 (5) on R3 . Then one can repeat the same integrating argument
with (5) as before to show that g(y, z) is in fact independent of y, and solely on
z, i.e. g(y, z) = h(z) (6).




z, i.e. g(y, z) = h(z) (6). With the help of (6) and (4), we differentiate
f (x, y, z) = 3xez + 5y cos x + h(z) with respect to z and then compare the result
with (3), so 17 + 3xez = fz (x, y, z) = 3xez + h (z), i.e. h (z) = 17, and hence
h (z) = 17z + C, for some constant C.




z, i.e. g(y, z) = h(z) (6). With the help of (6) and (4), we differentiate
f (x, y, z) = 3xez + 5y cos x + h(z) with respect to z and then compare the result
with (3), so 17 + 3xez = fz (x, y, z) = 3xez + h (z), i.e. h (z) = 17, and hence
h (z) = 17z + C, for some constant C. Finally it is easy to show that the
function f (x, y, z) = 3xez + 5y cos x + 17z + C satisfies f = F on R3 .
Example. If F(x, y, z) = y2 i + (2xy + e3z )j + 3ye3z k, Find a function f such that
f = F on R3 .
Answer. The desired function f (x, y, z) = xy2 + ye3z + C. Solution.

Definition. Suppose a simple closed curve C on the plane bounds a region D.
The positive orientation of C refers to the orientation of C such that as one
traverses along C in the direction of this orientation, the region D that it
bounds is always on the left hand side.

Definition. Suppose a simple closed curve C on the plane bounds a region D.
The positive orientation of C refers to the orientation of C such that as one
traverses along C in the direction of this orientation, the region D that it
bounds is always on the left hand side.
In other words, if D is a simply connected region on the plane, then the

boundary C of D oriented in the counterclockwise sense is the positive
orientation. We use the notation D to denote the boundary of D with the
positive orientation.
Greens Theorem Let C be a positively oriented, piecewise-smooth, simple
closed curve in the plane and let D be the region bounded by C. If P(x, y) and
Q(x, y) have continuous partial derivatives on an (open simply)connected

Q P
region that contains D, then Pdx + Qdy = dA.
C D x y


Q P
C D x y
The line integral on the left has other notations

as follows:
Pdx + Qdy or Pdx + Qdy.
C D


Q P
C D x y
The line integral on the left has other notations

as follows:
Pdx + Qdy or Pdx + Qdy.
C D
Remarks. 1. The orientation of the boundary C of the region D is important,
otherwise, there will be a minus sign appear, and hence we specify the
positive orientation of C with respect to the region D at the first place.
2. If F(x, y) = P(x, y)i + Q(x, y)j is conservative, it follows from the
fundamental theorem of line integral that the line integral

C F Tds = C Pdx + Qdy = 0. However, Greens theorem applies to
non-conservative vector field, and hence it simplifies the calculation of the line
integrals along some special classclosed paths, namely simple closed ones
in a plane.

Q P
C D x y


Q P
C D x y
4

Example. Evaluate C x dx + xydy, where C is the
triangular curve consisting of the line segments
from (0, 0) to (1, 0), from (1, 0) to (0, 1) and from
(0, 1) to (0, 0).


Q P
C D x y
4

Example. Evaluate C x dx + xydy, where C is the
triangular curve consisting of the line segments
from (0, 0) to (1, 0), from (1, 0) to (0, 1) and from
(0, 1) to (0, 0).
Solution. P(x, y) = x4 and Q(x, y) = xy have con-

tinuous partial derivatives onR2 , which is open and
simply connected. It follows from Greens theorem that x4 dx + xydy =
( ) 1 1x C
1

4
(xy) (x ) dA = y dA = y dydx = .
R x y R 0 0 6
Remark. We had chosen the right orientation for the problem.

sin x )dx + (7x +

Example. Evaluate C (3y e y4 + 1)dy, where C is the circle
x2 + y2 = 9, oriented in the counterclockwise sense.
Solution. C bounds the circular disk D = { (x, y) x2 + y2 9 } and is given

the positive orientation. By
Greens Theorem,
(3y esin x )dx + (7x + y4 + 1)dy =
C ( )

(7x + y4 + 1) (3y esin x ) dA = (7 3) dA =
D x y R
4Area ofD = 4 32 = 36.

Application of Greens Theorem to Find Area
Theorem. Let C be a positively oriented, piecewise-smooth, simple closed
curve in the plane andlet D be the region bounded by C. Then the area of D
1
is given by xdy = ydx = (ydx + xdy).
C C 2 C
Proof. Just apply Greens theorem to (P, Q) = (y, 0), (0, x) and (y/2, x/2)
respectively.
2
x2
Example. Find the area of the region D bounded by the ellipse C : a2
+ yb2 = 1.
Solution. Parameterize the ellipse C as r(t) = a cos ti + b sin tj 0 t 2,

which makes C in positive orientated simple closed curve bounding a region
D. It follows from the formula above that area of
1 1 2 (

a cos t(b sin t) dt b sin t(a cos t) dt =
)
D = xdy ydx =
2 C 2 0
1 2 1

2 2
ab(cos t + sin t)dt = 2ab = ab.
2 0 2

Example. Evaluate by Greens Theorem ex sin ydx + ex cos ydy, where C
C
is the rectangle with vertices at O(0, 0), A(, 0), B(, /2), C(0, /2), oriented
in the counterclockwise sense.
Solution.
It follows from Greens
theorem
( that )
x x x x
e sin ydx + e cos ydy = (e cos y) (e sin y) dA =
C D x y
/2
2 ex cos y dA = 2 ex dx sin ydy = 2(e 1).
R 0 0

yi+xj
Example. Let F(x, y) = 2 2 be defined on the punctured plane
x +y
D = R2 {(0, 0)}. Show that F is not conservative on D.
Solution. Suppose contrary, i.e. there exists a potential function f defined on

D, such that f = F on D. Let C be the unit circle parameterized in
counterclockwise direction. Then by the fundamental theorem of line integral,
C F Tds = 0.

yi+xj
x +y


C F Tds = 0. However, well show that
F Tds = 0. as follows. Let
2 C
(x(t) y (t) + y(t) x (t)
r(t) = (cos t, sin t), then F Tds = dt =
C 0 x(t)2 + y(t)2

yi+xj
x +y


2 C
(x(t) y (t) + y(t) x (t)
C 0 x(t)2 + y(t)2
(sin t)(cos t) + (cos t)(sin t) sin2 t + cos2 t
2 2
dt = dt = 2, which is
0 cos2 t + sin2 t 0 1
a contradiction, and so F is not conservative.

yi+xj
x +y


2 C
(x(t) y (t) + y(t) x (t)
C 0 x(t)2 + y(t)2
(sin t)(cos t) + (cos t)(sin t) sin2 t + cos2 t
2 2
dt = dt = 2, which is
0 cos2 t + sin2 t 0 1
a contradiction, and so F is not conservative.
Remark. This example does not invoke Greens theorem at all.

yi+xj
Example. Let F(x, y) = x2 + y2
be defined on the punctured plane
D= R2 {(0, 0)}. Show that F is not conservative on D.

D, such that f = F on D. Let C be the circle of radius a parameterized in
C F Tds = 0.

yi+xj


C F Tds = 0. However, well show that C F Tds = 0. as follows. Let
r(t) = (a cos t, a sin t), (0 t 2 ) then
(x(t) y (t) + y(t) x (t)
2
F Tds = dt =
C 0 x(t)2 + y(t)2

yi+xj


(x(t) y (t) + y(t) x (t)
2
F Tds = dt =
C 0 x(t)2 + y(t)2
(a sin t)(a cos t) + (a cos t)(a sin t) a (sin2 t + cos2 t)
2 2 2
dt = dt = 2,
0 (a cos t)2 + (a sin t)2 0 a2
which is a contradiction, and so F is not conservative.

yi+xj


(x(t) y (t) + y(t) x (t)
2
F Tds = dt =
C 0 x(t)2 + y(t)2
(a sin t)(a cos t) + (a cos t)(a sin t) a (sin2 t + cos2 t)
2 2 2
dt = dt = 2,
0 (a cos t)2 + (a sin t)2 0 a2
which is a contradiction, and so F is not conservative.
Remark. In physics terms, the non-vanishing of the line integral along the
circle (or any closed path surrounding the origin, in which one requires
Greens theorem, as in the next example) is due to the presence of source (or
singularity) of F at origin. This phenomenon is important in both mathematics
and physics.
yi+xj
Example. Let F(x, y) = x2 +y2 be defined on D = R2 {(0, 0)}. Show that
F Tds = 2 for any simple closed curve C enclosing the origin (0, 0).
C
Solution. Let C be a simple closed curve as above and C : r(t) = a cos ti

+a sin tj, (0 t 2 ) be a small circle of radius a such that C lies inside C.

yi+xj
C

Let D be the region bounded between C and C . We give both C and C in the
counterclockwise orientation. Thus D = C C is given the positive
orientation with respect to the region D.

yi+xj
C

Let D be the region bounded between C and C . We give both C and C in the
counterclockwise orientation. Thus D = C C is given the positive
orientation with respect to the region D.(Apply Greens theorem to D,)then
y
( )
x

F Tds = F Tds = ( ) ( 2 ) dA =
C C D D x x2 + y2 y x + y2
( 2
y x2 x2 y2
)
+ ) dA = 0, so F Tds = F Tds= 2.
D (x2 + y2 )2 (x2 + y2 )2 C C

Remark. In this example, we justify the
application of Greens (theorem )

Q P
Pdx + Qdy = dA.
D D x y


Q P
Pdx + Qdy = dA.
D D x y
Proof. Divide the (non-simply connected) region D into upper yellow D1 and
lower blue D2 as shown.


Q P
Pdx + Qdy = dA.
D D x y
lower blue D2 as shown. We introduce two horizontal line segments in D1 , in
which they are oriented in usual direction to reflect the positive direction with
respect to the upper region D1 .


Q P
Pdx + Qdy = dA.
D D x y
respect to the upper region D1 . Similarly, there are two extra line segments in
D2 , however, they are oriented in the opposite of the usual direction as it is
the right positive direction with respect to the lower region D2 .


Q P
Pdx + Qdy = dA.
D D x y
the right positive direction with respect
( ) lowerregion D2 . Then apply
to the
Q P
Greens theorem to Di , so dA = Pdx + Qdy.
Di x y Di


Q P
Pdx + Qdy = dA.
D D x y
to the
Q P
Greens theorem to Di , so dA = Pdx + Qdy. Add these
( )Di x ( y )D
( i )

Q P Q P
up, we have dA = + dA =
( ) D x

y

D1 D2 x y
+ Pdx + Qdy = Pdx + Qdy,
Di Di D


Q P
Pdx + Qdy = dA.
D D x y
to the
Q P
Greens theorem to Di , so dA = Pdx + Qdy. Add these
( )Di x ( y )D
( i )

Q P Q P
up, we have dA = + dA =
( ) D x

y

D1 D2 x y
+ Pdx + Qdy = Pdx + Qdy, in which the line integrals over the
Di Di D
two segments appeared twice cancel each other due to the opposite
orientations.

(I.T. Leong) Math 200 in 2010 2010 C 11 10 F 1 / 18

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Definition.

A subset D in R2 (or R3 ) is said to be

Definition. A subset D in R2 (or R3 ) is said to be

(I.T. Leong) Math 200 in 2010 2010 c 11 10 F 1 / 18

Definition. A simple curve is a curve which does not intersect itself.

Definition. A simply-connected region in the

Remarks. 1. The connected assumption is quite mild, and its presence is to

(I.T. Leong) Math 200 in 2010 2010 c 11 10 F 3 / 18

Remark. This is a consequence of Greens Theorem.

Example. Determine if F(x, y) = (6 + 4xy)i + (2x2 3y2 )j is conservative.

(I.T. Leong) Math 200 in 2010 2010 c 11 10 F 4 / 18

Solution. As f = F, we have fx (x, y) = 3 + 2xy. Integrating with respect to x,1

Solution. Recall the domain of F is R3 . Let f (x, y, z) be any potential function

(I.T. Leong) Math 200 in 2010 2010 c 11 10 F 6 / 18

Solution. Recall the domain of F is R3 . Let f (x, y, z) be any potential function

(I.T. Leong) Math 200 in 2010 2010 c 11 10 F 6 / 18

Solution. Recall the domain of F is R3 . Let f (x, y, z) be any potential function

Differentiate (4) with respect to y, and compare it with (2), so

(I.T. Leong) Math 200 in 2010 2010 c 11 10 F 6 / 18

Solution. Recall the domain of F is R3 . Let f (x, y, z) be any potential function

Differentiate (4) with respect to y, and compare it with (2), so

(I.T. Leong) Math 200 in 2010 2010 c 11 10 F 6 / 18

Solution. Recall the domain of F is R3 . Let f (x, y, z) be any potential function

Differentiate (4) with respect to y, and compare it with (2), so

(I.T. Leong) Math 200 in 2010 2010 c 11 10 F 6 / 18

Solution. Recall the domain of F is R3 . Let f (x, y, z) be any potential function

Differentiate (4) with respect to y, and compare it with (2), so

Answer. The desired function f (x, y, z) = xy2 + ye3z + C. Solution.

(I.T. Leong) Math 200 in 2010 2010 c 11 10 F 7 / 18

(I.T. Leong) Math 200 in 2010 2010 c 11 10 F 8 / 18

In other words, if D is a simply connected region on the plane, then the

(I.T. Leong) Math 200 in 2010 2010 c 11 10 F 9 / 18

The line integral on the left has other notations

(I.T. Leong) Math 200 in 2010 2010 c 11 10 F 9 / 18

The line integral on the left has other notations

(I.T. Leong) Math 200 in 2010 2010 c 11 10 F 10 / 18

(I.T. Leong) Math 200 in 2010 2010 c 11 10 F 10 / 18

Solution. P(x, y) = x4 and Q(x, y) = xy have con-

Solution. C bounds the circular disk D = { (x, y) x2 + y2 9 } and is given

(I.T. Leong) Math 200 in 2010 2010 c 11 10 F 11 / 18

Solution. Parameterize the ellipse C as r(t) = a cos ti + b sin tj 0 t 2,

(I.T. Leong) Math 200 in 2010 2010 c 11 10 F 12 / 18

(I.T. Leong) Math 200 in 2010 2010 c 11 10 F 13 / 18

Solution. Suppose contrary, i.e. there exists a potential function f defined on

(I.T. Leong) Math 200 in 2010 2010 c 11 10 F 14 / 18

Solution. Suppose contrary, i.e. there exists a potential function f defined on

(I.T. Leong) Math 200 in 2010 2010 c 11 10 F 14 / 18

Solution. Suppose contrary, i.e. there exists a potential function f defined on

(I.T. Leong) Math 200 in 2010 2010 c 11 10 F 14 / 18

Solution. Suppose contrary, i.e. there exists a potential function f defined on

Remark. This example does not invoke Greens theorem at all.

(I.T. Leong) Math 200 in 2010 2010 c 11 10 F 14 / 18

Solution. Suppose contrary, i.e. there exists a potential function f defined on

(I.T. Leong) Math 200 in 2010 2010 c 11 10 F 15 / 18

Solution. Suppose contrary, i.e. there exists a potential function f defined on

(I.T. Leong) Math 200 in 2010 2010 c 11 10 F 15 / 18

Solution. Suppose contrary, i.e. there exists a potential function f defined on

(I.T. Leong) Math 200 in 2010 2010 c 11 10 F 15 / 18

Solution. Suppose contrary, i.e. there exists a potential function f defined on

Solution. Let C be a simple closed curve as above and C : r(t) = a cos ti

(I.T. Leong) Math 200 in 2010 2010 c 11 10 F 16 / 18

Solution. Let C be a simple closed curve as above and C : r(t) = a cos ti